• Microbiology often has been defined

as the study of organisms and agents

too small to be seen clearly by the
unaided eye_ that is the study of
microorganisms. Its subjects are
viruses,bacteria,many algae and
fungi and protozoa.
• Yet other members of these groups
,particularly some of the algae and fungi are
larger and quite visible. For example bread
molds and filamentous algae are studied by
microbiologists, yet are visible to the naked
eye. Two bacteria that are visible without a
microscope, thiomargarita and epulopiscium
also have been discovered.
• The difficulty in setting the boundaries of
microbiology led Roger Stanier to suggest that
the field be defined not only in terms of the
size of its objects but also in terms of its
techniques.
• A microbiologist usually first isolates a specific
microorganism from a population and then cultures
it. Thus microbiology employs techniques such as
sterilization and the use of culture media that are
necessary for successful isolation and growth of
microorganisms.
Control of microorganisms by physical
and chemical method
 Conditions influencing the
effectiveness of antimicrobial agent
activity

• Destruction of microorganisms and inhibition of

microbial growth are not simple matters because
the efficiency of an antimicrobial agent (an agent
that kills microorganisms or inhibits their growth)
is affected by at least six factors.
 1. Population size

• Because an equal fraction of microbial population

is killed during each interval, a larger population
requires a longer time to die than a smaller one.
 2. Population composition
• The effectiveness of an agent varies greatly with the
nature of the organisms being treated because
microorganisms differ markedly in susceptibility,
because endospores are much more resistant to most
antimicrobial agents than are vegetative forms, and
younger cells are usually more readily destroyed than
mature organisms. Some species are able to withstand
adverse conditions better than others.
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis which causes tuberculosis
is much more resistant to antimicrobial agents than
most other bacteria.
 3. Concentration or intensity of an
antimicrobial agent
• Often but not always the more concentrated a
chemical agent or intense a physical agent the
rapidly microorganisms are destroyed.
 4. Duration of exposure

• The longer time a population is exposed to a

microbicidal agent, the more organisms are killed.
• In heat treatments a longer exposure can compensate for a
lower temperature, a phenomena of particular importance
to pasteurization of dairy products.
 5. Temperature

• An increase in temperature at which a chemical acts

often enhances its activity.
• Frequently a lower concentration of disinfectant or
sterilizing agent can be used at a higher temperature.
 6. Local environment

• The population to be controlled is not isolated but

surrounded by environmental factors that may
either offer protection or aid in its destruction.
• For example heat kills more readily at an acid
PH,acid foods and beverages such as fruits and
tomatoes are easier to pasteurize than foods with
higher PH like milk.
 con…………….
• A second important environmental factor is
organic matter that can protect microorganisms
against heating and chemical disinfectants.
• Biofilms are a good example. The organic matter
in a surface biofilm will protect the biofilm’s
microorganisms.it my be necessary to clean an
object before it is disinfected or sterilized.
 con…………….
• Syringes and medical or dental equipment should be
cleaned before sterilization because the presence of
too much organic matter could protect pathogens
and increase the risk of infection.
• When a city's water supply has a high content of
organic material, more chlorine must be added to
disinfect the water.
• The nature of the suspending medium is also a factor
in heat treatment. Fats and proteins are especially
protective and a medium rich in these substances
protects microbes.
Actions of microbial control agents
• Alteration of membrane permeability
• The microorganisms plasma membrane located just
inside the cell wall is the target of many microbial
control agents.
• This membrane actively regulates the passage of
nutrients into the cell and the elimination of wastes
from the cell.
• Damage to the lipids or proteins of the plasma
membrane by antimicrobial agents causes cellular
contents to leak into the surrounding
• Medium and interferes with the growth of the cell
 Damage to proteins and nucleic acids

• The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are the carriers of

the cells genetic information.
• Damage to these nucleic acids by heat, radiation
or chemicals is frequently lethal to the cell.
• The cell can no longer replicate nor can it carry out
normal metabolic functions such as the synthesis
of enzymes.
 Con…………
• The shape of proteins is maintained by
chemical bonds that link adjoining portions of
the amino acid chain.
• Some of these bonds are hydrogen bonds
which are susceptible breakage by heat or
certain chemicals, breakage results in
denaturation of protein.
• Covalent bonds which are stronger are also
subject to attack.
Difference between prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells
 Meaning
• Pro means ‘old,’ and karyon means ‘nucleus,’
So as the name suggest the history of the
evolution of prokaryotic cells is at least 3.5
billion years old.
• Eu means ‘new,’ and karyon means ‘nucleus,’
so these are the advanced type of cells found
in plant, animals, and fungi.
 BASIS FOR COMPARISON PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Size 0.5-3um 2-100um

Kind of Cell Single-cell Multicellular

Cell Wall Cell wall present, comprise of peptidoglycan Usually cell wall absent, if present (plant
or mucopeptide (polysaccharide). cells and fungus), comprises of cellulose
(polysaccharide).

Presence of Nucleus Well-defined nucleus is absent, rather A well-defined nucleus is present

'nucleoid' is present which is an open region enclosed within nuclear membrane.
containing DNA.

Shape of DNA Circular, double-stranded DNA. Linear, double-stranded DNA.

Mitochondria Absent Present

Ribosome 70S 80S

Golgi Apparatus Absent Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum Absent Present

Mode of Reproduction Asexual Most commonly sexual

Cell Division Binary Fission, Mitosis
(conjugation, transformation, transduction)

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Absent Present

Chloroplast (Absent) scattered in the cytoplasm. Present in plants, algae.

Transcription and Translation Occurs together. Transcription occurs in nucleus and

translation in cytosol.

ORGANELIS Organelles are not membrane bound, if Organelles are membrane bound and
present any. are specific in function.

Replication Single origin of replication. Multiple origins of replication.

Number of Chromosomes Only one (not true called as a plasmid). More than one.

Examples Archaea, Bacteria. Plants and Animals.

• The entire DNA in a cell can be found in individual
pieces known as chromosomes.
• Eukaryotic cells have many chromosomes which
undergo meiosis and mitosis during cell division,
• While most prokaryotic cells consist of just one
circular chromosome.
• However, recent studies have shown that some
prokaryotes have as many as four linear or circular
chromosomes, according to Nature Education.
• For example, Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium that
causes cholera, has two circular chromosomes.