Ferrous Metals and Alloys tg 3.7.2. Alloying Elements The following alloying elements are added to cast iron to obtain the effects as given below :— (a) Nickel. The proportions of nickel may vary from 0.5 to 20% in cast iron. When nickel is present 0.5 to 3%, the cast iron has a uniform machinability. Cast iron with 3 to 5% nickel is resistant to abrasion while 20% nickel makes it corrosion-resistant, (b) Chromium. It increases the hardness as well as tensile strength of cast iron especially at high temperatures, Generally, chromium and nickel are added together. Chromium is added upto 3%. It checks the formation of carbides. It increases corrosion resistance. (c) Molybdenum. It, when added upto 1.5% in the cast iron, improves strength and wear resistance but decreases machinability. It slows the graphitization, retards critical transformation and thus , improves the uniformity of structure. (d) Vanadium. It when added upto 0.5%, improves carbide for- mation, and thus incvedsés the strength and hardness of cast iron very ‘ACTURE OF STEEL fessemer and Open-Hearth Processes) Steel is iron which has been fused in the process of manufacture and possesses 0.15 to 1.5% of combined carbon dissolved in the form of cementite, FesC. Steel may be prepared (1) from cast iron by remov- ing part of the carbon, (2) from wrought iron by increasing combined carbon. Modern steel is produced by removing part of the carbon of cast iron by : 1. Bessemer Process, or 2. The open-hearth process (Siemens-Martin Process) 1. The Bessemer Process. The process is one of the master Processes in the metallurgy of steel. The molten iron from the blast furnace is run into a converter (Fig. 3.9), a large pear-shaped steel plate vessel lined with refractory silica bricks (acidic refractory) holds about 10 tonnes of metal and is supported on trunions, air being led bya pipe to a hollow perforated bottom, from which it is forced through the metal. The charging with molten cast iron is carried out through the open mouth with the converted in a horizontal position, and blow- ing is then begun. The converter is next swung into a vertical position and the blowing continued. Silicon is first oxidised to silica which Passes into the slag, then a portion of the iron is oxidised. The resulting ferric oxide removes the carbon monoxide, which is now freely evolved Scanned with CamScannerPe Materials and Metatturgy iron and burns at the mouth of the converter as an wae ello flame edged with blue and shot through by showers of sparks. After six to eight minutes the flame sinks, indicating the carb. on has been removed. The converter is again tilted, the blast stopped, and the requisite amount of spiegel added—a method of carburising the metal. The molten steel is poured further tilting the converter into Inddles suppo. ted by travelling cranes, from which it is run into moulds, A little silicon iron alloy (silicon-spiegel), or titanium-iron alloy may be added to remove blow-holes in the castings due to bubbles of gas. According to percentage of carbon added, various types of stec] are produced : tool steel—0.6 to 1.5% carbon ; structural steel—0.2 to 0.6 per cent carbon ; mild steel — 0.2% or less carbon, Special steels are alloys of iron with manganese, nickel, chromium, tungsten, molyb, denum, titanium, cobalt and vanadium etc. STEEL CASTING REFRACTORY uNING SUPPORTING RING woLLow TRUNION (3) DISCHARGING POSITION. BLAST BOX (2) WORKING POSION GROUND UNE Fig. 3.9. Bessemer Converter. Ores of iron containing phosphates give in the ordinary way cold short iron. Such ‘phosphatic ores’ may be worked by lining the con- verter with a ‘basic refractory’ of magnesia and lime, prepared by calcining dolomite. Limestone is first charged into the converter along with coke and the blast is turned on. Molten pig iron is then run in and the blast continued. Carbon is first burnt out as usual, but if the blast is prolonged after flame drops the phosphorus is oxidised, com bines with the lime and forms a slag containing calcium phosphate and free lime (basic slag), which is used as a fertiliser. Spiegel is then Scanned with CamScannerferrous Metala and Alloyn dded to form steel, In thin way it jg possible to t i ing as much aw 3 per eent phonphores This proced, fiom contains basic refractory lining when slag is to he basic in character ia kate ag the basic ne Process, whereas the Process described in the ara above is known as the acidic bessemer br refractory lining for a neidie slay to Oy te eeeatat of eckdie be faced by the refractory. The stec! pigs produced by casting furnaces: known as “soaking pits" which are heated by blast furnace i, and are Chen passed through the rolling mills for the product of steel bars, Open-hearth Process. It is carried out in a large flat crucible enet6sed in a furnace, (Fig, 3.10) heated by producer gas, The ir and-fas are supplied through separate regenerators of chequer Shi ork, used in pairs and altern: ately traversed by the hot products of combustion and gases as in the case of Cowper stoves used for blast ae samt o tre HEATED GAS. TO FURNACE WEATED HOT GAS ARTO VENTING FURNACE BRICKWORK AIR INTAKE Fig. 3.10. Open hearth furnace. furnace. Molten cast iron from the blast furnace is run on the hearth which lined with silica in the acid process or calcined magnesite 0 dolomi in the basic process. The requisite amount of