AL Methods 1701782783

Artificial Lift Methods
DSc Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)
Sarajevo 2024
ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS

CONTENTS
4 ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS 1

4.1 SUMMARY 1
4.2 INTRODUCTION 1
4.3 ARTIFICIAL LIFT APPLICATIONS 1
4.4 GENERIC CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS 2
4.5 FLUID COLUMN PROPERTIES MODIFICATION 2
4.5.1 Optimised Natural Flow 2
4.5.2 Gas Lift 3
4.5.2.1 Method, Principles and Components 3
4.5.2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Gas Lift 7
4.5.2.3 Gas Lift Completion Options 7
4.5.2.4 Gas Lift Design Criteria 8
4.5.3 Plunger Lift 10
4.5.3.1 Method, Principles And Components 10
4.5.3.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Pluger Lift 12
4.5.3.3 Sizing/Design Criteria 12
4.5.4 Injection Of Fluid Flow Modifiers 12
4.5.4.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Flow Modifiers 13
4.5.4.3 Design Criteria 13
4.6 COMMON TYPES OF PUMP SYSTEMS 13
4.6.1 Beam Pumps 13
4.6.1.2 Advanatges/Disadvantages Of Beam Pumps 16
4.6.1.3 Completion Variants 16
4.6.1.4 Recent Advances/Best Practices 16
4.6.2 Rod Progressing Cavity Pumps 18
4.6.2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of PCPs 19
4.6.3 Electrical Submersible Pumps 21
4.6.3.2 Advantages And Disadvantages Of ESPs 23
4.6.4 Electrical Submersible Progressive Cavity Pumps 26
4.6.4.2 Advantages And Disadvantages Of ESPCPs 27
4.6.5 Jet Pumps 27
4.6.5.1 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Jet Pumps 29
4.6.5.2 Completion Considerations 29
4.6.6 Hydraulic Piston Pumps 31

4.6.6.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of The HPP 32
4.7 LESS COMMON ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS 33
4.7.1 Hydraulic Submersible Centrifugal Pumps 33
4.7.2 Combination Lift methods 33
4.7.2.1 ESP/Auto-Gas Lift For High PI Wells 34
4.7.2.2 ESP/Gas Lift For Low PI Wells 34
4.7.2.3 PCP, ESP Or Beam Pump With Gas Lift 34
4.7.2.4 Jet Pump/Gas Lift 34
4.7.2.5 ESP with Hydraulic ‘Mixer’ 34
4.7.2.6 Dual ESPs 34
4.7.3 Postponed Installation 35
4.7.4 Downhole Separation 35
4.7.5 Pumped Dump Flood 35
4.7.6 Surface Boosting 35
4.7.7 Using Another Reservoir As A Power Source 36
4.7.8 Pig Lift 37
4.8 PUMPING POWER TRANSMISSION 37
4.8.1.1 Mechanical Drive With Rods To Surface 37
4.8.1.2 Electric Drive 37
4.8.1.3 Hydraulic Drive 38
4.9 FACTORS AFFECTING AL METHOD SELECTION/PERFORMANCE 39
4.9.1 Factors Influencing AF Method Selection 39
4.9.2 Technical Limits 40
4.9.3 System Approach To Artificial Lift Selection 41
4.9.4 Free Gas 42
4.10 WELL DESIGN IMPACT 45
4.10.1 Expected Flow Rates 45
4.10.2 Expected BHP 46
4.10.3 Produced Fluid Composition 46
4.10.4 Solids Production 46
4.10.5 Required Surface Pressures 46
4.10.6 Maximum Temperatures And Pressures 47
4.10.7 Well Integrity And Safety Issues 47
4.10.8 Data Gathering Requirements/Options 47
4.10.9 Production Chemistry 48
4.10.10 Wellbore Geometry 48
4.10.11 Well Location 49
4.10.12 Surface Facilities Specifications 49
4.10.13 Workovers/Well Interventions 49
4.10.14 Other Economic Issues 50
4.11 ARTIFICIAL LIFT QA AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 50
4.12 SOFTWARE 50
4.13 REFERENCES
4 ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS
4.1 Summary
The contents of this section explain the reasons and applications for all the various artificial lift
methods available. It describes the various methods, detailing their advantages and disadvantages,
strengths and weaknesses. It gives the completion engineer first point access to issues to consider if
planning a completion design including current or artificial lift options.
4.2 Introduction
This section details when artificial lift (AL) is required and the applications of the various artificial
lift methods. It also details the completion design implications of adopting the various AL methods.
Descriptions are given of the various methods showing the equipment and procedures involved,
detailing the strengths and weaknesses of each method.
4.3 Artificial Lift Applications

Artificial lift is required when:
 The reservoir pressure is insufficient to support a sustained natural flow of produced
fluids to the surface facilities at the desired rate
or
 The well production could be enhanced through the use of AL.
This is usually due to:

 A low initial reservoir pressure and/or low PI
 A expected decline in reservoir pressure over time
 An increase in the density of the produced fluids, as water cut increases or gas liquid
ratio (GLR) reduces
 High tubing friction pressure losses
 High pressure requirement at the wellhead
 Production of heavy or viscous fluids.
Other, less common, applications for artificial lift systems include:

 Kick-off of unstable wells after shut-in
 Downhole separation and water disposal for environmental purposes
 Dump flooding from an aquifer into the prime reservoir
 Increasing fluid velocities to continuously remove wax or scale build up from tubing
walls.
In all well planning and completion design exercises, artificial lift options should be considered,
since often minor modifications can have a significant influence on the ability to retrofit artificial
lift economically at a later date. If this is not done, the subsequent retrofit options are often limited
and costly.
When designing wells for one type of artificial lift, alternative methods should also be considered as
contingency measure(s), should the primary method fail.
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Guidelines For The Suspension And Abandonment Of Wells
4.4 Generic Classification Of Artificial Lift Methods

Artificial lift methods (discussed further in sections 4.5 and 4.6) can be classified into one of the
following:
 Physical property modification of the well fluids (e.g. density reduction)
 Pumping to provide external energy to the system.
AF methods which use physical property modification include:

 Gas lift
 Plunger lift
 Injection of diluents, demulsifiers or friction reducing agents.
Pumping methods include:

 Positive displacement pumps
- Piston pumps
- Progressive cavity pumps
 Dynamic displacement pumps
- Centrifugal pumps
- Jet (venturi) pumps
Power for these pumping units can be transmitted downhole by electrical cables, reciprocating or
rotating drive rods, or high pressure hydraulic fluid. The maximum power which can be delivered to
a well differs for different types of lift systems.
4.5 Fluid Column Properties Modification

The modification of the physical characteristics of the fluid column, such as density, viscosity, or
surface tension, may dramatically alter flow characteristics. This sub-section discusses the various
AL methods which use physical property modification.
4.5.1 Optimised Natural Flow

Natural flow optimisation cannot, of course, be strictly considered as a method of artificial lift since
energy is not added to the well system from an external source. Despite this it should always be
investigated as the first step in any artificial lift design or well performance evaluation because:
 A well’s natural flow performance is the benchmark against which all other methods, as
well as their associated costs and risks, should be compared.
 Many wells operating under artificial lift are found to be under-performing when
compared to their potential under natural flow.
 The principles of natural flow optimisation are equally relevant in artificially lifted
wells.
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The principles and best practices associated with optimised natural flow, which are addressed
elsewhere in the Completion Design Manual, are not discussed in detail here. However, the key is to
ensure that flow conduit diameters and geometries along the length of the wellbore are appropriately
selected to avoid:
 Excessive frictional pressure losses
 Unstable flow conditions leading to well kill
A common method of reducing liquid slippage in a completion is to install a ‘velocity string’. This
involves installation of a small diameter tubing string inside a existing production tubing causing a
reduction in the flow area and a resultant increase in flow velocity. Fluid flow can be through,
either, the velocity string or the resulting annular space or both.
One area of particular concern relates to long horizontal sections where trajectories invariably
undulate in a series of shallow peaks and troughs. Under certain conditions the troughs can become
liquid filled whilst the peaks become gas filled. Periodic unloading can occur, resulting in discrete
slugs of liquid and gas entering the deviated section of the well. It is possible that the de-gassed
liquid slugs can kill naturally flowing wells. The installation of smaller liners over the horizontal
section minimises the slug sizes and alleviates this problem.
4.5.2 Gas Lift

4.5.2.1 Method, Principles and Components
Gas lift supplements the natural flow process by adding gas to the produced fluid which reduces the
hydrostatic head of the produced fluid column. A closed loop system is normally employed in which
separator gas is dried, re-compressed and supplied back to the well. Figure 4.1 illustrates a typical
gas lift system.
The lift gas is normally pumped down the tubing/casing annulus and injected into the tubing
through a gas lift valve (GLV). These valves normally contain a non-return check valve to prevent
backflow of produced or treatment fluids into the annulus for safety purposes and system efficiency.
In some well designs, the gas is supplied down through the tubing with production being, either, up
the annulus or through a second tubing string which may be concentric or parallel to the supply
string.
In order to achieve maximum hydrostatic head reduction, the gas injection point should be located
as deep as possible. An exception to this rule is in cases in which the production tubing pressure
exceeds the gas saturation pressure under flowing conditions. In these cases the injected gas would
dissolve in the produced liquid and, hence, lose its ability to decrease the density of the fluid
column.
In low PI wells, continuous gas lift may not be practicable as the well inflow is hindered by the
operating pressure of the gas lift. In these cases intermittent lift may be more efficient. Intermittent
lift operates by shutting off the gas supply to enable the well to flow against the production header.
Only and when sufficient liquid has been allowed to flow into the tubing, is the gas supply opened
and a liquid slug produced. This can be much more efficient under some well conditions than
continuous gas lift, (refer to Figure 4.1).
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When bringing a well onstream after completion, with the well filled with completion fluid or after
a prolonged shut-in where the fluids have segregated, the normal gas lift pressure is not sufficient to
achieve maximum gas lift valve depth. In this case it is generally necessary to empty the liquid-
filled tubing and casing in stages. This is achieved by applying gas pressure to a series of GLVs
(termed unloading valves) set progressively deeper from top to bottom. These unloading valves are
designed to open at a pre-set pressure and then to close again at a slightly lower pre-set pressure so
that, by manipulating the injection pressure, the gas circulated through each in turn from top to
bottom. In a properly designed gas lift completion under normal production only the lower injection
operating valve should be open and the unloading valves should all be closed.
Operating valves are specifically designed for continuous flow whereas the unloading valves are
designed solely for unloading.
Figure 4.1 – Typical Gas Lift System Illustrating Both Continuous And Intermittent Lift
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The maximum depth of the operating GLV (OGLV) is limited due to:
 Maximum gas supply pressure and delivery rate.
 Flowing tubing head pressure at the intended flow rate.
 Depth of the packer (which is the maximum depth of the deepest gas lift mandrel).
 Pressure differential required to keep the higher (unloading) gas lift valves closed, and
therefore the pressure at the OGLV stable.
 Tubing collapse and casing burst ratings.
A gas lift system requires the following components:

 Gas treatment, compression, flow measurement/control facilities and start-up gas
supply.
 Production tubing, equipped with the required gas lift mandrels.
 Wireline or coiled tubing access to install and maintain GLVs (which may be installed
during the initial well completion).
 Annulus blow-out protection.
On most gas lifted wells, some annulus blow-out protection is provided by check valves
in the GLVs. However where this is not considered sufficient, due to concerns over
environmental impact or risk to personnel, some additional protection may be required.
This may include double checks on the GLV or additional wellhead check valves.
Alternatively a sub-surface mudline tubing hanger/packer with, either, an integral
annulus safety valve or a separate gas supply string with a conventional sub-surface
safety valve may be used. All of these options significantly affect casing, tubing and
wellhead design, and thus the necessity for gas lift must be identified early in the well
planning process.
GLVs are classified as:

