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An experimental investigation of oblique cutting

mechanics

Burak Aksu, Ceren Çelebi & Erhan Budak

To cite this article: Burak Aksu, Ceren Çelebi & Erhan Budak (2016) An experimental
investigation of oblique cutting mechanics, Machining Science and Technology, 20:3, 495-521,
DOI: 10.1080/10910344.2016.1196458

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10910344.2016.1196458

Published online: 19 Jul 2016.

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 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
, VOL. , NO. , –
http://dx.doi.org/./..

An experimental investigation of oblique cutting mechanics

Burak Aksu, Ceren Çelebi, and Erhan Budak
Manufacturing Research Laboratory, Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
In this study, an experimental investigation of oblique cutting pro- Chip flow angle; cutting force
cess is presented for titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V, AISI 4340, and Al 7075. coefficients; edge cutting
Important process parameters such as shear angle, friction angle, force; oblique cutting
shear stress, and chip flow angle are analyzed. Transformation of
the data from the orthogonal cutting test results to oblique cut-
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ting process is applied, and the results are compared with actual
oblique cutting tests. Effects of hone radius on cutting forces and
flank contact length are also investigated. It is observed that the
shear angle, friction angle, and shear stress in oblique cutting
have the same trend with the ones obtained from the orthogo-
nal cutting tests. The transformed oblique force coefficients from
orthogonal tests have about 10% discrepancy in the feed and tan-
gential directions. For the chip flow angle, the predictions based
on kinematic and force balance results yield better results than
Stabler’s chip flow law. Finally, it is shown that the method of
oblique transformation applied on the orthogonal cutting data
yields more accurate results using the predicted chip flow angles
compared to the ones obtained by the Stabler’s rule.

Introduction
Every practice regarding the machining operations in industry has relation to the
theory of metal cutting since all of these operations have common mechanical prin-
ciples. In this respect, the two-dimensional orthogonal cutting mechanics is used
to form a basis for general mechanics and can be extended to model the geomet-
rically complex metal removal processes such as oblique cutting. This will provide
a solution for major concerns in industry such as selection of the cutting parame-
ters and tool geometry. Former researchers contributed this phenomenon by apply-
ing different methodologies. Merchant (1945) developed a mathematical model for
the orthogonal cutting process providing an equation for the shear angle by apply-
ing the minimum energy principle. This approach is still in use to understand the
fundamentals of metal cutting. Although majority of the proposed models are for
the orthogonal cutting process, almost all cutting processes in industry are oblique
due to the geometry of cutting tools and machining processes. Armarego and

CONTACT Erhan Budak ebudak@sabanciuniv.edu Manufacturing Research Laboratory, Sabanci University,

Tuzla, Istanbul, , Turkey.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/lmst.
©  Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 496 B. AKSU ET AL.

Brown (1969) investigated the mechanics of oblique cutting in detail and presented
relations between the cutting parameters such as shear angle, shear stress, and fric-
tion coefficient by extending the mechanics of orthogonal cutting. Moreover, in
these studies, it was shown that once a proper orthogonal cutting model is devel-
oped, it can then be applied to the oblique cutting by several geometrical and kine-
matical transformations. One way of modeling oblique cutting is to use the mechan-
ics of cutting through oblique transformations from the orthogonal data (Armarego
and Whitfield, 1985; Moufki et al., 2000). Most of the cutting process models con-
sider the first and the second deformation zones neglecting the edge forces in the
third deformation zone. Since there is no accurate way of predicting edge cutting
forces, modeling approaches based on experimental data are commonly used. The
former literature provides many attempts to understand and model the edge cutting
forces. Extrapolating the machining forces to zero chip thickness using the mecha-
nistic approach is the common way of identifying edge forces (Hsu, 1966). Although
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the accuracy of this method is usually acceptable, it usually yields inaccurate predic-
tions in the out-of-calibration range. Also, as it is the usual case with the mechanis-
tic approach, the insight into the physics of the flank contact cannot be obtained.
Another approach is the numerical modeling i.e., the finite element method. Previ-
ously, an FE model was developed to understand the effect of edge radius on cut-
ting forces while considering the process variables for tool edge design optimization
(Shatla et al., 2000). As a third approach, Waldorf et al. (1998) proposed a slip line
model for orthogonal cutting to identify the ploughing and shearing components of
the machining forces and showed the relation between ploughing forces and hone
radius experimentally. However, their results showed that the model is accurate only
when chip thickness to hone radius ratio is high (Waldorf et al., 1998). Later, to pre-
dict stress on the tool flank, Waldorf (2004) utilized the ploughing characteristics
of their model, which requires shear flow stress and shear angle as inputs. Waldorf
(2004) obtained the inputs from measurements using a sharp tool and applied classi-
cal cutting circle force equilibrium equations to determine the shear flow stress and
shear angle. Fang et al. (2003), on the other hand, proposed and integrated slip line
field cutting model which takes the hone radius into account and evaluates several
parameters’ effects on the cutting process, however, didn’t verify the model with the
experiments.
Armarego and Whitfield (1985) illustrated the general mechanics of cutting
approach to force and power prediction in various practical machining operations
and identified the stages of analytical development and some of the major problems.
Besides this method, there have been other approaches for the oblique and orthog-
onal modeling. Ghohs et al. (1998) analyzed curled chip generation in oblique cut-
ting using an analytical model based on an energy approach. Rao and Shin (2006)
presented an extended oblique machining theory where actual chip flow angles are
extracted from measured forces and used in calculation of shear plane and shear
flow angles as well as predicting temperatures at the tool–chip interface and shear
plane. Grzesik (1990) presented an analysis of oblique cutting considering plastic
flow of material in a set of planes normal to the cutting edge and derived general-
ized relationships for kinematics of oblique cutting operation. Moufki et al. (2004)
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 497

