BIOLS372

Endocrinology
Done by: Yousif Adel
 Endocrine glands
-Gland: an organ which produces & releases substances that perform a
specific function in the body
-There are 2 types of glands: exocrine & endocrine
Exocrine gland Endocrine gland
A gland that makes substances An organ that makes hormones
and releases them through a duct that are released directly into the
or opening to a body surface blood and travel to tissues and
organs all over the body
Examples: Examples:
1.Sweat glands 1.Pituitary gland
2.Lacrimal glands 2.Thyroid gland
3.Salivary glands 3.Adrenal gland

Help control many body

functions, including growth
and development, metabolism and
fertility

-The endocrine glands secrete their products (hormones) into the blood
-The blood carries the hormones to target cells that contain specific
receptor proteins for the hormones, and which therefore can respond in a
specific fashion to them
-Neurohormones are secreted by specialized cells of the hypothalamus
-Hormones help regulate body metabolism, growth and reproduction

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 Major endocrine glands

Chemical classification of hormones

1.Amines: derived from tyrosine and tryptophan
a.Examples: hormones from the adrenal medulla, thyroid and
pineal glands
2.Polypeptides and proteins
a.Examples: antidiuretic hormone, insulin and growth hormone
3.Glycoproteins: long polypeptides bound to a carbohydrate
a.Examples: follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones
4.Steroids: lipids derived from cholesterol
a.Examples: testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, cortisol
b.Secreted by adrenal cortex and gonads

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 Hormone classifications by action
Polar hormones: water soluble Nonpolar (lipophilic hormones):
insoluble in water

Cannot pass through plasma Can enter target cells directly

membranes
Must be injected if used as a drug Can be taken orally in pill form

Includes polypeptides, Include steroids, thyroid hormone

glycoproteins, catecholamines, and melatonin
norepinephrine and epinephrine

Prohormones & prehormones

Prohormones Prehormones
Inactive hormones that must be Inactive prohormones that must be
cut & spliced together to be active modified within their target cells

Example:
-Proinsulin is changed to insulin
Example:
-Thyroxine (T4), must be changed
into T3 within the target cells in
order to affect the metabolism of
these cells
-Vitamin D3 secreted by the skin
must be converted into 1,25
dihydroxyvitamin D3 to be active
in its target cells

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 Common aspects of neural & endocrine regulation
-Hormones and neurotransmitters both interact with specific receptors
-Binding to a receptor causes a change within the cell
-There are mechanisms to turn off target cell activity; the signal is either
removed or inactivated
-Neurotransmitters and hormones have many similarities
-Some hormones can also be neurotransmitters in the CNS

Hormone interactions
1.A target cell is usually responsive to several different hormones
a.Hormones may be antagonistic, synergistic or permissive
 What determines the cell response?
 Depends on the amount of hormone and the combination of
all hormones

Synergistic effects
-Occur when 2 or more hormones work together to produce a particular
effect (additive or complementary)
-Additive effect example: the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine
on the heart
-Each of these hormones separately produces an increase in cardiac rate
-acting together in the same concentrations, they stimulate an even
greater increase in cardiac rate
-The ability of the mammary glands to produce and secrete milk (in

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lactation) requires the synergistic action of many hormones (estrogen,
cortisol, prolactin and oxytocin), which have complementary actions
-Each of these hormones promotes a different aspect of mammary gland
function, so that their cooperative effects are required for lactation

Permissive effects
-Occur when one hormone makes the target cell more responsive to a
second hormone
-exposure of the uterus to estrogen, induces the formation of receptor
proteins for progesterone, which improves the response of the uterus
-Estrogen thus has a permissive effect on the responsiveness of the
uterus to progesterone
-Increased secretion of Parathyroid hormone (PTH) makes the intestines
more responsive to Vit D3 in calcium absorption

Antagonistic effects
-Occur when hormones work in opposite directions
-Insulin and glucagon both affect adipose tissue
1.Insulin stimulates fat storage
2.Glucagon stimulates fat breakdown

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 II.Mechanisms of hormone action
 What determines the mechanisms by which hormones act on their
target cells?
 The chemical nature of the hormones
Nonpolar hormones can easily Polar hormones bind to receptors
pass through plasma membranes on the plasma membrane
and so bind to receptor proteins
within their target cells

These are nuclear receptors, which These hormones then exert their
work by regulating gene effects through second-messenger
expression systems

Hormones that bind to nuclear receptor proteins

-Unlike the water-soluble hormones, the lipophilic steroid and thyroid
hormones do not travel dissolved in the aqueous portion of the plasma;
rather, they are transported to their target cells attached to plasma
carrier proteins
-These hormones must then dissociate from their carrier proteins in the
blood in order to pass through the lipid component of the plasma
membrane and enter the target cell, within which their receptor proteins
are located