 Casing pressure controlled valve, also called ‘pressure valve’, or ‘injection pressure’
operated valve, is shown on the right of Figure 4.2. Opening and closing pressures are
primarily casing pressure dependent which provides the best pressure control for single
string completions.
 Tubing pressure controlled, also called ‘fluid valve’ or ‘production pressure’ operated
valve, is shown on the left of Figure 4.2. Opening and closing pressures are primarily
dependent on production string. This is particularly useful for dual gas lift completions.
 Proportional response valve. These valves automatically adapt to changes in production
pressure.
 Nova (venturi) valve. Constant injection rate is achieved at OGLV.
It is important that the choice of GLV should be made in the design stage.
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Side-Pocket Mandrels (SPMs) are the most commonly used receptacle for the retrievable gas lift
valves. These have large ODs which can cause clearance problems in small casings and liners.
Alternatives with smaller ODs are available, but care should be taken in the design stage to ensure
wireline retrieval of the gas lift valves is feasible through the completion. Otherwise a full tubing
pull workover may be required to reinstate failed valves.
Figure 4.2 – Typical Gas Lift Operating Valves
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4.5.2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Gas Lift

Advantages and disadvantages of the gas lift method are as follows:
Advantages Disadvantages
Reliable operation. Inefficiency in low volume systems due to
compression and gas treatment capital costs.
High tolerance to solids (though erosional Requirement for start-up gas to kick-off.
velocities in tubing and Xmas tree may be
critical).
Ability to handle high production rates. Difficulty with very heavy/viscous crude.
Usefulness in offshore operations where space Potential for hydrate problems on surface or in
for pump systems may be limited. the GLVs.
Generally maintainable with wireline. Requirement for continuous monitoring,
optimisation and trouble shooting. (This is not
straightforward but essential.)
Full-bore, through-tubing access to below gas Limitation often imposed by restricted
lift valves. maximum lifting depth (governed by minimum
FBHP).
Deviation not restrictive. (If wells are deviated Possible requirement for high strength tubing
beyond the wireline access limit, they can be and casings due to high annular lift gas
serviced with coiled tubing.) pressures (used to reduce the need for
unloading valves).
Relative insensitivity to corrosion.
4.5.2.3 Gas Lift Completion Options

Intermittent gas lift is often used for low rate wells (<350stb/d) with very low FBHP requirements
(<0.1psi/ft). With this technique, the liquid is produced in slugs by periodically opening a surface
flowline valve and allowing the pressurised gas accumulated in the annulus to suddenly expand
through the GLV to surface, lifting the accumulated liquids. A deep-set standing valve is used to
prevent the gas from flowing into the formation. To prevent liquid fallback, this technique is often
combined with the plunger lift method discussed in section 4.5.3.
Sometimes it is feasible to use a temporary high pressure pump with, or without, separate gas supply
for kick-off only. Once production has been initiated, lower pressure lift gas can be supplied from
the main gas compression plant.
It is possible to deploy the mandrels/GLVs on coiled tubing, providing quicker installation time, e.g.
for temporary testing completions.
Retrofitting is also possible by using a specially designed straddle fitted with a gas lift valve.
A major improvement in the economics of gas lift is achieved by making use of a continuous
computerised gas-allocation and optimisation system to make the best use of the available lift gas
supply. A number of software packages are available for this purpose.
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4.5.2.4 Gas Lift Design Criteria

During the design process, the following must be evaluated:
 Optimum injection depth.
 Available, and required, lift gas supply rate and pressure.
 Resultant production rate and, hence, the effective injection GLR (IGLR).
This is an iterative process. The process of designing the unloading and operating of a tubing
produced annulus gas lift completion is illustrated in Figure 4.3.
The figure shows pressure on the horizontal axis and true vertical depth on the vertical axis.
 The available kick-off pressure gradient is first plotted on the graph. This kick-off
pressure (i.e. the maximum available surface pressure) is usually higher than the normal
operating pressure of the gas lift system.
 Next, the annulus fluid gradient is plotted, starting at the flowing tubing head pressure
of the production system.
The intersection of the annulus fluid gradient with the kick-off pressure gradient
determines the location of the first unloading GLV. Gas passes through the first GLV
and lightens the fluid column to surface, according to the total gas liquid ratio (TGLR)
curve shown.
 As the fluid gradient in the tubing changes, the gas in the casing moves down to the
second GLV, unloading fluid from the casing. To determine the depth of this second
valve the annulus fluid gradient is plotted from the first valve depth and where it
intersects the kick-off pressure gradient determines the depth of the next valve.
 As the gas reaches the second GLV and begins to lighten the fluid column at this depth,
the first GLV should be designed to close, so that all gas is passing through the second
GLV.
 The process continues until the fluids in the casing annulus have been displaced, and the
gas is passing through the OGLV.
Once the well has been unloaded, the operating pressure on the casing will be lower than the initial
kick-off pressure. At some time during the unloading procedure, the reservoir will have begun to
produce fluids. The production rate from the well is a function of a number of parameters, including
reservoir pressure, PI, water cut and gas injection rate. After the well is producing at a stabilised
rate, production should be optimised by varying the gas injection rate.
The well off-take will increase with increasing lift gas rate until a maximum production rate is
achieved; further increase of the gas rate above this optimum level will reduce the off-take, as
shown in Figure 4.4.
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Figure 4.3 – Example Gas Lift Design
3600
Liquid Rate (STB/d)
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Injection Gas Rate (MMscf/d)
Figure 4.4 – Typical Gas Lift Performance
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There is an optimum GLR (OGLR) which provides the lowest BHFP. Most gas lift systems are
designed either on the basis of a near optimum GLR (NOGLR: BHFP within 20 to 50psi of the
minimum), or on the basis of available injection gas supply volumes, Qi. Clearly:
 Liquid rate (q) depends on the IPR and attainable BHFP.
 Total GLR = Producing GLR + Injection GLR  Optimum GLR
 Injection GLR = Qi /q
To evaluate the performance of a gas lifted well:

1. Estimate the gas injection depth using the flowing gradients and the available lift
gas pressure, if defined.
2. Generate a series of tubing performance curves at varying GLRs, using the gas
injection point determined.
3. Overlay the IPR and tubing performance curves to define the production rate and,
hence, the required lift gas supply rates and pressures.
Note: The valve spacing is designed based on a true vertical projection of the well.
SPM setting depths must be properly converted to measured depth. The deeper
valves may be only a few tubing joints apart, making spacing in this region
highly critical.
Note: Calibration of GLVs is very temperature sensitive; therefore, ensure good

temperature data is available.
4.5.3 Plunger Lift

The application for plunger lift is to deliquefy gas wells or low rate oil wells. This method is used
extensively in the USA with some 120,000 out of an estimated 300,000 gas/condensate wells being
produced with plunger lift.
4.5.3.1 Method, Principles And Components

Plunger lift is a lift system for high GLR wells producing liquids at low rates (<250stb/d). The
system consists of a bumper spring at the bottom, a lubricator with flow tee, bumper spring and
catcher at surface, a controller to open and close the well, and of course a plunger (refer to Figure
4.5). A smooth internal tubing surface and uniform diameter is required.
This method does not require additional energy, but does need space where gas energy can be stored
and then supplied to the tubing at high rates. Usually the tubing-casing annulus is used for this
purpose, but a natural or induced fracture system may be adequate.
The gas energy is used to drive a piston, or plunger, carrying a small slug of liquid up to the surface.
After production of the tail gas, the well is closed-in and the plunger falls back to bottom. The gas
pressure will continue to build up again; the process will repeat as soon as the gas energy below the
plunger is greater than the liquid load above it and the well is opened up to allow flow of the slug.
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Figure 4.5 – Plunger Lift System
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4.5.3.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Pluger Lift

The advantages and disadvantages of plunger lift are:
Specifically for use in low rate wells with Low production rates.
liquid loading problems, for example for de-
liquification (water or condensate) of low rate
gas wells or for unloading oil wells
The good reliability, combined with easy Live annulus.
maintenance and low operating costs, make
this an attractive lift method.
Solids handling ability is reasonable. Produced solids may be accommodated by using brush-type
plungers, but these reduce efficiency. The plunger also tends to control any scale and paraffin build-
up in the tubing.
A common option is to install the bottom bumper spring above a gas lift mandrel, thereby allowing
the gas lift system to provide additional energy to the system.
Advances in controllers, making intelligent adaptations to timing depending on pressure build-up to
optimise production, are continuously being developed.
4.5.3.3 Sizing/Design Criteria

In order to successfully implement unassisted plunger lift, a minimum GOR of 300-400scf/bbl per
1,000ft of lift is required.
Maximum well deviation is important since the plunger must return to bottom by gravity only. The
maximum deviation varies with well fluid parameters (especially viscosity) but a guideline of a
maximum deviation of 45 is recommended.
For gas lift assisted plunger lift, intelligent controllers are available with, either, one or two valves
(tubing and annulus) to control the flow and ensure the return of the plunger to bottom; making use
of timers and pressure sensors to optimise plunger velocity and minimise lift gas usage.
4.5.4 Injection Of Fluid Flow Modifiers

This is not artificial lift but does provide options for optimising lift performance. Fluid flow
chemicals include diluents, demulsifiers, friction reducing agents and foaming agents.

A number of chemicals can be introduced downhole into the production stream, either, to improve
production or to optimise future production.
Friction Reducing Additives (FRAs) are extensively used in surface flowlines and may reduce
friction flow effects by up to 50% to 70% (ref SPE paper 36835, 1996). Note: FRAs are long chain
polymers and are, therefore, prone to break down under shear, e.g. through pumps, etc.
Foaming Agents (surface tension reducers) are used to reduce the minimum critical velocity
required for lifting fluids by several orders of magnitude (ref SPE paper 37425, 1998). The use of
foaming agents for condensate, however, is still limited. A common method for occasionally de-
watering gas wells is addition of a ‘soap-stick’ which is a soluble foaming agent.
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Demulsifiers are often added at surface to improve separation efficiency and can be used further
upstream, e.g. to prevent viscous emulsions forming downhole. Applications include spiking of lift
gas to break downhole emulsions.
Diluent injection, commonly is medium API crude, is often utilised to reduce the viscosity of heavy
oils. Downhole salt dropout from high salinity, saturated produced waters can also be prevented by
the injection of water. This is often combined with artificial lift at little additional cost.
Commonly placement of these chemicals is through capillary tubes, intermittently injected into the
tubing from surface, or into the annulus and then via an orifice to the tubing. The injection of some
additives can be easily supplied via, for example, lift gas or hydraulic power fluid. By adding the
chemical to the drive fluid not only is additional installation cost minimised, but the mixing will be
highly efficient.
The chemical specification is generally application dependant. Normally a suitable recipe can be
established with input from BP production chemists and the chemical vendors.
4.5.4.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Flow Modifiers

Advantages and disadvantages are:
Advantages Disadavantages
Injection systems tend to be simple to operate Chemical costs are often high.
and monitor.
They can often be combined with other When used on their own to improve well
chemicals such as scale inhibitor or productivity, their impact is often limited.
demulsifiers.
4.5.4.3 Design Criteria

Required amounts and limitations should be verified with the vendors for each specific case, tested
prior to use, and optimised as conditions change or other improved products become available.
4.6 Common Types Of Pump Systems

AF lift systems that use the more commonly used pump-drive combinations are discussed in this
section. A non-exhaustive summary of design criteria is included for understanding rather than for
application.
4.6.1 Beam Pumps