analyzed the problem by developing a thermomechanical model for oblique cut-

ting. In his study, the material flow within the primary shear zone is modeled using
a one-dimensional approach. Similarly, Molinari and Dudzinski (1997) developed a
thermomechanical approach for ductile materials, where the material under the cut
does not deform until it reaches the primary shear zone. In one of the later studies in
analytical modeling of oblique cutting, Becze and Elbestawi (2002) proposed a force
prediction model based on the chip morphology of local shearing. This analytical
model shows good agreement with the experimental results and provides general
insight about the process and the friction behavior on the rake face.
One important parameter in oblique cutting is the chip flow angle. In oblique
machining, the directions of the cutting velocity and the chip flow are not perpen-
dicular to the cutting edge. After a full geometric analysis, Stabler (1964) proposed
a widely accepted chip flow law stating that the chip flow angle is very close to the
angle of obliquity. This rule is practiced by many researchers such as Moufki et al.
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(2000), Luk (1972), and Russell and Brown (1966) and found to be a good predictor
of chip flow angle. However, Stabler’s rule does not consider the mechanics of the
cutting process, such as effects of the shear angle and the friction. Thus, larger error
rates may be introduced in extreme cases. Armarego and Brown (1969) investigated
the effect of cutting parameters on chip flow angle and their work was substantially
verified by Lin and Oxley (1972) with cutting tests. Also, Russel and Brown (1966)
demonstrated the effect of the normal rake angle on the chip flow. Komanduri et al.
(2004) conducted molecular dynamics simulations for a wide range of conditions
and concluded that the normal rake angle is the important rake angle to be consid-
ered for cutting force and energy analysis in oblique cutting. Shamoto and Altintas
(1999) developed a shear angle prediction model in oblique cutting, where the shear
angle is defined by two components for the direction of the resultant force and the
chip flow angle. On the other hand, Moufki et al. (1998) considered a temperature-
dependent friction law at the tool–chip interface and calculated the chip flow angle
by assuming that the friction force is collinear to the chip flow direction on the tool
rake face. In practical applications, almost all cutting tools have an edge radius as it
increases the strength of cutting edge and improves the surface quality. From cut-
ting mechanics point of view, the nose radius plays an important role in chip flow
angle. This was investigated by Usui et al. (1977) and Wang (2001) using an iterative
energy minimization method to determine the chip flow direction.
In this study, conventional analytical mechanics of orthogonal and oblique cut-
ting are revisited experimentally for different materials. The main objective is to pro-
vide a basis for the prediction of cutting forces and the behavior of the important
process parameters such as shear angle (φ), friction angle (β), and shear stress (τ )
including chip flow directions under different cutting conditions. Since the oblique
cutting model is the common basis for the complex machining operations, such as
ball end milling, it is hoped that this study will provide useful information in the
modeling of various machining operations.
The article is organized as follows. The oblique cutting geometry and the model
used in this study are presented in the next section briefly. The experimental data
 498 B. AKSU ET AL.
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Figure . Oblique cutting geometry (Altintas, ).

on orthogonal and oblique cutting are presented as well as the comparisons with the
analytical predictions. The results of the study are summarized with conclusions in
the last section.

Oblique cutting model

In this section, the geometry and the mechanics of oblique cutting introduced by
Armarego and Brown (1969) and used in this study are briefly presented.

Oblique cutting geometry, force, and velocity relations

Oblique cutting has been studied many years, and various approaches have been
developed. Armarego and Brown (1969) describe the geometry of the oblique cut-
ting in Figure 1 introducing the normal plane, shear plane, rake face, and cutting
edge.
In the oblique cutting model, force and stress relationships are different than the
ones in orthogonal cutting due to the three-dimensional geometry of the process.
Figure 2 shows the force components in oblique cutting, where the resultant force
has two components in two planes. The shear force (Fs ) acts on the shear plane,
whereas the friction force (F) and the normal force (N) are applied on the rake face
all of which contribute to the resultant force. Alternatively, the resultant force can
also be determined by considering the tangential force (Ft ), the feed force (Ff ), and
the radial force (Fr ) as illustrated in Figure 2:

R = Ft2 + Ff2 + Fr2 . (1)
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 499

Figure . The oblique cutting forces (Armarego and Brown, ). (a) The oblique cutting forces and
(b) the radial force component in oblique cutting.
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The individual cutting force components in the resultant force can be determined
by multiplying the chip area by the specific cutting constants (Ktc , Kfc , and Krc ), and
adding the edge cutting forces using the edge force coefficients (Kte , Kfe , and Kre ) as
follows:
Ft = Ktc bt + Kte b
Ff = Kfc bt + Kfe b (2)
Fr = Krc bt + Kre b

where b is the depth of cut and t is the uncut chip thickness. The edge force coef-
ficients are determined experimentally through regression analysis, whereas the
cutting forces using the force coefficients can be expressed analytically as follows
(Altintas, 2000; Armarego and Brown, 1969; Armarego and Whitfield, 1985; Moufki
et al., 2004):
 
τs cos(βn − γn ) + tan λs tan η sin βn
Ft = tb  , (3)
sin ϕn cos2 (ϕn + βn − γn ) + tan2 ηsin2 βn
 