haematite, *,01 in then added, so that a portion of the earbon is burnt out of the cast iron and fluid steel remains. The subsequent ore adding spiegel etc. are the same as in the Bessemer poate into nace may be made to tilt and discharge a portion of its contents inte nadle. The operation lasts 810 hours ; it is more easily controls than the Bessemer process and is very largely used. of special Note : Electric furnaces are used in the production & 1 high-quality steels. ‘They must work on the electric ore) large carbin Consist of refractory crucibles containing two (oF ™° Scanned with CamScanner ot Biba nanan <5 a166 Materials and Metallury electrodes between which an electric arc is struck. Such furnaces are especially used for the production of alloy steels containing chromium, nickel, molybdenum and vanadium. 3.9, MANUFACTURE OF STEEL (Electric Furnaces) ‘There are two types of electric furnaces in common use. They are : (@ Electric Arc Furnace (ii) High Frequency Induction Furnace. ‘The electric furnaces lend themselves to close temperature con- trol, and the analysis of the metal may be held to accurate limits. (i Electric Are Furnace. In the electric are furnace the heat required is generated by electric arcs struck between carbon electrodes and the metal bath. The impurities are oxidised from the charge by melting it underneath a covering of selected slag which absorbs ti oxidised impurities and may then run off by tilting the furnace. Fig. 8.11 shows a diagram of an arc type furnace. SWINGING. o00R zzz POURING Fig. 3.11. Arc Furnace. ‘This type of furnace is used for making all ji : y as sta less steel, high-speed steel, etc. ig alloy steels such as stain It can handle melts ranging upto 15 tonnes, Heating costs for electric furn; naceé, but this increase can be cor low priced materials in the furnace charges (i) High Frequency Induction Fy ; diagramatically a high frequency induction eae Fig. 3 aces are higher than for other fur- unteracted to some extent by using shows used primarily in Scanned with CamScannererrous Metals and Alloys 167 the production of alloy steel castings because of accurate control of melting conditions and composition. This furnace is a coreless, induc- tion type. INouenion Low 3 2 tet. il WATER CABLE High frequency current is supplied to the induction coil sur- rounding the crucible. It induces a heavy secondary current in the charge. The resistance to this current by the charge, soon melts the charged metal and brings it to a pouring temperature. The induction coil is insulated and water cooled. The outer ring of the furnace wall is made of a special magnetic steel and assists in \ increasing the density of the magnetic flux. | | Fig. 3.12. Induction furnace. | | 1 . | An auxiliary to the plant is the electrical apparatus necessary to : produce the high frequency current in coil B, the frequencies in use i varying from 500 to 2000 hertz. . oa i In the operation of this furnace the charge is introduced, together j with correct proportions of any allowing elements necessary and other | materials as may be needed to oxidise and flux the impurities from the melt. As the charge is brought to molten condition the currents, flowing in it cause a certain amount of agitation to take place. It serves to promote efficient mixing of the constituents. After the refining and mixing are complete, the metal is poured into ingot moulds (in the Same manner.as in the crucible process). Induction furnaces range in capacity from a few kg to 4 tonnes and are capable of melting either ferrous or non-ferrous metals. Such a furnace is used for producing high purity steels such as necessary for tool and die steels, ball-bearing steels, etc. 3.10. CAST IRON Cast iron is a general term applied to a wide y, 7 : ‘ange iron- carbon alloys. Their carbon content is such ac ta ~~ of Scanned with CamScannerRae eee CU UL LS ee reduces graii ralaed ct higher temperatures than carbon steel. With chromium it forms double carbides, giving “keen-edge” quality to steel. Summary of Effects of Alloying Elements Summary of Effects Alloying Blement | 1. Boron Powerful hardenability agent. 2, Carbon Ductility. and weldability are decreased while the tensile strength and hardness are increased. 3. Copper Corrosion Resistance. Nickel Tensile strength, elasticity, heat and corrosion resistances are improved. 5. Chromium Tensile strength, hardness, elasticity, heat and corrosion resistances are increasd. Manganese Wear resistance is increased. 7. Silicon Elasticity is increased while weldability and forgeability are decreased. Increases magnetic permeability and decreases hysteresis loss. 8. Molybdenum | Temper brittleness is eliminated while strength is increased at higher temperatures. 9. Tungsten Hardness is increased. Gives red hardness. Adds corrosion resistance. Residual Magnetism and co- ercive magnetic force is increased. 10. Aluminium | Nitriding improved. 11. Tantalum Resistance to scaling is increased. 12, Titanium Reduces martensitic hardness in steels. 13. Phosphorus Promotes cold shortness and increases resistance to corrosion. 14, Sulphur Promotes hot (red) shortness ; softens and wenkens steel. 15. Cobalt Produces red shortness, increases residual magnetism and co-ercive force. 16, Vanadium Toughens and strengthens steel. With chromium forms double carbides given keen-edge property. Scanned with CamScanner