Bean pumps, famously known as ‘Nodding Donkeys’, are the most widely used AF method adopted
today because of their practicality, their ease of operation, optimisation and workover.
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Beam Pumps, and ‘Hydraulic Piston Pumps’, discussed in section 4.6.6, are types of positive
displacement piston pumps. Piston pumps consist essentially of a piston inside a barrel and may be,
either, single acting or double acting. Single acting pumps are generally used in combination with
mechanical drive and double acting with the hydraulic drive pumps, though other options are
available. Figure 4.6 illustrates a typical beam pumping system.
Figure 4.6 – Typical Bean Pumping System
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Piston pumps are mechanically efficient and technically simple. Production rates are easily adapted
by adjusting the drive rate and achievable minimum downhole pressures are very low. Viscous
fluids are not usually a major concern. However, moving parts and sliding surfaces mean they have
a limited tolerance to solids production and the limited rates achievable (although increasing with
new developments) only make them suitable for low and medium rate wells.
There are two main downhole pump design variations: tubing pump, and insert or rod pump rods
(refer to Figure 4.7). The tubing pump (fixed to the end of the tubing) has a higher capacity, but
servicing requires the entire tubing string to be pulled. The insert pump is more commonly used, as
it can be retrieved by pulling the rods. It also provides higher compression ratios and, therefore, has
less difficulty handling gas.
Figure 4.7 – Examples Of Tubing And Rod Installed Pumps
Tubing is used as the production conduit, often anchored to the casing and set under tension to
minimise tubing movement, buckling and rod wear. Anchoring the tubing, as opposed to leaving it
free hanging, results in higher production by reducing tubing stretch and allowing a longer, more
effective plunger stroke that lifts higher quantities of oil. Using unanchored tubing allows a degree
of movement with the rods such that the transfer of load when the travelling valve closes is more
gradual, however there is a higher shock load when the travelling valve closes.
Packers are not normally installed, to allow any free gas being separated downhole to be vented via
the annulus. A gas anchor (a perforated device installed below the pump to improve downhole
separation and allow the gas to go up the annulus) can be added to prevent gas-locking.
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The annulus can also be used to determine FBHP by measuring the depth of the annular fluid level
(e.g. acoustically).
The maximum setting depth is usually restricted by the weight and strength of the rods, in
combination with friction and pumping dynamics. Rod stretch can be significant and limit the
output and system efficiency. Tapered rod strings are commonly used to overcome this problem.
This interdependence of surface unit, rod string, subsurface unit, and achievable rate and drawdown
makes the design process an iterative one.
4.6.1.2 Advanatges/Disadvantages Of Beam Pumps

Advantages and disadvantages are as follows:
Reliable, low maintenance Limited rates
High residual value surface equipment Bulky for offshore operations
Rate easily adjusted at surface Deviation causes wear of rods
Large drawdown achievable Low resistance to solids production
Choice of power source (diesel, electric) Internal tubing coatings not possible
Straightforward analysis and troubleshooting Limited depth (rod-strength)
High temperature tolerance
4.6.1.3 Completion Variants

Though the most common pump types have a moving plunger and stationary barrel, the reverse is
also available using the Travelling Barrel Pump. This system tends to hold solids in suspension
better, thereby preventing jamming of the plunger.
Other types of downhole pump units with improved solids handling are also available.
A stroke-through pump is another variant whereby the plunger completely strokes out of the barrel,
and can be used for certain applications, such as to prevent scale build-up.
4.6.1.4 Recent Advances/Best Practices

Improvements with respect to solids and gas handling are continually being developed. Multi-stage
pumps for handling heavy and sandy crudes as well as multi-barrel pumps for higher rates, are two
options. Extended stroke and large diameter pumps are also being successfully applied.
Other advances such as use of continuous rod strings (which have no connections except at the top
and the bottom) and reinforced plastics may be utilised to reduce weight, simplify maintenance,
limit corrosion or reduce rod stretch. Calculation of expected load levels needs to be undertaken and
produced well fluids determined in order to select the proper materials for the rods and pump
components.
As a general guideline, low alloy carbon steel is the first choice for most components for non-
corrosive conditions and medium loads, stainless steel or certain corrosion resistant alloys for
corrosive environments (e.g. brine, higher levels of CO2 or H2S), and Nickel Alloy (Monel) or
similar may be needed for extremely corrosive conditions.
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Surface units are now available which can overcome the traditional unit’s size, weight and footprint
constraints. Nitrogen sprung, hydraulically driven designs now available from many vendors, have
smaller footprints for similar performance as traditional units. Following these developments, beam
pumps now are an even more viable artificial lift alternative even in some offshore environments,
e.g. Trinidad.
Rotating production tubing, possibly coupled with a rotating rod string, is being used to adapt rod
pumping systems to highly deviated wells.

Pump displacement volume is determined by the plunger stroke and diameter, pump speed and the
volumetric efficiency of the pump unit.
The volumetric efficiency depends on pump design and tends to be 70% - 95%. Greater clearances
improve solids and heavy oil handling but reduce efficiency.
The downhole stroke of the pump will be different from the surface stroke of the drive unit due to
stretch caused by rod weight, fluid load and dynamic forces.
The fluid load is a combination of the net lift distance (difference between annular and tubing fluid
level), the surface back pressure and fluid density.
The rod weight can be significant in deeper wells and often tapered rod strings need to be employed
to minimise the loading on the upper rods.
The dynamic forces involved include both friction and acceleration which causes the peak rod load
on the up-stroke to be significantly greater than on the down stroke. Similarly, on the down stroke
the rod loading will be significantly less than the buoyant weight of the rods.
Rod stretch will tend to reduce pump displacement on the upstroke and cause over-travel on the
down stroke, especially at higher pump speeds.
The main monitoring and design tool for reciprocating rod pumps incorporates Load-Displacement
Plots to analyse loads during the whole pumping cycle. Monitoring is achieved through a
dynamometer which is attached at the surface to measure instantaneous load on the top of the sucker
rods. Figure 4.8 shows two plots: one ‘ideal’ and the other ‘real’, showing the actual surface load
and the ‘static’ idealized load (including friction), indicating the effect of the dynamic (oscillating)
loads over one complete cycle.
The plots are read from left to right. During the upstroke, the load is seen to increase at an irregular
rate, peak and then decrease due to the combined effects of the various static and dynamic loads.
During the downstroke, the load is observed as almost flat, then subsequently decreases and
increases fairly sharply back to the start point. Load changes are much more irregular than seen in
the idealised case. Other operational problems can also be easily diagnosed using this device.
Since typical pumping speeds of 8 to 15spm correspond to 4-8 million cycles per year, it is
important that the design of a rod pumping installation focuses on minimising fatigue failures.
Corrosion exacerbates fatigue, so the operating environment also impacts on the allowable loads.
When pumping high viscosity fluids, rod fall problems tend to restrict pump rates (1-3spm), so in
this case, long stroke/variable speed pumping units, such as the hydraulic pump jacks, are preferred.
In order to minimise rod string loading, the pump should not be installed any deeper than is
absolutely necessary to achieve the required head.
Page 17
System design is an iterative and complex process for which a number of dedicated software
packages exist with vendors as well as in the public domain. BP recommended packages are listed
in section 4.12.
Idealised Actual (Typical)
Dynamometer Cards
Figure 4.8 – Rod Loads During A Pumping Cycle
4.6.2 Rod Progressing Cavity Pumps

Rod progressive cavity pumps (PCPs) generally comprise a single helical shaped metal rotor which
rotates inside a double-helical elastomer-lined stator, (refer to Figure 4.9). As the rotor turns inside
the stator, a number of sealed cavities form and progress from the inlet to the discharge side of the
pump. The result of this is a non-pulsating positive displacement flow, proportional to rotation
speed. The stator is attached to the production tubing and the rotor is turned by a motor.
Figure 4.9 – Progressive Cavity Pump
Page 18
Pumps with double-helical rotors are also available which enables higher flowrates with lower
vibration levels which can be particularly problematic in downhole driven systems. The component
most prone to failure is the gearbox between the motor and the PCP. The failures are commonly seal
leaks or mechanical breakdown due to excessive vibration.
PCPs are mechanically efficient, relatively inexpensive and can handle heavy oil or very high
viscous crude and very large amounts of sand (possibly up to 50-90%). They are typically used for
low to medium rate wells but are not suitable for very light crudes. They are reliable with no valves
to stick, or lock, and require little maintenance.

The common surface drive PCP rod system, (refer to Figure 4.10), consists of a downhole PCP unit
driven from surface with a rotating sucker rod string. The surface drive can be provided by, either:
 Hydraulic drive on the wellhead.
 Belt drive via a torque limiting hub.
 Direct wellhead mounted electric motor (which is the most common).
The stator is mounted in the tubing string which is generally installed free hanging. The rod string,
with the rotor attached, is hung off from a rotating bearing with a seal. The achievable differential
pressure is dependent on the type of downhole pump but the maximum possible is between 900 and
3,500psi. Flow rate is proportional to rotation speed and lies between 5 and 5,000bpd.
Since the rod string is hung off in the wellhead unlike the reciprocating rod system, counter
balancing of the string weight is not necessary, thereby reducing the surface facilities footprint and
weight.
Common rotation speeds are around 100rpm, but up to 500rpm is possible in certain configurations.
The stator rubber material is selected according to fluid characteristics (API gravity, solids) and
operating temperature.
The selection of stator elastomer material is critical and must take into account the expected
operating parameters, (e.g. solids content, temperature, rotational speeds and crude characteristics).
4.6.2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of PCPs

Advantages and disadvantages of PCPs are:
Highly solids tolerant (up to 90% solids) Limited maximum rate
Energy efficient Limited temperature tolerance
Low capital and operating costs Workover required for downhole maintenance
Good for viscous fluids and high GLR
Low surface profile
Easy short-term installation (e.g.
exploration)
Page 19
Figure 4.10 – Rod Driven PCP

As with reciprocating rod pumps, the sucker rod material and string configuration must be selected
as is appropriate for the situation. Although low alloy carbon steel is commonly used, stainless steel,
or high alloy materials are available, as well as reinforced plastics for more severe conditions.
Continuous strings (i.e. no connections except at the top and bottom) are also available.
Since there is torque limitations on using continuous drive rods, PCPs are limited to their operating
depth and/or to low rates. Vendors should be consulted before finalising designs.

There have been important advances in configuration design, rod string improvements to prevent
wear between the rods and the tubing, and in PCP materials for handling light oils, high
temperatures and high rates. Manufacturers can provide details on the latest technologies.
Page 20

Downhole unit options are selected by matching vendor information with the required rate, head,
temperature, setting depth, etc. The selection of stator material will depend on the well fluids, solids
content, temperatures and rates and could affect vendor selection.
Surface unit selection must take into account the available space, power and maintenance
requirements.
4.6.3 Electrical Submersible Pumps

Electrical submersible pumps (ESPs) are centrifugal pump designs which consist of a number of
stacked stages, each comprising a rotating impeller and a stationary diffuser (refer to Figure 4.11).
Energy transfer is accomplished by the rotating impeller which imparts a tangential and radial
motion to the fluid, thereby increasing its kinetic energy. The diffuser collects the high velocity fluid
and reduces its velocity prior to pumping it onto the next impeller stage. This increasing the kinetic
energy is converted into pressure energy. The conversion process is typically around 50-80%
efficient for downhole centrifugal pumps.
Centrifugal pumps are dynamic displacement pumps, in which the Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
developed is a function of the flow rate and the number of stages in the pump.
Generally the impellers ‘float’ in the fluids they pump between thrust washers. This means they
must be operated within their designed range to prevent excessive up-thrust or down-thrust causing
rapid wear. An alternative design is the ‘compression’ type pump in which the impellers are
individually fixed to a rotating shaft with one thrust bearing on its lower end. This effectively
removes the down-thrust criterion, allowing operation at reduced flow rates. The need to prevent
excessive up-thrust still applies however.
Centrifugal pumps can permit a limited flow through a failed pump, e.g. allowing natural flow or
injection of a scale treatment fluid.
ESPs are sensitive to solids production and in sandy environments, severe erosion of standard trim
pumps can occur. Sand trim ESPs are available with sand resistant bearings and upgraded
impeller/diffuser metallurgies but they still have limitations.
Impeller
Diffuser
Figure 4.11 – Downhole Centrifugal Pump Stage
Page 21
Centrifugal pumps are generally driven by, either, a downhole electrical motor (ESP) or a downhole
hydraulically powered motor (HSP, Weir) and can handle very high volumes at a reasonably high
efficiency. However, they tend to have a limited solids tolerance and a limited operating range for
an individual pump and they are normally not good at handling free gas. Solutions to improve these
weaknesses exist, such as combining mixed-flow with radial flow impellers for improved gas
tolerance.