τs sin(βn − γn )
Ff = tb  , (4)
sin ϕn cos λs cos2 (ϕn + βn − γn ) + tan2 ηsin2 βn
 
τs cos(βn − γn ) tan λs − tan η sin βn
Fr = tb  (5)
sin ϕn cos2 (ϕn + βn − γn ) + tan2 ηsin2 βn

where (γn ) and (λs ) are the normal rake and oblique angles of the tool, respectively.
In this model, the data on shear stress (τs ), normal shear angle (φn ), normal friction
angle (βn ), and chip flow angle (η) are required for the estimation of force coeffi-
cients. According to Armarego and Brown (1969), the normal shear angle (φn ) can
be determined by geometrical relations assuming that the shear velocity is collinear
with shear force, and the chip ratio in oblique cutting is the same as in the orthogo-
nal cutting (Armarego and Brown, 1969). The normal shear angle (φn ) can then be
 500 B. AKSU ET AL.

obtained by the following equation (Armarego and Brown, 1969):

rc (cos η/ cos λs ) cos γn
tan(ϕn ) = (6)
1 − rc (cos η/ cos λs ) sin γn
where the chip ratio, rc , is defined as the ratio of uncut chip thickness to the cut chip
thickness.

Chip flow angle

Another important parameter in oblique cutting is the chip flow angle. To deter-
mine the chip flow angle, several approaches have been developed and used. Sta-
bler (1964) analyzed the oblique cutting geometry and proposed a widely accepted
chip flow law, Stabler’s rule, which proposes that the chip flow angle is equal to the
angle of obliquity neglecting the effects of shear, friction, and rake angles. Hence,
depending on the cutting conditions, Stabler’s rule may cause errors, especially for
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the extreme cases of tool geometry. Merchant (1945) considered the shear velocity
as a function of chip flow, shear, and rake angles under the presence of oblique angle
λs and developed the following relation for the shear velocity direction:
tan λs cos(ϕn − γ ) − tan η sin ϕn
tan δv = . (7)
cos γn

Another formulation was developed by Stabler (1964) for the shear force direc-
tion by considering the effect of friction angle on the normal plane:
sin β sin η
tan δf = (8)
cos β cos(ϕn − γn ) − cos λs sin β sin(ϕn − γn )

Later, Armarego and Brown (1969) derived the following equation by assuming
that the shear force and shear velocity are collinear on the normal plane:
cos γn tan λs
tan(ϕn + βn ) = (9)
tan η − sin γn tan λs

The above equation combines (7) and (8) by relating the chip flow angle to
the normal shear, friction, rake, and oblique angles. Solving Equations (6) and
(9) together yields a parabolic formulation for the chip flow angle (Armarego and
Brown, 1969). The resulting equation can be put into the following form:
A sin η − B cos η − C sin η cos η + D cos2 η = E (10)
where
A = r cos γn + cos λs tan β
B = tan β sin γn sin λs
C = r sin γn tan β
D = r tan β tan λs
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 501
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Figure . (a) Chip flow angle measurement and (b) variation of chip flow angle with rake angle for
different oblique angles (AISI ).

E = sin λs cos γn .

Equation (10) is numerically solved for the chip flow angle (η). The solution
method is a medium-scale algorithm and uses the trust-region dogleg method (Pow-
ell, 1970), which is implemented under fsolve function in Matlab∗ . This method is
one way of solving the system of nonlinear equations, and depending on the solu-
tion procedure, the solution accuracy changes. Determination of the chip flow angle
from the force measurements indicates that there is a correlation between rake and
chip flow angles (Figure 3b) due to the friction mechanism on the rake face. This
correlation is also supported by Armarego and Brown (1969), and more recently by
Atkins (2008). Figure 3 (a, b) shows chip flow angle measurements from the video
recordings of AISI 4340 steel oblique cutting tests (Figure 3a) using tools with dif-
ferent rake and oblique angles.
Analytical solutions for the chip flow angle can be verified by measurements. A
simple but indirect method of chip flow angle measurement is to measure the chip
marks on the rake face of tools after dying them. A direct measurement method is
to take images of the chip while it flows on the rake face. This will capture instan-
taneous movement of chips and fluctuation on the rake face and is a more reliable
measurement method.
A modeling approach for the prediction of oblique cutting forces is to use orthog-
onal cutting database in oblique force equations (Armarego and Whitfield, 1985;

∗ Matlab is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA, USA.

 502 B. AKSU ET AL.

Figure . The hone and the deformation zones in orthogonal cutting (Ozlu, ).
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Budak et al., 1996). In this approach, the shear angle (φ), friction angle (β), and shear
stress (τs ) obtained from orthogonal cutting tests are assumed to be equal to the nor-
mal shear angle (φ n ), normal friction angle (βn ), and the shear angle in the normal
shear plane, respectively. This assumption was verified through extensive amount
of testing (Armarego and Whitfield, 1985; Budak et al., 1996). The second assump-
tion is that the normal rake angle in oblique cutting is equal to the rake angle in
orthogonal cutting (γ ≡ γn ). The third assumption is based on Stabler’s (1964) chip
flow angle rule which proposes that the flow angle is equal to the angle of obliquity
(η ≡ λs ). Then, the force prediction can be performed by plugging the transformed
parameters into Equations (3–5).