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1.Steroid hormones, transported bound to plasma carrier proteins,
dissociate from their plasma carriers and pass through the plasma
membrane of their target cell
2.The steroid hormone binds to receptors, which may be in the
cytoplasm
3.The hormone-bound receptor translocates to the nucleus, where it
binds to DNA
4.This stimulates genetic transcription, resulting in new mRNA
synthesis
5.The newly formed mRNA codes for the production of new proteins
6.Which produce the hormonal effects in the target cell

Hormones that use second messengers

-Hormones that are catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine),
polypeptides and glycoproteins cannot pass through the lipid barrier of
the target cell’s plasma membrane
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-Most of their effects result from their binding to receptor proteins on
the outer surface of the target cell membrane
 Why the actions of these hormones must be mediated by other
molecules within the target cells?
 Because they exert their effects without entering the target cells
-If you think of hormones as “messengers” from the endocrine glands,
the intracellular mediators of the hormone’s action can be called second
messengers

Pituitary gland
-The pituitary gland includes the anterior pituitary & posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary the anterior pituitary
Stores and releases hormones that Produces and secretes its own
are actually produced by the hormones
hypothalamus

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 Pituitary hormones
-Secreted by the anterior lobe
1.Growth hormone (GH): GH promotes the movement of amino acids
into cells and the incorporation of these amino acids into proteins, thus
promoting overall tissue and organ growth
-Some of growth hormone’s actions, including growth of cartilage and
bones and protein synthesis in muscles
2.Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH stimulates the thyroid
gland to produce and secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
3.Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the
adrenal cortex to secrete the glucocorticoids, such as cortisol (hydrocortisone)
4.Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates the growth of
ovarian follicles in females and the production of sperm cells in the
testes of males
5.Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH & FSH are collectively called
gonadotropic hormones
In females In males
LH stimulates ovulation -LH is sometimes called interstitial
cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)
-Stimulates the secretion of male
sex hormones (mainly testosterone)

6.Prolactin (PRL): This hormone is secreted in both males and females

-Best known function: the stimulation of milk production by the
mammary glands of women after the birth of a baby

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 Posterior pituitary hormones
-Stores and releases 2 hormones made in the hypothalamus:
1.Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which promotes the retention of
water in the kidneys (also called arginine vasopressin - AVP)
2.Oxytocin, which stimulates contractions in childbirth and milk
let-down in lactation

Adrenal glands
-The adrenal glands are paired organs that cap the superior borders of
the kidneys
-Each adrenal consists of an outer cortex and inner medulla that function
as separate glands
-The adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones )corticosteroids or
corticoids(. There are three functional categories of corticosteroids:
1.mineralocorticoids: regulate Na+ & K+ balance
2.glucocorticoids: regulate the metabolism of glucose & other organic
molecules
3.adrenal androgens: weak androgens that supplement the sex steroids
secreted by the gonads

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-The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamine hormones, which
complement the sympathetic nervous system in the “fight-or-flight”
reaction
-The cells of the adrenal medulla secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
in an approximate ratio of 4:1
 The hormones from the adrenal medulla:
1.Increase the cardiac output & heartrate
2.Dilate coronary blood vessels
3.Increase mental alertness
4.Increase the respiratory rate
5.Elevate the metabolic rate

Thyroid & parathyroid glands

Thyroid gland structure
1.Located just below the larynx
2.Has 2 lobes on either side of the trachea connected by the isthmus

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 Comparing hyperthyroidism & hypothyroidism

Parathyroid glands
1.Generally, 4 glands embedded in the back
of the thyroid gland

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2.Secrete parathyroid hormone
(PTH)
3.Hormone promotes a rise in
blood calcium by acting on
bones, kidneys and intestine

Pancreas & other endocrine glands

Pancreas
1.The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland
2.Endocrine cells are located in pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
a.Alpha cells: glucagon
b.Beta cells: insulin

Insulin Glucagon

Primary hormone regulating Antagonistic to insulin

plasma glucose concentration

Secreted by beta cells when blood Secreted by alpha cells when

glucose levels rise after a sugary blood glucose levels are low
or carbohydrate meal

Its purpose is to lower blood Its Purpose is to raise blood

glucose levels to the normal range glucose levels to a normal range

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 Pineal gland
1.Located on roof of third ventricle in the brain
2.Secretes the hormone melatonin
3.Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus
a.Stimulates melatonin production when it gets dark
b.Part of the regulation of circadian rhythms
c.Secretion related to puberty, jet lag, and seasonal affective
disorder

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