ESPs, a combination of a multi-stage centrifugal pump with a downhole electric motor (refer to
Figure 4.12), have become very much the ‘standard’ for high volume, low GLR systems. Power is
supplied by an electric cable, generally clamped to the outside of the production tubing. A complete
ESP system with gas-handling capabilities may include (from the bottom upwards):
a) Motor, available up to 2,000HP typically installed below the pump, drive the pump
system. It is cooled by the well fluids flowing around it.
b) Seal Section, which connects the motor to the pump, transfers torque and isolates well
fluids from the motor.
c) Rotary Gas Separator (RGS), is optional for wells with a significant volume of free gas.
It acts to knock out a significant volume of free gas, expelling it into the annulus or a
second tubing string.
d) Advanced Gas Handler (AGH), is optional and reduces the remaining gas bubble sizes
by pre-compressing the fluid for the pump section to handle.
e) Pump Section, as described previously, possibly containing a mix of impeller types to
improve gas handling at the bottom stages and effective compression at the top stages.
Surface equipment consists of a power supply and a means of monitoring and controlling the
production rate. Pumps generally have upper and lower production limits. Keeping the production
rate between these design margins is essential for the life of the (floating) pump bearings.
Compression bearings help extend this production window on the low side.
Production rate control can be achieved using either a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) or a
production choke. VFDs consume less power and allow the pump efficiency to be optimised once
deployed, but are costly and require more operator technical knowledge and expertise. Choke
systems must be appropriately sized for the individual well initial and future expected rates.
Though the standard model ESPs are limited to handling less than 10% free gas, appropriately
designed ESP/separator combinations can currently handle up to 50% free gas.
BP Milne Point, Forties and Wytch Farm have many ESP completions.
Page 22
Figure 4.12 – Typical ESP System
4.6.3.2 Advantages And Disadvantages Of ESPs

Advantages and disadvantages of ESPs are:
High energy addition Limited sand tolerance
High efficiency (70%) Low GLR tolerance (without separator)
Unaffected by deviation Rig or hoist required on failure
Good data gathering tie-in Electrical (cable) failures
High production rates Run lives limited if poorly designed, installed,
operated
Easily controlled Limited temperature tolerance
Page 23

If a rotary gas separator is installed in an ESP completion and it is planned for gas to flow up the
annulus, there may be major safety implications in some completion designs which need to be
evaluated and catered for during the design process.
Some ESP completion designs often include Y-tools above the pump and allows access to tubing
run alongside the pump. This derives a number of advantages including providing well intervention
access to the reservoir below the pump and the capability to free-flow, or inject into, the well by-
passing the pump.
Also, multiple pumps can be installed in a single well to, either; produce from different zones,
increase head, or serve as a backup to extend the lifespan of the ESP.
Some models of Y-tools have automatic lockouts to give the ability to direct flow through the ESP
or the flow-by conduit, without the need for a well intervention. Note: as a consequence of using Y-
tools, the maximum pump and motor size which can be installed alongside the flow-by conduit is
significantly reduced.
ESPs can be installed on coiled tubing, either, with external, or internal cables. Internal cables
reduce the risk of cable damage by being protected by the tubing.
A system which has been specially designed which utilises coiled tubing with an internally run
electrical power cable and a retrievable packer is now available. It was specifically designed for
fluid flow outside the tubing up the annulus.
A design problem with coiled tubing installed pumps is the provision of an adequate downhole
safety system. One solution used in Norway, was the installation of a shear seal valve immediately
below the Xmas tree tied into the platform ESD system which can ultimately be used to cut the
tubing and close in the well in the event of an uncontrolled well flow.
Reversed designed pump systems can be installed in injection wells for downhole injection to
reduce surface injection pressures.

Mean time between failure (MTBF) has always been a prime consideration in the selection of an
ESP for AF and, depending on production rate, supplier, environmental factors and operational
requirements, a typical field wide MTBF can be currently anywhere between 6 months (in deep
wells, high rates, high solids content) up to 5 years in more friendly environments. MTBF can be
greatly influenced by the;
 Use of proper operating procedures
 Ensuring rates and pressures are continuously monitored and controlled
 Ensuring that correct start-up and shutdown procedures are used
In particular, slow start-up in wells which produce solids and prevention of solids
fallback on shutdown (e.g. by adopting a procedure with a period of reduced rate
production or by well design) are essential.
The selection of the type of elastomers for the seal section must be appropriate for the
circumstances; for example, classic ‘labyrinth’ type seals work well in vertical installations with a
limited number of start/stop sequences, but highly deviated installations require the ‘bag’ type seals.
It is often prudent to include a contingency lift method in the completion design, such as provision
of a SSD (sliding side door) to enable gas lifting, etc.
Page 24
The impact of incorrect pump operation has a significant impact on MTBF. For example, placing an
ESP back onto production soon after a shutdown before the back-spin has stopped, may easily shear
the drive shaft. A number of semi-automated monitoring and control systems are available to
prevent this occurring the cost of which can be easily justified.
Wireline retrievable pump unit designs are also available enabling pump unit replacement while
leaving the motor in situ downhole.
A hydraulically powered ‘mixer’ unit is also available which can re-inject the produced gas into the
production stream above the ESP, assisting flow to surface (ref Weatherford).
The start up current requirement needs to be considered during the design stage. Direct on-line start
up requires an initial current up to 10 times the running current stated in the specifications for a
period of time ranging between 0.1 - 2 seconds. VFD type units reduce the current demand to
around 1.6 times the stated running current. It is important that the surface electrical system can
accommodate this demand without causing damage through overheating the transformers, etc.
Design requirements must be discussed with the electrical engineers on this topic is essential.
Subsea completions have been completed and tied back to host facilities up to a distance of 15 miles
away in the past. The critical issue when producing at such distances is harmonic oscillations.

Preliminary selection of a pump is performed using a ‘hurricane’ plot (normally provided by the
vendor) which indicates, for a specific pump, the head per stage, rate, up and down thrust limits and
horsepower requirements. Figure 4.13 indicates a number of pump curves for different operating
frequencies for a single type of pump. Once the pump type is selected, taking into account reservoir
pressure, PI, expected production rate, well and equipment diameters, temperature ratings,
availability, etc, the required number of stages and associated motor horsepower requirements.
JB1300 Centrilift Pump Hz 40
Hz 50
500 300
Hz 60
450
Down thrust Limit Hz 70
400
Hz 80
350
200 HTHZmin
Frequency
Head/stage(ft)
300
HTHZmax
HP
250 HP
200
Up thrust Limit
100
150
Horse Power
100
50
0 0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
Qgross(rb/d)
Figure 4.13 – Example ESP Power Curves
Page 25
If a VFD is selected for the system, the operating range is determined by the combined restrictions
of the VFD and the pump.
Production rate should be kept within the design margins for standard floating bearing ESPs. If an
ESP is expected to operate some of its life producing below the minimum rate, a compression ESP,
a type with a thrust bearing, should be considered.
It is critical to ensure that adequate cooling of the motor can be provided by wellbore fluids flowing
past the housing. If flow velocity is too low, a ‘shroud’ must be used to increase the velocity up to
the level needed.
When free gas might present a problem, the gas flow system must be fully considered (i.e. where the
separated gas will be produced, as well as full modelling of the flow fluid and conduit). Note: a gas
conduit may actually produce liquids as well.
Scale deposition on the impeller blades is a common problem and produced water should be tested
for scaling potential.
Abrasion resistant ESPs with special impellers and bearings are available for high solids content
installations.
The feed-through of the electric cable through the wellhead (and packer, if used) requires particular
attention as it is a high potential cause of failure.
4.6.4 Electrical Submersible Progressive Cavity Pumps

This pump system is similar to the ESP method already described but a
progressive cavity pump is used in place of the centrifugal type pump.

Electrical Submersible Progressive Cavity Pumps (ESPCPs) (refer to Figure
4.14) operate similarily to ESPs although they have some major differences
in design:
 The pump is a PCP type and not a centrifugal
 A reduction gearbox is required to accommodate the lower speed
rating of the PCP
 A flex joint is required due to the eccentricity of the PCP
The selection of the type of gearbox to be used is critical to the design, since
a relatively large number of failures associated with ESPCPs are related to
gearbox failures rather than pump or motor failures.
Since the main application for ESPCPs is for heavy oil production, gas
handling is generally not an issue; but ESPCPs can handle limited amounts of
free gas without difficulty.
Preferably, a multi-lobe PCP should be used to reduce vibration and,
therefore, improve the life span of the gearbox and motor and also assist in
achieving higher rates.
Figure 4.14 – Typical ESPCP Pump System
Page 26
4.6.4.2 Advantages And Disadvantages Of ESPCPs

Advantages and disadvantages are:
Good sand tolerance Lower MTBF than ESP
High efficiency (> 70%) Electrical (cable) failures
Unaffected by deviation Rig or hoist required on failure
Good data gathering tie-in The rate is limited (e.g. 2500stb/d
in 4 ½”)
Heavy crude handling
Easily controlled

To reduce maintenance and repair costs a through-tubing installed option is available to engineers
deployed by wireline or coiled tubing. This can eliminate the need for rig workovers to replace the
pumps. Alternatively a slickline retrievable PCP section may be used which leaves the electric
motor and gearbox in situ on the tubing.
4.6.5 Jet Pumps

A jet pump is the simplest and least complex method of pumping systems. The system consists of a
venturi pump installed, either, temporarily or permanently in the completion. The pump consists of
a nozzle, throat and diffuser, as shown in Figure 4.15
Figure 4.15 – Jet Pump Operating Principle
The main components of a jet pumping system, (refer to Figure 4.17), are:
 Surface power fluid pumping facilities
 Downhole jet pump with appropriate nozzle/throat combination
 Conduits for power fluid and produced fluids.
Page 27
The power fluid is pumped to the nozzle section of the pump. The
high pressure power fluid stream is then converted to a high velocity
jet. The jet exits the nozzle and contacts the produced fluids within
the throat section of the pump. As the fluids mix in the throat
section, momentum transfer occurs between the power and produced
fluids causing production of the produced fluids. In the diffuser
section of the pump the velocity reduces while the pressure increases
(refer to Figure 4.15).
Since jet pumps have no moving parts, they are very reliable. The
limiting factor on operating life is often the ancillary equipment and
the mode of operation in the well. They are relatively tolerant to
solids in the power fluid stream as well as the produced stream.
Power fluid can be obtained, either, from a convenient high pressure
source such as an injection water system or from a dedicated surface
pumping unit. Water (seawater or produced water) or dead crude are
commonly used as power fluids. The pumps are generally powered,
either, through the tubing with production up the annulus (termed
normal circulation) or vice versa (reverse circulation).
Figure 4.16 – Jet Pump Or Piston Pump Completion
In many cases the bottomhole pump assembly can be pumped into,

or out of, the well using a set of swab cups as pump down
locomotives. Alternatively, the units can be run and pulled by
wireline. This permits low downhole service costs and minimal
downtime for pump servicing or replacement. Selection of wireline
retrievable, or the ‘free’ pump-out designs depends on surface access
and frequency of well entries expected.
Jet pumps and hydraulic piston pumps are often interchangeable,
thereby providing a high degree of flexibility to cope with changing
well conditions.
Figure 4.17 – Jet Pump Installation Using A Sliding Side Door
Page 28
4.6.5.1 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Jet Pumps