Edge cutting forces

The hone radius (Figure 4) on cutting tools affects the deformation in two ways.
First, the contact at the rake face is no longer a straight path aligned with the rake
face, but a curved path. Second, the hone results in another deformation zone which
is due to the ploughing and the clearance contact.
In Figure 4, the deformation zones in orthogonal cutting are presented. The pri-
mary shear zone (AD) and the secondary shear zone (AB) are responsible for the
chip formation, where hone radius below point A (AC) is responsible for the plough-
ing and the clearance contact. In the model, it is assumed that the point A is a stag-
nation point, where the material just above it moves upward contributing to the chip
formation. The material just below point A moves downward and continues contact
with the path AC.
The region (AB), shown in Figure 5, which is responsible for the contact between
the chip and the tool is divided into three regions. It should be noted here that, due
to the hone radius, the rake contact is not a straight line anymore but a straight line
plus a curved path. Because of this, the direction of the normal and friction forces
on the rake contact varies along each region except region 1 which is a straight path.
Thus, a straight rake contact is defined in region 1. Although regions 2 and 3 in
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 503
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Figure . The regions used in edge force modeling (Ozlu, ).

Figure 5 could be merged for the simplification in the mathematical representation

they are taken as two different regions. The path (AC), on the other hand, is divided
into two regions, as shown in Figure 5. Region 4 is the region responsible for the
material having plastic deformation before entering region 5, where flank contact
occurs.
Basically, the proposed approach does not model the material deformation
in front of the hone radius directly, but it assumes pressure and shear stress
distributions at the contact between the tool and the workpiece on path AC. On

Figure . Experimental setup on computer numerical control (CNC) lathe.

 504 B. AKSU ET AL.

the other hand, the true analysis of region 5 needs the knowledge of deformation
zone in front of the hone radius.

Experimental analysis on oblique cutting

Experimental analysis of oblique cutting parameters for Ti-6Al-4V alloy, AISI 4340
steel, and Al 7075 aluminum alloy is demonstrated for different cutting conditions.
The fundamental parameters such as the shear angle, friction angle, and shear stress
are determined from the force and chip measurements in orthogonal cutting tests.
In addition, a detailed investigation on chip flow angle is performed using different
methods. Stabler’s rule of chip flow is also used to determine the force coefficients of
oblique model from orthogonal data. Results are compared and discussed with the
experimentally determined cutting force coefficients from oblique cutting tests.
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Test procedure

A series of orthogonal cutting experiments were conducted on a turning center with

AISI 4340, Ti-6Al-4V, and Al 7075 tubular workpieces. The machining forces were
measured by Kistler 9257BA table-type piezoelectric dynamometer mounted on the
turret of Mori Seiki NL 1500 turning center. A data acquisition system connected
to a computer for force measurements is used to gather data for minimum 5 s for
all work materials. The composition and mechanical properties of the test materials
are given in Table 1.

Table . Material and mechanical properties for AISI  steel, Ti-Al-V alloy, and Al  (ASM, ).
Ti-Al-V material properties (weight%) Ti-Al-V mechanical properties

Al % Density , kg/m

O Max .% Elastic modulus (GPa) .
Fe Max. .% Ultimate tensile strength ,
(MPa)
Ti % Yield strength (MPa) ,
V % Hardness (Rockwell C) 
No heat treatment applied
AISI  material properties (weight%) AISI  mechanical properties
C .–. Si .–. Density , kg/m
Mn .–. Cr .–. Elastic modulus (GPa) –
P . (max) Ni .–. Ultimate tensile strength .
(MPa)
S . (max) Mo .–. Yield strength (MPa) .
Hardness (Rockwell C) 
No heat treatment applied
Al  material properties (weight%) Al  mechanical properties
Al .–. Zn .–. (max) Density , kg/m
Cr .–. Fe . (max) Elastic modulus (GPa) .
Cu .– Mn . (max) Ultimate tensile strength 
(MPa)
Mg .–. Si . (max) Yield strength (MPa) 
Ti . (max) Hardness (Rockwell B) 
No heat treatment applied
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 505

Table . Test conditions and cutting parameters for Ti-Al-V, AISI , and Al .
Material Cutting speed Feed rate Rake angle Oblique angle

Ti-Al-V , ,  m/min .–. mm/rev °–° °–°

AISI  – m/min .–. mm/rev °–°–° °–°
Al  –, m/min .–. mm/rev °–° °–°

Oblique cutting tests are also conducted on Ti-6Al-4V, AISI 4340, and Al 7075 for
different tool geometries and cutting parameters. The same cutting tool geometries
were used for all workpiece materials. The aim of the research is not to determine the
optimal cutting tool geometry but to investigate important parameters such as fric-
tion angle, shear angle, and shear stress together with the cutting force coefficients.
For AISI 4340 and Al 7075 cutting tests, uncoated TPGN 160408 carbide inserts were
used. However, for Ti-6Al-4V, HSS cutters were used with the same tool geometry
but at lower cutting speed since for higher cutting speeds high speed steel (HSS) tool
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wears rapidly. Table 2 shows the test conditions and cutting parameters.
The fundamental parameters such as shear and friction angles as well as shear
stress are determined from the force and chip measurements. Shear stress and
friction angle were identified after deducting the edge force component from the
force measurements. To determine the edge cutting forces, machining forces were
extrapolated to zero where the measured tangential and feed forces were plot-
ted against the feed rate, and the force intercept was determined using linear
regression (Budak et al., 1996). The intercept value was taken as the edge cut-
ting force in the corresponding direction. The chip thickness was measured using
two different methods. In the first one, the chip thickness was measured by a
micrometer, and in the second method, weight measurements were used for deter-
mining the chip thickness. In the second method, the mass of a chip segment is
divided by the density of the workpiece material to determine its volume which is
divided by the length and the width of the chip to determine its average thickness.
The measured chip thickness in the tests is the average thickness from these two dif-
ferent measuring methods. The results obtained in the orthogonal and oblique cut-
ting tests are compared. In addition, cutting force coefficients are transformed from
orthogonal cutting tests and compared with the oblique cutting results. Also, differ-
ent methods regarding the chip flow angle determination are applied and results are
compared. The first method is the application of Stabler’s rule, which assumes that
the chip flow angle is equal to the oblique angle. In the second method, the analytical
formulation (Eq. 10) is used, whereas the third method was the direct measurement
of chip flow angle during the experiments using video recordings.
The data given below are the comparisons of the normal shear angle, the shear
stress, the friction angle, and the cutting force coefficients measured from Ti-6Al-4V,
AISI 4340, and Al 7075 in orthogonal and oblique cutting tests.

