Integument

is this the protective outer covering of the animal body It includes the skin and structures
associated
with the skin (derivatives of the skin) such as hair, nails, scales, feathers, and horns

Functions of the Integument:

● Protection from mechanical & chemical injury
● Protection against invasion by microorganisms
● Regulation of body temperature
● Excretion of waste materials
● Vitamin D production
● Reception of environmental stimuli
● Locomotion/movement
● Controls movement of nutrient and gases

Invertebrate Integument:

Some singled-celled protozoa have only a plasma membrane for external covering
(Amoeba)

Other protozoa have a thick protein coat called pellicle outsidethe plasma
membrane(Paramecium)

Most multicellular invertebrates have a single-layered epidermis covering the body

(nematodes, annelids)

Others have added a secreted non-cellular cuticle over the epidermis (crustaceans,
arachnids, insects)

Additional protection
Old cuticles need to be shed periodically in a process called molting to permit growth

Molluscs have a delicate epidermis. Protection is provided by the shell

Cephalopods have a more complex epidermis with a cuticle, simple epidermis, layer of
connective tissue, & a layer of iridocytes - a guanine-containing cell in the skin of fish
and some cephalopods, giving these animals their iridescence

Arthropods have a complex integument that provides protection and skeletal support

Single layered epidermis (hypodermis) which secretes a complex cuticle

Procuticle – layers of chitin and protein

Epicuticle – moisture proofing barrier

VERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT:

Epidermis – the outer stratified epithelial layer, derived from ectoderm

The epidermis gives rise to hair, feathers, and hooves (epidermal derivatives)

Epidermis is stratified squamous epithelium

Cells in the basal part undergo frequent mitosis

As cells are displaced upward, cytoplasm is replaced by keratin

Keratin is a tough protein that is also light and flexible

Reptile scales are composed of keratin

Birds have keratin in feathers, beaks, and claws

Mammals use keratin in hair, hooves, claws, and nails

Dermis:

The dermis is a dense connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, collagenous
fibers, nerves, pigment cells, fat cells, and fibroblasts

Dermis serves to support, nourish, and cushion the epidermis

The dermis may contain bony structures of dermal origin

Ostracoderms and placoderms had heavy bony plates

In reptiles, dermal bone contributes to the armor of crocodilians, the beaded skin of
some lizards, and portions of a turtle’s shell (carapace &plastron)

Dermal bone is found in the antlers of mammals.

Claws, beaks, nails, and horns are composed of a combination of epidermal (keratinized)
and dermal components.
EXAMPLES OF VERTEBRAE INTEGUMENT

Osteichthyes (bony fishes) – skin has scales; skin is permeable and functions in gaseous
exchange; epidermis may also contain mucous cells; dermis is richly supplied with
capillary beds to facilitate its use in respiration

Amphibians – stratified epidermis and dermis containing mucous, serous glands and
with pigmentation

Keratin: protects the skin against UV and physical abrasions

Mucus: helps prevent desiccation and facilitates gaseous exchange

Poison glands: produce an unpleasant-tasting or toxic fluid that acts as a predator

deterrent

Reptiles – stratum corneum is very thick and modified into keratinized scales

Functions:
Resist abrasion
Inhibit dehydration
Acts as a “suit of armor” for protection

Birds – show many reptilian features

Epidermis: over most of the body is thin and only 2 or 3 celllayers thick

Outer keratinized layer is soft

Feathers are the most prominent parts of the epidermis

Dermis: with blood, lymphatic vessels, nerves, sensory bodies

Arrector plumose: dermal smooth muscle associated with feathers

(control the position of the feathers)

Aquatic birds – may also have fat deposits in the hypodermal layer that store energy &
help insulate the body
Mammalian Skin (Human Skin) Notable features of mammalian skin are:
a highly stratified, cornified epidermis

a dermis with blood and lymphatic vessels,nerve endings, small muscles, glands, hair
follicles

a hypodermis composed of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue and skeletal muscles
– the hypodermis attaches the skin to the underlying muscles