Advantages and disadvantages of jet pumps are:
No moving parts Low efficiency (30-35%)
Tolerant to solids in production stream (and in Limited energy transfer
power fluid)
Wireline retrievable or pump-out (‘free’) Sensitive to back pressure
design
Chemical treatments (corrosion, scale, Spare capacity in surface facilities required
emulsion) easy to perform
Fairly high GLR tolerance (3000scf/bbl)
Cost of change out (compared to ESP)
Based on operating experience (i.e. BP Milne Point, Alaska), it is noted that, on the negative side,
jet pumps use much more power compared to ESPs; however, the average jet pump change-out cost
(using slickline) is only around 4% that of an ESP.
4.6.5.2 Completion Considerations

An important design choice is that between adopting conventional or reverse flow direction for the
power fluid. An important consideration is the fact that the drive pressure is often significantly
higher than the production pressure. For this reason, the tubing is often selected as the power fluid
conduit and the annulus as the production conduit. Furthermore, in the event of corrosion due to the
power fluid, the tubing can be more easily inspected and replaced than the casing, however, other
criteria such as the requirement for SSSVs and/or annular safety valves, high closed-in THPs,
concerns over casing corrosion due to produced fluid flow, or the surface flow conduit design have
resulted in selection of the reverse flow design in most current offshore installations.
If required for well safety, SSSV types are available that can be placed below the pump and which
are operated by the power fluid supply pressure. Alternatively, a reverse check valve can be installed
which also prevents loss of power fluid to the formation.
It is often convenient to source the power fluid from an existing water injection system; however, a
successful trial was carried out on BP Beatrice using the entire production stream of a nearby higher
pressure ESP well to drive an adjacent jet pumped well.
Several innovative applications of jet pumps developed by BP Milne Point,Alaska are listed below:
 Replacement of failed ESPs in wells that would normally be uneconomic to workover.
In these originally packerless completions, a packer is run inside tubing and set above
the pump then coiled tubing (with a receptacle on the bottom to receive a jet pump) is
stabbed into the packer. The surface piping and tree must be modified to enable the
power fluid to be pumped down the coil, with production up the coiled tubing/tubing
annulus. The jet is pumped down to the receptacle and production commenced. The
pump can be retrieved by reversing the direction of flow.
Page 29
 Production after conducting a fracture stimulation prior to installing an ESP.

As wells need to be flowed several days to remove loose proppant before running an
ESP, an alternative production method can be used to speed up the process. Instead of
using conventional nitrogen services, a jet pump may be run inside frac workstring
equipped with a sliding sleeve, with a temporary power fluid supply hooked up at the
surface.
 Conversion of injection wells to production wells.
It may be possible to perforate the tubing above the packer and retrofit a jet pump.
Fitting a permanent downhole surface read-out pressure gauge below the jet pump is beneficial in
diagnosing pump performance.
Depending on the power fluid, it is important to ensure scale deposition, emulsification, and other
chemical and temperature effects are investigated prior to selection of the system.
Recent research has proved the economic feasibility of pumping viscous crude with a water-
surfactant mix as a power fluid, e.g., 2000, ENI-Agip/EU Thermie.
Installations using a lighter crude oil from a nearby production well in order to dilute and lift a
heavy viscous crude are also successfully in operation.

Jet pump performance is well specific and careful selection of the nozzle-to-throat combination is
necessary to ensure optimal well performance. In response to this necessity, the manufacturers have
a wide range of nozzles and throats from which to tailor the pump.
Referring to Figure 4.18, formation and power fluid rates are shown as a function of nozzle size.
The formation rate increases to a maximum then, beyond a critical nozzle size (not shown on Figure
4.18), decreases with increasing nozzle size. In contrast the power fluid rate continually increases.
It can be seen that a small incremental production is achieved at the expense of a large power fluid
rate increase as the maximum rate is approached. In practice, it is necessary to achieve a
compromise between maximum production and minimum power fluid rates.
2000 20000
Qpower_fluid(stb/d)
Qform_oil(stb/d)
1500 15000
1000 10000
Qform_oil
500 Q_power_fluid 5000
0 0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Nozzle Size
Figure 4.18 – Typical Operating Performance Chart
Page 30
For a given set of well conditions, any particular nozzle size has a corresponding optimum throat
size which maximises formation production rate. Note: the power fluid rate is insensitive to throat
size. In order to minimise power fluid rates, it is better to operate with the maximum possible power
fluid pressure. From a practical viewpoint, 5,000psia is typically the maximum due to surface pump
limitations.
System design and selection of the optimum pump for the application should be carried out using,
either, commercially available computer programs or the vendor’s programs, (refer to section 4.12).
Care must be taken to avoid cavitation within the pump although this aspect is normally catered for
in the available software.
4.6.6 Hydraulic Piston Pumps

The hydraulic piston pump is a variant of the beam pump which uses hydraulic power to operate the
downhole pump.

In a typical hydraulic lift system (either, jet pump or hydraulic piston pump (HPP)), power fluid,,
such as crude oil or water is delivered at high pressure to the surface pump, (refer to Figure 4.16). In
the HPP design, the power fluid actuates the engine which in turn drives the pump.
Figure 4.19 – Typical Hydraulic Piston Pump
Page 31
The hydraulic piston pump is a reciprocating engine in which fluid is forced into, and drawn out of,
cylinders by pistons. As shown in Figure 4.19, the engine piston incorporates a rod, connecting it to
the pump piston. Internal check and shuttle valves control the reversals and exhaust the spent power
fluid. Single and double acting pump designs are available.
Wireline retrievable or pump retrievable designs are commonly installed and selection depends on
surface access, the cost and frequency of well entries expected.
They can often be installed into the same tubing nipple profiles as jet pumps. Systems are available
which can segregate power fluid and production fluids, a feature not possible with jet pump system
designs. Since piston pumps can achieve far greater drawdowns, they may be used to replace jet
pumps at a future stage in the well life.
Developments are ongoing to improve reliability, increase solids tolerance and increase production
rates.
4.6.6.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of The HPP

Advantages and disadvantages of the HPP are:
Good volumetric efficiency Mechanical movement, hence wear and tear
No electrical connections Low solids tolerance in power fluid
Wireline retrievable or pump-out design Low solids tolerance in production fluid
Easily adjustable rate Low to medium production rates
Deep, deviated wells (up to 18,000ft)

When selecting HPPs for deep wells (i.e. >10,000ft), an important consideration is power fluid
availability, surface pressure and fluid rate required.
The piston pump is a positive displacement pump for which the net lift (H) or total dynamic head is
constant for a given pump/engine (P/E) diameter ratio. The net lift, maximum rated speed (40 to
120spm) and displacement are obtained from the vendor.
Rates of up to 4,500bpd can be achieved, but more commonly rates up to 2,000bpd are produced.
Pump speed can be adjusted by the rate at which the power fluid is supplied. Stroke length may vary
from 12” to 96”.
Page 32
4.7 Less Common Artificial Lift Methods

This section covers the less commonly used artificial lift methods and combinations of artificial lift
methods. Most of the techniques described have been applied successfully in the field. This sub-
section is intended to illustrate the large range of possibilities and to stimulate a creative approach to
Artificial Lift challenges. The list is by no means exhaustive and there remains scope for further
innovation in this area.
4.7.1 Hydraulic Submersible Centrifugal Pumps

The development of turbine driven Hydraulic Submersible Centrifugal Pumps (HSCPs) began in the
1980s by a pump manufacturer called Weir. To this date, operational history in the oilfield is very
limited, although there is some experience with water production.
Power fluid under pressure is pumped down a well (through the tubing or annulus) and drives a
downhole turbine, which in turn drives a centrifugal pump. Discharged power fluid is normally
mixed with the well stream and is, therefore, produced to surface.
As in jet pumping systems, the power fluid supply is a major part of the system. Cleanliness
specifications are significantly stricter for HSCPs and the power fluid needs to be filtered to achieve
the cleanliness specification level.
Typical rotational speeds are 4,000 to 8,500rpm and production rates from 3,000 to 75,000bpd are
claimed to be achievable at depths ranging from 5,000-15,000ft.
HSCPs have a better temperature tolerance than ESPs and, with approximately 45% efficiency rate,
are higher than that of jet pumps at 25% though below that of ESPs at 65% (exclusive of power line
energy losses).
HSCP flow system design data is available in a number of common modelling programs.
Operational reliability is a major deciding factor.
The pump is expected to cater for high temperatures, high rates and a high GLR when fitted with
special impellers. However, HSCPs are not good at handling solids due to the high rotational speeds
and require clean drive fluid and a filtration unit is a standard item. Since there is no operational
experience available as yet, the anticipated failure rate is uncertain.
Texaco are currently installing a number of pumps in the North Sea (subsea, Captain field, 2001);
specific high GOR units, designed to handle up to 90% free gas at pump suction.
It is possible to operate the pumps with a closed-loop power fluid stream which requires an
additional flow conduit to surface.
Before considering them a serious alternative to ESPs, ESPCPs or jet pumps, operational history
should be first analysed.
4.7.2 Combination Lift methods

A combination of lift methods can be adopted, either, to accommodate changing production
conditions, or to overcome limitations of other artificial lift systems. Combinations in operation are
described in the following sections.
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4.7.2.1 ESP/Auto-Gas Lift For High PI Wells

An extremely successful installation involves installation of an ESP with a gas separator set deep in
the well and producing the liquids through the tubing with the gas up the annulus (ref SPE 64466).
The specific design ensures that the annulus gas flow will ‘auto-gas lift’ a proportion of the
reservoir-fluids up the annulus, effectively having a double flow conduit; one of high GLR and one
of low GLR. Both are then combined at surface into a single production line. This system
significantly improves ESP run life, as well as increasing total production rate.
4.7.2.2 ESP/Gas Lift For Low PI Wells

This alternative utilises the installation of an ESP followed sometime in the future by an ‘auto-gas
lift’ system, i.e. using an ESP to produce the well in the early stages of its life, followed by using
production gas to assist in bringing the fluids to surface once gas break-out is too great for the ESP
to handle. In this scenario a type of ESP bypass system, e.g. Y-tool, is usually required, to ensure the
ESP will not restrict the flow path.
4.7.2.3 PCP, ESP Or Beam Pump With Gas Lift

This is a relatively common mix, where the specific capabilities of the pump, such as high viscosity
handling, high rate or high drawdown capabilities are combined with the hydrostatic head reduction
ability of gas lift to improve the efficiency of the pump. Hydrostatic head can be reduced by up to
40% in this manner, increasing the effectiveness of the pump system. It also provides a back-up for
the main pump system. Note: reducing the head by 40% may deliver around a 5-10% production
rate increase. An important consideration in these system designs is well integrity, which includes
safety valve protection and the depth location of the packer.
4.7.2.4 Jet Pump/Gas Lift