Normal shear angle in oblique cutting tests

Shear angle determines the orientation of shear plane in orthogonal and oblique
cutting. Figure 7 shows the variation in the normal shear angle with feed rate in
 506 B. AKSU ET AL.
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Figure . Variation of normal shear angle with feed rate for different cutting speeds using rake angle
of °. (a, b) Ti-Al-V, (c, d) AISI , and (e, f) Al .

orthogonal and oblique cutting tests. The shear angle values are obtained through
the chip ratio, rc , which is defined as the ratio of uncut chip thickness to the
cut chip thickness. Additionally, according to the chip flow angle measurement
method (Stabler’s rule or analytical approach), Equation (6) yields the shear angle
values.
It can be seen from the data that the trends of the shear angle variation in orthog-
onal and oblique cutting are very similar except for the low cutting speeds. For
3 m/min Ti-6Al-4V cutting tests, this discrepancy is more obvious due to the friction
on the rake face.
In all tests, shear angle shows the same trend of increasing with the feed rate. This
is an expected result due to the increase in the chip ratio as the feed rate increases
which is mainly due to reduced friction on the rake face as shown in the following
section. Also, an increase in the cutting speed does not affect the normal shear angle
significantly for orthogonal and oblique cutting.
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 507
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Figure . The effect of rake angle on normal shear angle for different cutting speeds (a) Ti-Al-V, (b)
AISI  with ° oblique angle, (c) Ti-Al-V, and (d) AISI  orthogonal cutting.

Figure 8 shows the effect of rake angle on normal shear angle for Ti-6Al-4V and
AISI 4340 in oblique and orthogonal cutting tests. As expected, the shear angle
increases almost linearly with the rake angle. The trends in shear angle variation
with rake angle for both oblique cutting (a, b) and orthogonal tests (c, d) are nearly
the same. Overall, it can be concluded from these data that the normal shear angle
in oblique cutting is close to the shear angle in orthogonal cutting which verifies one
of the important assumptions in the orthogonal-to-oblique transformation method
(Armarego and Whitfield, 1985; Budak et al., 1996). Therefore, it can be deduced
that the shear angle is a function of feed rate and rake angle for orthogonal and
oblique cutting.

Normal friction angle in oblique cutting tests

It is observed from the data that the friction angle changes with the feed rate con-
siderably which is due to the changes in the relative lengths of sliding and sticking
contact lengths as well as the contact temperatures (Moufki et al., 1998; Ozlu and
Budak, 2009). This observation is based on the secondary deformation zone and
does not take the ploughing effect on the third deformation zone. It can also be
seen from these figures that there is only a slight difference between the orthogo-
nal and oblique friction angles that verifies another assumption in the orthogonal-
to-oblique transformation method (Armarego and Whitfield, 1985; Budak et al.,
1996).
Depending on the material properties and cutting conditions, the interaction
between the tool and the chip on the rake face, and thus the friction coefficient,
may vary. Ozlu and Budak (2009) investigated the apparent coefficient of friction
for different materials. According to this study, the coefficient of friction in AISI
 508 B. AKSU ET AL.
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Figure . Variation of friction angle with feed rate for different cutting speeds in orthogonal and
oblique cutting for rake angle of ° (a, b) Ti-Al-V, (c, d) AISI , and (e, f) Al .

4340 steel tests decreases from 0.55 to 0.35 as the friction speed increases. However,
in Ti-6Al-4V orthogonal tests, the coefficient of friction remained almost the same
with the speed. Ozlu and Budak (2009) attribute this to different hardnesses of the
materials. The hardness of AISI 4340 is 24 HRc, whereas it is 36 HRc for Ti-6Al-4V.
Another explanation can be proposed based on the thermal properties of titanium
alloys, which have significantly higher melting temperatures. Moufki et al. (1998)
proposed a temperature-dependent friction law which assumes that the friction on
the rake face reduces with the cutting speed due to local melting of the material. This
is consistent with the data presented here which yields almost constant friction angle
for Ti-6Al-4V with increasing cutting speed for the same feed rate of 0.12 mm/rev as
shown in Figure 10. From these observations, it can be concluded that cutting speed,
rake, and oblique angles have multiple effects on the friction. From the oblique cut-
ting point of view, on the other hand, it can be claimed that the friction is not affected
by the inclination angle very much, and thus the friction coefficients obtained from
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 509

Figure . Cutting speed effect on Ti-Al-V friction angle for different rake angles at a feed rate of
. mm/rev. (a) Orthogonal cutting and (b) oblique cutting.

orthogonal tests can be used for oblique cutting. However, the same is not valid
for the rake angle. Change in the rake angle results in variations in sticking and
sliding contact lengths, which affect the apparent friction coefficient on the rake
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face. Therefore, as the rake angle increases, the friction angle also increases due to
reduced sticking zone length, where friction is lower compared to the sliding zone
(Ozlu and Budak, 2009).