Sweat Glands
Different types prevent overheating of the body; secrete sweat, cerumen and milk

Eccrine sweat glands – found in palms, soles of the feet,and forehead

Apocrine sweat glands – found in axillary and anogenital areas

Ceruminous glands – modified apocrine glands in external ear canal that secrete
cerumen

Mammary glands – specialized sweat glands that secrete milk

Sebaceous Glands-
Simple alveolar glands found all over the body
Soften skin when stimulated by hormones
Secrete an oily secretion called sebum

Skin Receptors
Meissner’s corpuscles – touch receptors

Pacinian corpuscles – pain receptors

Ruffini’s corpuscle – heat receptors

End Bulbs of Krause – cold receptors

Merkel’s disk – texture and touch receptors

Structures associated with Skin:

Hair Composed of keratin-filled dead cells that

developed from epidermis

Nails
Modification of epidermis
Flat, horny plates on dorsal surface of distal segments of the digits

Skeletal Systems:
Skeleton is the hardened part of the animal body
Functions:
● Supports the body
● Framework of the body
● Protects vital organs of the body
● Blood cell formation/hematopoiesis
● Site for the attachment of muscles
● Accessory to movement
● Storage of minerals
Hydrostatic Skeletons

In the hydrostatic skeleton of an earthworm, muscles in the body wall develop force by
contracting against incompressible coelomic fluids

Alternate contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles of the body wall enable a
worm to move forward

Rigid Skeleton
● Rigid skeletons contain some kind of rigid elements
● Provide anchor points for pairs of opposing muscles
● Provides protection & support

● Exoskeleton – found in molluscs, arthropods,some invertebrates & vertebrates

● Endoskeleton – found in echinoderms,sponges, and chordates

Vertebrate Endoskeleton
The vertebrate endoskeleton is composed of bone and cartilage (types of connective
tissue)

Bone provides support, protection, and serves as a reservoir for calcium and
phosphorous

Cartilage
Jawless fishes (eels, hagfishes) and elasmobranchs (sharks, sting rays) have
cartilaginous skeletons

Most vertebrates have bony skeletons, with some cartilaginous parts

Cartilage is a soft, pliable tissue that resists compression and is variable in form

Hyaline cartilage has a clear, glassy appearance with chondrocytes surrounded by a

matrix

No blood vessels

Cartilage is often found at articulating surfaces of many bone joints, larynx, trachea,
vertebral column, nose, pinnae, and Eustachian tube

Bone is highly vascular living tissue that contains significant deposits of inorganic
calcium salts
Endochondral (replacement) bone develops from another form of connective tissue –
usually cartilage

Intramembranous bone develops directly from sheets of embryonic cells

Face, cranium, clavicle

Bone can vary in density.

Spongy bone consists of open, interlacing framework of bony tissue, oriented to give
strength

Compact bone is dense– the open framework of spongy bone has been
filled in by additional calcium salts.

Compact bone is composed of a calcified bone matrix arranged in sets of concentric

rings - osteons

Bones consist of bundles of osteons interconnected with blood vessels and nerves.
Bone - Dynamic Tissue

Bone is a dynamic tissue

Osteoclasts are bone destroying/resorbing cells

Osteoblasts are bone forming/building cells.

Both processes occur together so that new osteons are formed as old ones are resorbed.

Hormones (parathyroid hormone for resorption and calcitonin for deposition) are
responsible for maintaining a constant calcium level in the blood.

The vertebral column serves as the main stiffening axis

In fishes it provides points for muscle attachment, provides stiffness, and preserves
body shape during muscle contraction

Most vertebrates have paired appendages

Pectoral and pelvic fins in fishes supported by the pectoral and pelvic girdles

Tetrapods have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs (although they may be highly modified
through bone loss or fusion)

The pelvic girdle is generally firmly attached to the axial skeleton, while the pectoral
girdle is more loosely attached

Axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum

Appendicular skeleton includes the limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles

Human skeleton is composed of 206 bone