This system also takes advantage of the drawdown and good solids handling characteristics of the
jet pump and adopting gas lift to reduce the hydrostatic head. Furthermore, due to the sensitivity of
jet pump performance to discharge back pressure, the performance of the jet pump is greatly
improved. Since dual hydraulic fluid conduits are required, one for gas and one for liquid, a
concentric installation is typically used with the jet pump installed by coiled tubing intervention
setting it inside the production string. Note: the GLVs must be positioned higher than the jet pump.
4.7.2.5 ESP with Hydraulic ‘Mixer’

This system uses an ESP with downhole separator to create the required bottom hole pressure and
produces liquid into the tubing and gas into the annulus. Above the ESP, a hydraulic ‘mixer’ is
driven by the ESP discharge flow which re-injects the gas into the tubing, thereby reducing the
hydrostatic head of the column and creating one single product stream to surface, (reference
Weatherford).
4.7.2.6 Dual ESPs

Completions with two ESPs installed in parallel, can produce from different zones through separate
concentric conduits. Booster and contingency configurations with two or three ESPs in series in the
same production conduit have also been used (reference Centrilift/Phoenix, 1999).
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4.7.3 Postponed Installation

Often wells are capable of sustaining natural flow early in their life cycle, but at some stage an
artificial lift system may be required to optimise flow. Postponed installation is often an economic
choice as it can easily be achieved with some artificial lift methods and a number of choices are
available which do not require a well re-entry to initiate.
Beam pump completions can be run without the costly surface unit and insert pump, but will require
a limited scope workover when required to be put on stream.
Jet pump landing nipples can be installed in the completion, with the costly power fluid system
postponed. When required, the pump can be pumped into the completion, or alternatively installed
by wireline.
ESPs can be installed in Y-tools (Phoenix, 1999) with automatic flow-through flappers, allowing
the well to produce naturally whenever the ESP is not running, preventing pump spinning and
damage to the pump. Also wireline or coiled tubing access must be available.
4.7.4 Downhole Separation

Separating water downhole and injecting it directly into a disposal zone may improve vertical lift
performance (VLP) to such an extent that artificial lift is not required. Alternatively, if an ESP is
being installed regardless, adding a separator system could help reduce surface constraints. Again
the methods must be approached as a total production system.
A number of such downhole systems are available on the market (e.g. Baker-Hughes: SubSep).
Most involve a vortex separator and an ESP, where one motor can run two pumps, one for injection
and one for production.
Where sand is produced, an alternative option is available whereby solids are separated, and then re-
injected into the oil stream keeping the injection water solids free (C-fer Technologies Inc,
PanCanadian Resources Ltd, 1999).
4.7.5 Pumped Dump Flood

To enable pressurisation of one reservoir with fluid from another reservoir, a downhole pump can
be used to pump fluid directly from the producing zone into the other without bringing it to surface
as with conventional methods. Depending on the position of the zones relative to each other, either
normal or inverted ESP can be used. Some method of downhole pressure surface read-out is usually
employed to prevent reservoir damage if injectivity pressure suddenly changes.
4.7.6 Surface Boosting

An alternative to boosting production is by increasing energy downhole. It is sometimes possible to
increase production by reducing top hole surface flowing pressure by using a surface pumping
system to reduce the manifold pressure and subsequently boosting it to the required level again. The
pump most likely will require to handle multi-phase flow at surface, an option which can do this is a
‘Wellcom’ system shown in Figure 4.20.
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Figure 4.20 – Surface Boosting Well Combination System
This system uses jet pumping technology for surface boosting. How a working system is set up
depends on the type of power fluid available. Clearly this technology is particularly useful if a
source of high pressure gas and/or high pressure well fluids are available to drive the pump (or
pumps). Jet pumps can drive multi-phase streams with drive-liquid, as well as gas streams with
drive-gas.
The set up can incorporate an inline separator followed by a parallel system of a water driven liquid
jet pump and a gas driven gas jet-pump, or as shown in the diagram a single booster jet pump. Note:
the additional energy required may be available from another producing well, or from a high
pressure liquid or gas source.
With an external power source available and with sufficiently low GLRs, horizontal ESPs and
ESPCP also offer surface boosting solutions. A number of vendors supply these surface installations
as standard units.
Alternative methods of multi-phase pumping may also be considered.
4.7.7 Using Another Reservoir As A Power Source

Occasionally it is possible to use other producing zones, wells or even flowline systems to supply
the required power fluid to hydraulic pumps or gas lift systems.
Creating a limited number of perforations in an overlying or underlying reservoir may help to ‘gas
lift’ another producing reservoir.
Higher pressure producing wells nearby can sometimes be tied in directly to the gas lift system of
another well or a higher pressure liquid producer can provide energy for a hydraulic lift system or a
surface boosting system.
Page 36
4.7.8 Pig Lift

In order to overcome deviation and flow-rate limitations of plunger lift, a lift method utilising two
tubing strings connected with a U-shaped junction at the bottom of the well has been successfully
installed in a number of wells (ref SPE 36598).
The system incorporates a standing valve at the bottom of the tubing to enable the strings to fill up
for a predetermined time with reservoir fluids. Then a foam pig is launched, pressured by a surface
gas system, and ‘circulates’ around the loop carrying the accumulated liquid slug before back up the
well to surface. A surface valve system reverses the pig flow direction for the next pig run.
Wells have been completed with this method since 1993 and are in production both onshore as well
as offshore.
4.8 Pumping Power Transmission

The three main methods of transmitting the required power from surface to the downhole pumping
device are described in this section.
4.8.1.1 Mechanical Drive With Rods To Surface

A motor at surface, either; diesel, gas or electric driven, transmits mechanical energy downhole
through reciprocating rods (e.g. beam pumps) or by rotating rods (e.g. PCPs). For centrifugal
pumps, due to the high rotational velocities required, friction in the tubing prevents mechanical
drivers working efficiently. Wear between the drive rods and tubing increases in deviated wells,
although solutions are available in the use of rollers and stand-offs.
Maximum depth accessible is approximately 16,000ft with reciprocating rods and 6,000ft with
rotating rods and, often significantly, less in deviated wells. The strength of reciprocating rods is a
limiting factor, since the rod weight, as well as the achieved drawdown, must be carried by the rod
string. A longer rod string will also require a lower frequency.
Reciprocating surface units are typically conventional ‘nodding donkey’ type beam pumps or gas
sprung units, have low maintenance requirements are highly flexible in frequency and scope.
Rotating surface units tend to be direct or belt driven through electrical or hydraulic motors.
4.8.1.2 Electric Drive

Electrical cable delivers high power downhole and also enables data signals to be transmitted
through the power lines, (refer to Figure 4.21). Weaknesses of the system centre on damage to the
cable while running in the hole, cable connections and wellhead cable feed-through failures.
Corrosion of the cable is also a problem which must be countered. Occasionally stray current or
induced eddy-current corrosion around electrical motors can cause extensive external casing
damage, but a casing cathodic protection system will generally help prevent this occurring.
Page 37
Figure 4.21 – Examples Of Round And Flat Cable
Typically the cable is installed by being clamped to the outside of the tubing. Recently, coiled
tubing with the electrical cable within the coil has become available for, both, temporary and
permanent installations.
Common applications of electrical power transmission are Electrical Submersible Pumps and
Electrical Submersible, where downhole electric motors drive centrifugal or screw pumps. Electric
sub-surface piston pumps are not available.
4.8.1.3 Hydraulic Drive

Generally hydraulic drive fluid is pumped down the tubing, with production of the commingled
produced and power fluids up the tubing-to-casing annulus, or vice versa. Where this is not feasible
because of corrosion potential, or for safety reasons, or the necessity to be able to segregate drive
and produced fluids, a multi-conduit completion may be used (concentric or parallel).
Seawater, produced water or produced crude are generally used as power fluid. Jet pumps, piston
pumps and turbine-driven centrifugal pumps are candidates for this type of drive method. Of these
jet pumps are least sensitive to solids and contamination of the drive fluid.
Since the hydraulic transmission is relatively insensitive to temperature, depth, deviation or severe
operating environments, it has obvious attractions. Chemicals such as scale inhibitors, friction
reducers or demulsifiers can also be added to the power fluid. The major drawbacks are the need for
at least two reasonably large conduits to minimise friction losses, a clean and solids free power
fluid, and the capital and running costs for high pressure pump units. Sufficient spare capacity in the
surface facilities must be available to handle the additional fluid.
Page 38
4.9 Factors Affecting AL Method Selection/Performance

Due to the many possible combinations of well parameters, countless factors will affect AL
selection and performance. This section compares and addresses the technical limits of the various
lift systems, followed by a description of a number of the most common and important issues
involved, and offers some general guidance to potential solutions. The solutions are by no means
exhaustive and are intended merely to assist the required design process.
4.9.1 Factors Influencing AF Method Selection

In most applications a number of lift methods may be employed; however, trade-offs are often
necessary, i.e. production potential must be considered together with capital, operating and
maintenance costs.
In many field developments, different methods may be optimal for different groups of wells, and at
different times in the life of the field. It is often prudent to design the completion with contingency
in mind such that the primary artificial lift method can be replaced by a second competitive method,
to cater for changing well conditions and premature failure. In some cases the optimum solution
may be a combination of lift methods.
The key factors which determine the optimal solution include:
 Existing well architecture (e.g. well equipment and trajectories)
 Expected flow rates, at start-up and later in field life.
 Expected BHP, at start-up and later in field life.
 Required surface pressures, now and in field maturity.
 Maximum temperatures and pressures pressure already covered above expected.
 Total additional energy required.
 Produced fluid composition and variation over time.
 Well integrity concerns.
 Downhole data gathering requirements and options.
 Downhole free gas volumes.
 Solids production (from the formation or from induced propped fractures).
 Production chemistry issues (viscosity, scale, wax, asphaltenes, emulsions).
 Wellbore geometry (diameter, length, well path trajectories mentioned already in first
bullet point).
 Well location (land/platform/remote/subsea).
 Surface facilities specifications (availability of power or drive fluid, intake tolerances
for fluids, solids and pressure, safety considerations).
 Well intervention, requirements, options and associated costings.
 Other economic issues (postponing investment and retro-fitting, cost/risk of failure)
 Well completion life cycle issues.
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4.9.2 Technical Limits

The relative performance or operating envelopes of competitive artificial lift methods is illustrated
in Figure 4.22 with natural flow included for benchmarking. The operating envelopes of each
system lie below and to the left of the respective curves. Taking any particular lift system, constant
power, corresponding to the maximum practical value, is assumed at all flowrates. For example, for
ESPs the current maximum power is circa 1000HP for pumps which can be accommodated within
7” casing. Depending on well characteristics this power can be consumed in large flowrate-small
head applications or conversely in small flowrate-large head applications.
Relative Performance of Competing Artificial Lift Methods
Electric Submeresible Pump

Gaslift
Jetpump
DRAWDOWN
Progressive Cavity Pump

Rod Pump
NATURAL FLOW
FLOWRATE
Figure 4.22 – Performance Of AF Methods
System operation is within the ranges to the left of the curve but will require a smaller power
demand. Whilst the operating envelopes are qualitative, the relative positions are realistic.
Examination of Figure 4.22 brings into focus a number of popular misconceptions, for example, jet
pumps, often considered to be low production rate systems, can actually achieve high rates albeit
with low heads. Figure 4.22 also conveys an important message that is: that popular misconceptions
abound, therefore, maintain an open mind and consider all the options.
A practical method of comparing the performance of competitive artificial lift systems is to plot the
respective operating envelopes on the familiar FBHP versus Qgross diagram. With respect to Figure
4.23, operating envelopes for natural flow, gas lift, jet pump and ESP lifted flow are presented for
a specific well. The IPR is also superimposed; this enables direct comparison of the performance of
the competing lift methods. It is also beneficial to include any field operating data since this will
give an indication of individual well potential under various lift methods. The field example
included in Figure 4.23, illustrates a naturally flowing well operating at 4,500stb/d. Artificial lift
will improve off-take to a maximum of 7,800stb/d under ESP lift.
Page 40
Field Example - Well Performance Technical Limits