Shear stress in oblique cutting tests

The shear stress can be obtained from the ratio of the shear force to the shear area.
In oblique cutting, the chip area is also affected by the oblique angle, which needs
to be taken into consideration. Note that the edge force effects must be eliminated
from the cutting forces again. Figure 11 shows that the effect of the feed rate on the
shear stress is not very strong in both orthogonal and oblique cutting tests. It can
also be deduced from the results that on average, the shear stresses in orthogonal
and oblique cutting are reasonably close to each other verifying another important
assumption in the transformation method (Armarego and Whitfield, 1985; Ozlu and
Budak, 2009).

Edge forces in Ti-Al-V and AISI  oblique cutting tests

Measured total cutting forces in the tests contain edge forces which must be excluded
in this analysis. In general, the edge forces are generated at the cutting edge, thus
varying with the cutting edge geometry. As an example, Figure 12 shows the vari-
ation of the edge forces obtained in AISI 4340 orthogonal cutting tests using tools
with different hone radii (Aksu et al., 2008).
Figure 12 clearly shows that the ploughing at the third deformation zone increases
with the hone radius causing higher edge cutting forces. In the orthogonal-to-
oblique transformation approach, the edge forces identified in orthogonal cutting
are used for the oblique process. Figure 13 shows the identified edge forces in orthog-
onal and oblique cutting tests on AISI 4340 for two different rake angles of 0° and
5°. It can be seen from the data that the edge forces in the feed direction are higher
than the ones in the tangential direction as opposed to the case for cutting forces
due to the ploughing mechanism. It is clear from the figure that the edge forces in
 510 B. AKSU ET AL.
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Figure . Variation of shear stress with feed rate for different cutting speeds in orthogonal and
oblique cutting for rake angle of °, (a, b) Ti-Al-V, (c, d) AISI , and (e, f) Al .

Figure . Variation of edge cutting forces with the edge hone radius of the cutting tool (rake angle
is °). Depth of cut:  mm.
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 511

Figure . Variation of edge cutting force with the oblique angle in AISI  tests. Depth of cut is
 mm. Material is AISI .

the radial direction are very small which is why they are usually neglected in cutting
force calculations. The figure also shows that the edge forces in the feed direction
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stay more-or-less the same for different rake and oblique angles. However, there is
some variation in the tangential edge forces which may introduce errors in tangen-
tial cutting force predictions, especially for the small feed rates. Note that the tan-
gential edge forces are smaller than the ones in the feed direction since they result
from shear stresses or frictional force, whereas the feed edge forces are in the normal
direction.
Observing Figure 14, it can be deduced that an increase in the hone radius
increases total machining forces. Clearly, ploughing in the third deformation zone
increases with the increasing hone radius, which is the reason for increasing cutting
forces.
The edge force component of the total force for high hone radii is observed to
be smaller than the ones for small hone radii as seen in Figure 15 below. However,
there is a nonlinear effect. For instance, when the hone radius increases from 12
to 30 µm, the feed edge force increases 40% where there is only 8% increase when
the hone radius increases from 30 to 60 µm. Similarly, for AL075, hone radius has
also a nonlinear effect on edge forces, whereas the hone radius increases from 7 to
20 µm, the feed edge force increases 20%, and there is a 30% increase if the hone

Figure . Edge radius effect on (a) tangential and (b) feed cutting forces for cutting speed of
 m/min and clearance angle of ° for AISI .
 512 B. AKSU ET AL.

Figure . Edge radius effect on (a) tangential and (b) feed cutting forces for cutting speed of
 m/min and clearance angle of ° for Al  at  mm depth of cut.

radius is increased from 20 to 40 µm. However, when the hone radius increases
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from 20 to 40 µm, an increase in the feed edge force is only 15%. Thus, it can be
concluded that the hone radius effect is linear after 20 µm of hone radius for feed
edge forces. This does not apply to the tangential edge forces. On the other hand,
it is apparent that for high feed rates, the edge force component compared to the
total cutting force is always small. For example, the tangential force in the case with
the 3° of clearance and 60 µm of hone radius is about 875N and the corresponding
edge force component is about 250N for 4340 steel. Hence, the edge force constitutes
35% of the total tangential force. For the smallest feed rate, the measured tangential
force is about 350N and the feed edge force component is 250N which is 60% of total
tangential force. Al 7075 has similar trend as well. Therefore, modeling of the edge
cutting forces is particularly critical for processes at small feed rates, i.e., finish and
precision cutting operations, and for the cutting tools with large hone radii.
The clearance angle on the cutting tool is an important factor which has a direct
effect on the flank contact length. Figure 16 below shows the relation between the
clearance angle and measured forces during orthogonal cutting tests.
The flank contact, on the other hand, needs to be observed to understand the true
mechanical behavior at the third deformation zone. The measured flank contact

Figure . (a) Edge radius effect on edge cutting forces for the clearance angle of ° and cutting speed
of  m/min, feed rate . mm/rev for AISI  and (b) the clearance angle of ° and cutting speed
of  m/min, and feed rate . mm/rev for Al . Depth of cut is  mm.
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 513

Figure . Clearance angle effect on the feed and the tangential forces for depth of cut of  mm,
cutting speed of  m/min, and hone radius of  µm.

lengths are given with respect to different values of clearance angle in Figure 18.
After each cutting test, the flank contact is measured by a microscope. The limits
of the measurement are determined by observing the marks in the flank face. Flank
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face contact length measurements are determined with a fixture, which holds the
insert in 0° clearance angle position.
It is analytically and experimentally (Figure 16) observed that an increase in the
clearance angle results lower measured forces in both feed and tangential cutting
directions. The reason of the decreased forces with respect to clearance angle is
explained by the reduced tool contact length in the flank face as can be seen in
Figure 18. This is a result of elastoplastic deformation mechanism at the flank face
during cutting. For smaller values of clearance angle, the tool flank becomes very
close to the workpiece and elastic recovery of the workpiece creates larger flank con-
tacts.

Figure . Orthogonal cutting geometry and flank contact visualization (top view of flank).
 514 B. AKSU ET AL.

Figure . Clearance angle effect on flank contact length for the cutting speed of  m/min and hone
radius of  µm. The material is AISI  steel and the depth of cut is  mm.

Oblique cutting transformation and chip flow angle prediction

As mentioned in the previous sections, oblique cutting force coefficients can also be
obtained by transformation from the orthogonal cutting data. In the transformation
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procedure, there are several assumptions that the rake angle, shear angle, friction
angle, and shear stress in orthogonal cutting are assumed to be equal to the normal
rake angle, normal shear angle, normal friction angle, and shear stress in oblique cut-
ting, respectively. In addition to that, as Stabler (1964) proposed, the chip flow angle
ηc is assumed to be equal to the inclination angle i, in the transformation of cutting
force coefficients. However, in addition to the Stabler’s rule, the chip flow angle is
determined by two additional methods in this study, and the results are presented

Figure . A snapshot from oblique cutting, inclination angle °.

Figure . Comparison of chip flow angle determined analytically, using Stabler’s rule and experi-
mentally for Ti-Al-V for inclination angles of (a) ° and (b) ° for V = m/min and ° rake angle.
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 515

Figure . Comparison of chip flow angle by the analytical model, Stabler’s rule, and experiments for
AISI  for inclination angles of (a) ° and (b) ° for V =  m/min and rake angle = °.

in the following. In the first method, the chip flow angle is determined by captur-
ing snapshots from video recordings taken during cutting. The second method is
to predict it analytically using Equation (10). Figure 19 shows a sample snapshot of
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the chip flow taken during an oblique cutting test, and how the flow angle is deter-
mined graphically. Figure 16 shows the comparison between the measured and the
predicted chip flow angles and the Stabler’s rule.
As it can be seen from Figures 20 and 21, the difference between the measured
chip flow angles and the ones proposed by the Stabler’s rule increases as the oblique
angle increases, whereas the discrepancy is small for lower oblique angles as one

Figure . Comparison of transformed cutting force coefficients using chip flow angles determined in
different ways for AISI  oblique cutting. (V =  m/min, feed: . mm/rev, and the rake angle is
°). The predicted, measured, and Stabler’s force coefficients in the figure are obtained using the chip
flow angles determined by the computations, measurements, and Stabler’s rule, respectively, where
the experimental force coefficient is directly measured from the oblique cutting forces.
 516 B. AKSU ET AL.
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Figure . Comparison of transformed cutting force coefficients with different types of chip flow
angle measurement types in Ti-Al-V oblique cutting (V =  m/min, feed: . mm/rev, and the
rake angle is °). The predicted, measured, and Stabler’s force coefficients in the figure are obtained
using the chip flow angles determined by the computations, measurements, and Stabler’s rule,
respectively, where the experimental force coefficient is directly measured from the oblique cutting
forces.

would expect. This suggests that the chip flow angle should be calculated consider-
ing the mechanics of oblique cutting for higher angles of inclination.
Oblique transformation method is also verified through force measurements in
Ti-6Al-4V, AISI 4340, and Al 7075 oblique and orthogonal cutting tests. In the trans-
formation, the shear angle, the friction angle, and the shear stress values taken from
the orthogonal cutting tests are used. The predictions through this transformation
are compared with the cutting force coefficients obtained directly from the oblique
cutting tests. Figures 22, 23, and 24 show the comparison between the predicted
cutting force coefficients using the chip flow angle value determined using different
approaches.
It can be seen from Figures 22, 23, and 24 that overall, the oblique angle has
significant effect on cutting force coefficients as expected. Overall, when the cal-
culated chip flow angles substituted in the oblique model, better predictions are
obtained compared to the ones determined using the ones from the Stabler’s
rule.
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 517
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Figure . Comparison of transformed cutting force coefficients with different types of chip flow
angle measurement types in Al  oblique cutting. (V =  m/min, feed: . mm/rev, and the rake
angle is °). The predicted, measured, and Stabler’s force coefficients in the figure are obtained using
the chip flow angles determined by the computations, measurements, and Stabler’s rule, respectively,
where the experimental force coefficient is directly measured from the oblique cutting forces.