8000
IPR
ESP
Natural Flow
6000 Gaslift
Field Data
FBHP(psia)
Jetpump
4000
2000
0
0 5000 10000 15000
Qgross(stb/d)
Figure 4.23 – Well Performance Technical Limits
4.9.3 System Approach To Artificial Lift Selection

Artificial lift is integral to the life cycle flow assurance process. As part of the total production
system, an AL study cannot be de-coupled from the performance and specifics of other well
equipment, flowlines or the near wellbore. However, an awareness and understanding of the options
available for AL will help the production engineer understand which of the interfaces are critical.
The procedure for selecting an AL system consists of a first pass screening exercise, allowing
methods to be selected for further analysis, followed by a full production system analysis, including
economic considerations. An NPV versus Risk trade-off will determine the most suitable approach.
Prior to finalisation, the latest long-term field development plans must be considered to ensure
future opportunities can be optimally accommodated.
Figure 4.24 lists various components of an artificial lift system and issues to be considered,
recognising the impact each system has on the others in making a final selection.
Page 41
Well Equipment (downstream) Surface System

temperature constraints pressure demands (changing over time)
flow constraints min/max rates acceptable (changing over time)
erosion resistance energy supply type (changing over time)
corrosion resistance energy supply amount (changing over time)
well integrity aspects cost of modifications
pressure limitations
Artificial Lift System

fluid type dependence
intake pressure dependence
outlet pressure dependence
contaminant dependence
rate dependence
data requirements to optimise
energy available
Well Equipment (upstream) Reservoir

temperature constraints fluid types (changing over time)
flow constraints pressures (changing over time)
erosion resistance offtake demands (changing over time)
corrosion resistance contaminations (changing over time)
well integrity aspects data requirements (changing over time)
pressure limitations
Figure 4.24 – Issues Impacting Components Of Artificial Lift Production Systems
4.9.4 Free Gas

The various systems have different sensitivities to free gas and a variety of gas handling equipment
can be installed at an early stage, if required.
Downhole flowrates can greatly exceed surface liquid rates principally due to free gas effects.
Liquid shrinkage effects are generally of secondary importance. As an illustration of this, Figure
4.25 illustrates the free gas liquid ratio (V/L) expressed as in situ volumes (bbl/bbl). A Vogel IPR
is also superimposed on this graph.
As an example, a saturated reservoir is considered with the following properties:
Pres= 1,140psia
Pb= 1,140psia
WC= 0%
GOR= 175scf/stb
At zero flowrate V/L = 0 since the reservoir is saturated. As the well pressure is reduced the
flowrate increases. Note: however that V/L increases rapidly as the pressure decreases. V/L ratios of
circa 10 are not uncommon in artificial lift situations. This implies that to achieve a surface liquid
rate of 1,000stb/d the pumping device must process a total fluid rate of 11,000b/d; that is 10,000b/d
of free gas and 1,000b/d of liquid.
Page 42
V/L(bbl/bbl)
2 4 6 8 10
1500
1000
P(psia)
500
0
0 5000 10000 15000
Qo(stb/d)
Figure 4.25 – Example Free Gas/Liquid Ratio
All pumping methods have, to a greater or lesser extent, a limited ability to handle free gas. The
reasons for this are twofold. Firstly, most pumps have a well defined ceiling rate which is
determined by the pump geometry (diameter, etc), this is limited by the casing size. Secondly, pump
performance decreases as the free gas content increases. The effect is most noticeable in centrifugal
pumps where efficiency decreases to a point where pumping totally ceases because of gas locking.
A good handle on free gas production throughout field life is essential.
In most situations it is necessary to separate and remove the gas prior to pumping. Any gas
separated can be recombined into the production stream by some method, or possibly even used to
enhance production of the well or a neighbouring well, (e.g. annular auto-gas lift described in
section 4.7.2.1). In example Figure 4.25, the majority of the free gas is separated from the gassy
reservoir fluid and is produced by a dedicated tubing string. The degassed fluid is then pumped to
surface via a second conduit, normally the casing tubing annulus.
Page 43
Motor
gas
Liquid+
Seal
Intake
RGS D is c harge
Pump
Gas
Liquid
Fluid level
Figure 4.26 – Free Gas Flow Up The Annulus
Page 44
4.10 Well Design Impact

The existing boundary conditions of well design such as ID restrictions, kick-off points, deviation,
maximum wireline-access-depth, and maximum doglegs are very important factors. Casing and
tubing connections and pressure ratings will determine whether hydraulic lift or gas lift is possible,
and, if so, which circulation direction will be selected. Packer setting depth will determine the
maximum lifting depth for most hydraulic lift systems.
However, rather than assuming that a design is fixed, options to overcome the restrictions should be
examined. For example, the choice of the design of a multi-lateral (short radius versus long radius)
may impact on the methods of AL applicable and possibly on pump setting depths. Even if the
producing target zone is the same in either option, the production opportunities may be vastly
different, as seen by the following examples:
It may not be possible or at least highly risky to deploy an ESP below a specific angle of dogleg.
Very long pumps (e.g. with a large number of stages) particularly have this problem, especially in
slim hole applications.
The maximum dogleg for the section where an ESP or HSCP is positioned during operation has
limits. An ESPC is more flexible, but the gearbox alignment is critical.
Horizontal ESPs may suffer from solids build up around the pump intake, in which case lower
angled installation, or alternatively pump stand-off would need to be ensured.
Surface drive pumps create casing wear at dogleg areas.
Because of the diversity in multi-lateral configurations, apart from the geometrical issues, minimum
diameters and orienting keys can interfere with deployment.
Packer depth is determined from the completion design, particularly in multi-lateral designs, which
limits the maximum setting depth for hydraulic pumps and gas lift valves, hence affecting pump
system efficiency.
Merely moving casing shoes down, reducing maximum doglegs, or incorporating a short straight
‘tangent’ section for ESP positioning could derive significant future benefits.
Wellhead selection will also have a great impact and in the design stage it must be taken into
account for future options in power cable feeds, maximum pressure or temperature ratings, or
hydraulic control lines.
4.10.1 Expected Flow Rates

Liquid and gas flow rates need to be considered for both initial production and in the longer term
when depletion occurs. Changes in natural drive flow rate over field life will occur, for example,
through water break-through which will cause a decrease in vertical lift performance.
Accommodating the extra range in an AL system, for example by designing an ESP to have a
production range pre and post breakthrough potential, or planning a power supply and controller
that accommodates a incremental pump size may be more economic in the longer term. Designing a
well initially for casing size which can accommodate a larger pump and motor could make a major
difference for future workover.
Gas breakthrough may improve vertical lift performance, but will also change liquid PI. A fixed
volume pump system (such as an ESPCP) should function with a higher GLR for a longer time and
the option to increase pump speed when the tubing flow characteristics improve may be taken into
account in the design stage.
Page 45
4.10.2 Expected BHP

A reduction in bottom hole pressure later in field life might result in a different method of AL for
optimisation, therefore selecting a flexible system which can be reconfigured to achieve greater final
drawdown may be prudent. For example, a jet pump system can have the pump replaced with a
hydraulic piston pump.
Scale, wax or asphaltenes may be a problem following a pressure or temperature drop which could
affect well inflow performance and possibly damage the pump. Alternatively, the AL system itself
may draw down the well further than was planned, causing drop out of contaminants which would
also effect the well inflow performance. If prevention squeezes are expected to be carried out later
in field life, a lift system through which inhibitor can be pumped from surface should be selected.
4.10.3 Produced Fluid Composition

Water break-through over time will affect the fluid composition reducing the GLR and vertical lift
performance. Consideration to designing a contingency to cater for this increased head should be
made.
Emulsions may also be formed, either in the wellbore or by the AL system due to turbulence and
agitation. Consideration in selecting a type of low shear production system or a viscosity tolerant
system should be given, or alternatively the installation a demulsifier injection line.
4.10.4 Solids Production

Water breakthrough, or reservoir pressure drop, may instigate fines movement and solids
production. This requires a solids tolerant or resistant AL system to be used preventing the potential
of solids fallback when the well is shut in. Solids fallback from stationary produced fluids is capable
of blocking many types of different pumps and valves.
Also propped fractures will back produce proppant during the initial production phase continuing
over a period of time. In this case, the AL system must, either, be installed after the well has cleaned
up, or it is capable of handling intermittent proppant production. The installation of other safeguards
such as screens or filters may be a possible solution.
Setting a pump in a near horizontal section may cause the piling up of produced solids so a washing
system, or ensuring pump stand off, is recommended. Solids fall back in vertical sections may also
plug ESPs, flapper valves, beam pumps and most other mechanical well equipment which can be
cured by using specially designed check-valves.
4.10.5 Required Surface Pressures

A system must be designed to cater for initial facilities header pressures, but should also ensure it
meets with potential increasing header pressure over time, as field throughput and/or water-cut
increases, or when gas-breakout occurs.
An intermittent producer tied in to a common manifold may create fluctuating back pressures
(affecting jet pump efficiency or gas lift system to de-stabilise). Gas lift valve selection or,
alternatively, a control system can be designed to cope with and potentially benefit from decreased
back pressure, allowing for greater throughput. It must be ensured the total energy required to make
use of this is available for the selected system.
Page 46
4.10.6 Maximum Temperatures And Pressures

Increasing the liquid flow rate may increase the surface temperature which may on impact wellhead
or flowline selection and also prohibit the use of temperature restricted AL options. Increased
temperature may also impact on the bubble point pressure and GLR causing cavitation in jet pumps.
4.10.7 Well Integrity And Safety Issues

A requirement for the use of tubing and annular safety valves will severely impact on AL selection
and implementation. Though solutions can usually be found for each AF system, they could have
such high cost or operability implications that an alternative AL method may become preferred.
The surface closed-in pressures of AL pumps must be taken into consideration for the maximum
design pressure of the wellhead and completion components. Where this is not possible such as
retro-fitting an AL system in an existing well, failsafe electrical shut-offs or pressure trips on
hydraulic feeds will be required tied into the facilities ESD system.
Where remote shut down is required, some systems will cause instability when shut down such as
gas lift, for example, which will have high pressure gas in the drive conduit and segregation of gas
and liquids in the production section will increase surface pressure over time.
Annuli filled with high pressure gas has an impact on the safety of the installation and associated
control systems. This has been considered many times by BP in the past and the results of a review
of the choices made by BP with respect to ASV installations was conducted in 2001.
If water break-through occurs, this may seriously aggravate tubing corrosion at a time when
hydraulic or gas lift drive pressures may be increasing. The capabilities of the completion to cope
with this through design and conducting wall thickness checks must be assured or an inhibition
programme adopted.
ESPs are capable of causing electrically induced external casing galvanic corrosion, therefore, they
must be positioned at a spot where a leak would not have catostrophic effects (e.g. at a high pressure
gas zone or connection to artesian zones). If this cannot be avoided, ensure safeguards are in place
in the form of monitoring, a tested and proven cement bond is in place, or an effective cathodic
protection system is used.
4.10.8 Data Gathering Requirements/Options