Discussion and conclusion

In this work, an experimental investigation on oblique cutting is presented for Ti-
6Al-4V, AISI 4340, and Al 7075 using different cutting conditions and tool geome-
tries. The measurements performed in orthogonal and oblique cutting tests are
compared with the model calculations with the objective of determining prediction
capabilities and limits. The results are believed to provide a better insight into the
mechanics of oblique cutting and effects of cutting conditions on it as well as some
guidelines for oblique cutting calculations. The main conclusions from these results
are summarized in the following:
r The variation trends of the shear and friction angles in orthogonal and oblique
cutting are similar, where the shear angle increases with the feed rate due to
decreasing friction on the rake face. Increased rake angle results in higher
shear angle for all cases, as expected. The shear stress, on the other hand, is
not affected much by the feed rate, cutting speed and the oblique angle for the
 518 B. AKSU ET AL.

ranges of these parameters used in the tests. These results confirm the fun-
damental assumption in the orthogonal-to-oblique transformation method,
where the shear and friction angles, and the shear stress identified from orthog-
onal cutting are used in the oblique cutting model.
r Edge forces in the feed direction stays almost constant with the oblique angle
which validates another assumption in the transformation method. On the
other hand, variation in the oblique angle results in some changes in the tangen-
tial edge forces, which may cause errors in tangential cutting force prediction,
especially for the low feed rates. This can be attributed to the variation of the
friction conditions in the third zone due to the oblique angle.
r Cutting force coefficients identified from orthogonal and oblique cutting tests
indicate significant differences, which further increase for higher inclination
angles. This shows that the oblique model is necessary for accurate force pre-
dictions in oblique cutting.
r
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Chip flow angle measurements in oblique cutting show that although Sta-
bler’s law can provide good predictions for lower inclination angles, the cutting
mechanics and kinematics must be taken into account for accurate predictions
at higher angles. This is demonstrated by comparing the chip flow angle mea-
surements with the calculated ones considering the friction, shear, and rake
angles.
r Following with the previous observation, the cutting force predictions based
on the Stabler’s law may cause large errors for high oblique angles, whereas the
predictions using the calculated chip flow angles yield better predictions.
r The total cutting forces increase nonlinearly with the increasing hone radius.
However, a 100% increase in hone radius results in about 5% and 10% increase
in feed and tangential forces, respectively.
r Similarly, the edge cutting forces increase nonlinearly with the increasing hone
radius. A total of 100% increase in hone radius results in about 8 and 14%
increase in feed and tangential edge forces at large hone radius values. How-
ever, at small hone radius values, the percentage increments are 36 and 40%,
for the feed and tangential edge forces, respectively.
r It is observed that the total cutting forces decrease with the increasing clearance
angle. The effect of the clearance angle on the feed forces is more drastic than
on the tangential forces.
r It is shown experimentally that 3 times increase in clearance angle decreases
the flank contact length by half.

Nomenclature
φ Shear angle
β Friction angle
γ Rake angle
Fs Shear force
N Normal force
 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 519

F Friction force
R Resultant force
Ft Tangential force
Ff Feed force
Fr Radial force
Vc Cutting speed
R Resultant force
Ktc Tangential cutting constant
Kfc Feed cutting constant
Krc Radial cutting constant
Kte Tangential edge force coefficient
Kfe Feed edge force coefficient
Kre Radial edge force coefficient
γn Normal rake
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λs Oblique angle
τs Shear stress
φn Normal shear angle
βn Normal friction angle
η Chip flow angle
rc Chip ratio
δf Shear force direction function
δv Shear velocity

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 MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 521

Appendix
The tables in this section present the edge forces and edge force coefficients for AISI
4340, Ti-6Al-4V, and Al 7075 materials. The methodology for determining the edge
forces explained under experimental analysis section.

Table A.. Edge forces and edge force coefficients for AISI  oblique cutting tests for (a)  m/min
and (b)  m/min of cutting speed. Depth of cut:  mm, feed rate range: ., ., ., and . mm/rev.
Insert hone radius: . mm.
Tangential Radial
Feed edge edge force edge force Kre
AISI  force (N) (N) (N) Kfe (N/mm) Kte (N/mm) (N/mm)

V:  m/min Rake ° and oblique °      

Rake ° and oblique °      
Rake ° and oblique °      
Rake ° and oblique °      
V:  m/min Rake ° and oblique °      
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Rake ° and oblique °      

Rake ° and oblique °      
Rake ° and oblique °      .

Table A.. Edge forces and edge force coefficients for Ti-Al-V oblique cutting tests for (a)  m/min
and (b)  m/min of cutting speed. Depth of cut:  mm, feed rate range: ., ., and . mm/rev.
Insert hone radius: . mm.
Tangential Radial
Feed edge edge force edge force Kre
Ti Al V force (N) (N) (N) Kfe (N/mm) Kte (N/mm) (N/mm)

V:  m/min Rake ° and oblique °      

Rake ° and oblique °      
Rake ° and oblique °      
Rake ° and oblique °      
V:  m/min Rake ° and oblique °      
Rake ° and oblique °      
Rake ° and oblique °      
Rake ° and oblique °      

Table A.. (a–b) Edge forces and edge force coefficients for Al  oblique cutting tests for (a)
 m/min and (b) , m/min of cutting speed. Depth of cut:  mm, feed rate range: ., .,
., and . mm/rev. Sharp tool is used in experiments.
Tangential Radial
Feed edge edge force edge force Kre
AL  force (N) (N) (N) Kfe (N/mm) Kte (N/mm) (N/mm)

V:  m/min Rake ° and oblique °   .   .

Rake ° and oblique ° .  .   .
Rake ° and oblique °   .   .
Rake ° and oblique °   .   .
V: , m/min Rake ° and oblique °   .   .
Rake ° and oblique °   .   .
Rake ° and oblique °   .   .
Rake ° and oblique °   .   .