Though all artificial lift systems need some type of monitoring system to achieve efficient
production it is more critical in some AL systems. For example, field wide gas lift requires semi-
continuous monitoring and control to optimise overall performance, production gains of up to 10%
or more (although typically on the order of 3-5%) can be achieved if computer aided gas lift
optimisation packages are used. ESPs require continuous monitoring systems to ensure that:
maximum lifespan is obtained, to detect potential problems at an early stage and to analyse failures.
Beam pump performance and wear should be analysed regularly via the load-displacement plot.
Other data which may be advantageous, and for which measuring equipment is readily available,
include: tubing head pressures, bottom hole pressures, temperatures (tubing head, motor), flow rates
(gas, liquid; production as well as lift gas or drive fluid), production water-cut (e.g. for hydraulic
pump analysis), vibration (e.g. ESP/ESPCP monitoring), solids (e.g. start-up slugs in ESPs, or jet-
pump drive fluid), GLR, load-displacement measurement (beam pumps), current draw and voltage.
In addition to maintaining the AL system, there may be additional data required, or of benefit for,
reservoir analysis, off-take optimisation or life cycle planning. It should be ensured the system is
designed for the benefit of all parties of the asset team (e.g. operations, subsurface, PEs, etc).
Page 47
An AL system may be selected on the basis that it is easily interfaced with a data gathering or
control system. Alternatively, an AL system may be selected because it requires very little data for
optimisation or maintenance, if it is difficult to interface with the data gathering/control system.
An essential issue to consider is data storage and access. The wealth of data needs to be readily
available so it can be analysed and put to maximum use for optimisation and historical recording of
AL performance.
4.10.9 Production Chemistry

Production chemistry issues are dealt with in detail in section 5 of the Completion Design Manual.
Some of the specific concerns for AL systems are briefly addressed here.
Hydraulic drive fluid such as seawater, injected in great volumes down the well, may cause scale
formation in the production tubing or surface facilities. A monitoring system must be initiated and
precautions (e.g. in the form of chemical inhibition) taken.
The temperature drop caused by cold high volume water injection may cause wax or asphaltene
formation. Consideration should be given to commingling the injection fluid with inhibitor, or
recycling produced water as a solution. Ensure however, that the solution of one problem does not
create another, for example, if the surface separation facilities become less efficient by this change.
Scale tends to drop out of solution on ESP impellers and can be prevented by increasing the
pressure by setting the pump deeper. Alternatively a special coating is available to help prevent the
deposition.
Gas lift may create a temperature drop at the injection point sufficiently high enough to form scale.
A tubing coating or adopting a plunger lift system may prevent this.
Hydrate formation (e.g. in permafrost conditions) can be prevented by the installation of a heated
ESP cable.
4.10.10 Wellbore Geometry

Doglegs can determine whether or not a long pump assembly can be installed without damage.
Before the trajectory is finalised, ensure the required well-path is compatible with the selected lift
system (e.g. approx. 3deg/100ft for ESPs and a ‘straight’ landing section). Vendor software is
available to determine maximum doglegs depending on pump and tubing/casing size.
Maximum depth of wireline entry (determined by tubing smoothness, coatings, total depth and
deviation) will determine the deepest obtainable wireline deployable depth. Consider selecting a
pump out type hydraulic system if a wireline deployed system will be unreliable.
A horizontal section will enhance downhole separation which could improve some AL systems
efficiencies and impair others, for example, gas slugs can severely damage downhole pumps.
Investigate whether this feature can be put to advantage.
Solids settling and fall-back can damage or block pumps, flapper valves, and most other mechanical
well equipment. Wellbore geometry will determine where the solids will build up on well shut-in
and may determine placement of the AL equipment.
Insufficient post-drilling hole clean up may damage an ESP on start-up. Consider the possibility of
installing a temporary suitable alternative system to clean out the well.
Page 48
4.10.11 Well Location

Remote locations may have enormous penalties through cost of utilities or by poor reliability
resulting in workover costs. Remote locations may place a premium on automated and reliable data
gathering, or data-transmission methods.
The location will determine the choice of power supply as ESPs currently have a maximum subsea
step-out of 15 miles and could also require a back-up AL system to be installed from the start.
High power electrical power supply via rotating turret moorings (e.g. FPSO) has as yet to date not
been successful.
Inhabited locations place a premium on low-profile and low-noise units.
Platform locations put a premium on low-weight surface units. They may also have access to high
pressure gas or fluids, as a source of AL drive energy.
4.10.12 Surface Facilities Specifications

The amount of power available, as well as the form (electrical, pressured gas) is an essential starting
point for system selection. It must also be ensured that the AL system can be started up under any
circumstances arising, e.g. ensure sufficient start-up gas is available for gas lifting of the first well
(gas is then available from this well for subsequent wells).
Ensure that separator capacity is sufficient enough for current and in future to handle the additional
drive fluid or gas.
As some AL systems, such as intermittent gas lift, may cause slugging in surface facilities and
precautions should be taken so that this does not affect the operation of the facilities.
Even though an AL system can handle a well’s produced solids and produce them to surface, the
surface facilities may not be able to deal with solids. Increasing production rates may require
downhole solids handling also, although a surface system would be easier or cheaper to construct
and maintain.
Generally gas lift kick-off pressures are the maximum pressures the surface system will encounter
but there is always the option to conduct the initial kick off of a well with a temporary unit such as a
well test unit. Most wells rarely need kicking off ‘from scratch’ with liquid filled tubing.
4.10.13 Workovers/Well Interventions

Ensure that the cost for workovers or well interventions, the expected frequency, as well as the
down time is predicted and analysed. In some circumstances lost production through waiting time
can have much greater economical impact than the actual workover operation.
For example, if a whole field has standard sucker rod strings and economics demand a change over
to continuous rods, ensure the services are available when required. Always have contingency
measures in place even for the smallest of equipment shortages. Example, if ESPs have been
selected on the basis of life expectancy and are deployed by coiled tubing, ensure a contract for
coiled tubing services is in place and that a unit of the right capacity is to be available when
required.
Page 49
4.10.14 Other Economic Issues

By initially installing a gas lift completion for anticipated future use, but postponing installation of
the compression facilities, a significant financial benefit may be derived. On the other hand,
advancing the starting time of an artificial lift system should also be investigated since it could even
make early installation of a working system viable.
Often the considerations during the design phase are different from those in the operating phase and
contingencies may have been omitted. Retrofitting gas lift without pulling completion tubing is
possible, although the restriction due to valve sizes may reduce the maximum achievable rates and
servicing much more complex as removing lower valves involves pulling all higher valves.
However, this may be more economic than waiting on equipment to install a full conventional gas
lift system.
4.11 Artificial Lift QA and Performance Analysis

A monitoring system is essential for any artificial lift installation. Data requirements, quality checks,
data storage and performance analysis need to be fully taken into account in the planning and design
stage in order to make AL successful.
Computerised monitoring and optimisation systems on a field wide scale may deliver over 10%
increased production, or similar range cost reduction, e.g. BP Magnus field, where production was
increased by 6,000stb/d from 40,000stb/d, a 15% increase, although the typical production
improvement is normally in the order of 3-5%. This is common where a limited resource (e.g.
electricity, lift gas, compression, separation) is responsible for production rates of a number of wells
on a diminishing returns basis.
In order to successfully implement such an optimisation system, data gathering and data quality
control are essential prerequisites.
Effective data gathering is also required to eliminate premature failures of equipment which is
either: costly, or costly to repair or replace. ESPs typically are sensitive to incorrect start-ups, long
term overloads, vibration, production rates outside the design range, stalling, or overload, therefore
automated responses to these failure modes may increase the working life of an ESP many times
over.
4.12 Software
Software tools are available for every stage in the planning, design and operation stages of an
artificial lift system; from highly specific design tools for specific equipment, to fully integrated
nodal analysis reservoir-to-well-to-facilities performance packages.
Due to the iterative processes involved in most artificial lift design exercises, it is worth considering
design packages at an early stage in the process. The most commonly used software packages are
listed overleaf in Table 4.1.
Page 50
Problem to be Analysed Packages Commonly BP Contacts Other Packages

Used by BP Available
Single well flow Prosper (Petroleum Integrated Asset WellFlo (EPS)
performance Experts), ProdOp (BP Modelling (IAM
software) Team)
Field system nodal GAP (Petroleum IAM Team FieldFlo (EPS)
analysis Experts), PipeSim
(SLB-Baker Jardine)
Production optimisation GAP (Petroleum IAM Team FieldFlo (EPS)
(natural flow, ESP, gas Experts), PipeSim Net
lift) (SLB-Baker Jardine)
Gas lift design Prosper, GLAD (BP Henry Nickens, WellFlo (EPS)
software), vendor Tony Liao,
software.
Dogleg severity Vendor software (Reda,
calculations Centrilift)
ESP design Prosper Henry Nickens, FieldFlo (EPS)
Tony Liao
ESP monitoring
Jet pump design Vendor software Henry Nickens, HeliJet (Helix W. T.),
(Weatherford) Tony Liao SubPUMP (IHS)
Data analysis and storage
Gassy ESP design Vendor software (Reda, Henry Nickens, HeliGESP (Helix
Centrilift, Weatherford) Tony Liao W.T.)
Pumped dump flood HeliDump (Helix
W.T.)
Weir pump Prosper (Petroleum IAM Team
Experts)
Beam pump Beampump (BP from Henry Nickens,
ARCO), BLAP (BP Tony Liao
from Amoco)
Plunger Plunger (BP software) Henry Nickens,
Tony Liao
Table 4.1 – Commonly Used AL Software Packages
Page 51

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Artificial Lift Methods

DSc Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)

ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS

4 ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS 1

4.6.6 Hydraulic Piston Pumps 31

4 ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS

4.3 Artificial Lift Applications

This is usually due to:

Other, less common, applications for artificial lift systems include:

4.4 Generic Classification Of Artificial Lift Methods

AF methods which use physical property modification include:

Pumping methods include:

4.5 Fluid Column Properties Modification

4.5.1 Optimised Natural Flow

4.5.2 Gas Lift

A gas lift system requires the following components:

GLVs are classified as:

Figure 4.2 – Typical Gas Lift Operating Valves

4.5.2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Gas Lift

4.5.2.3 Gas Lift Completion Options

4.5.2.4 Gas Lift Design Criteria

Figure 4.3 – Example Gas Lift Design

To evaluate the performance of a gas lifted well:

Note: Calibration of GLVs is very temperature sensitive; therefore, ensure good

4.5.3 Plunger Lift

4.5.3.1 Method, Principles And Components

Figure 4.5 – Plunger Lift System

4.5.3.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Pluger Lift

4.5.3.3 Sizing/Design Criteria

4.5.4 Injection Of Fluid Flow Modifiers

4.5.4.1 Method, Principles And Components

4.5.4.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Flow Modifiers

4.5.4.3 Design Criteria

4.6 Common Types Of Pump Systems

4.6.1 Beam Pumps

4.6.1.1 Method, Principles and Components

Figure 4.6 – Typical Bean Pumping System

Figure 4.7 – Examples Of Tubing And Rod Installed Pumps

4.6.1.2 Advanatges/Disadvantages Of Beam Pumps

4.6.1.3 Completion Variants

4.6.1.4 Recent Advances/Best Practices

4.6.1.5 Sizing/Design Criteria

Idealised Actual (Typical)

Figure 4.8 – Rod Loads During A Pumping Cycle

4.6.2 Rod Progressing Cavity Pumps

Figure 4.9 – Progressive Cavity Pump

4.6.2.1 Method, Principles and Components

4.6.2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of PCPs

Figure 4.10 – Rod Driven PCP

4.6.2.3 Completion Variants

4.6.2.4 Recent Advances/Best Practices

4.6.2.5 Sizing/Design Criteria

4.6.3 Electrical Submersible Pumps

4.6.3.1 Method, Principles And Components

Figure 4.12 – Typical ESP System

4.6.3.2 Advantages And Disadvantages Of ESPs

4.6.3.3 Completion Variants