Topic 5.

CLASSIFICATION
Topic Outline AUDIO

 Binomial Nomenclature

 Classification Schemes
 Domains of Life

 Hierarchy of Taxa

 Dichotomous Keys

 Plant and Animal Phyla

 Vertebrate Classes

Species are named and classified using an internationally agreed system

Classification

Classification systems are used in biology for a variety of purposes, including:

• To collect, sort and group information about disparate organisms
• To enable identification of organisms according to a globally derived scheme
• To allow for the comparison of organisms based on recognised features
• To show how closely related organisms are (demonstrate evolutionary links)
Classification Schemes

Various classification schemes have been used to identify living organisms:

Artificial classifications group organisms based on non-predictive features

• Such schemes are easy to develop and relatively stable (unlikely to change)
• They do not consider species relatedness and hence are not commonly used

Natural classifications group organisms according to evolutionary relationships

• While this makes such schemes predictive, they are also highly mutable

Phylogenetic classifications differentiate organisms based on genetic features

Natural classifications help in identification of species & prediction of characteristics shared by species
History of Classification Schemes

The current classification system is universal among biologists and has been
developed at a series of international congresses over a period of many years
• Several revisions to the existing system have occurred over this time

1735: Linnaeus 1866: Haeckel 1925: Chatton 1938: Copeland 1969: Whittaker 1990: Woese
2 Kingdoms 3 Kingdoms 2 Empires 4 Kingdoms 5 Kingdoms 3 Domains
Eubacteria
Prokaryote Monera Monera
Protist Archaea
Plant Protist Protist
Fungi
Plant Eukaryote Plant Eukaryote
Plant
Animal Animal Animal Animal

The binomial system is universal among biologists and has been developed at a series of congresses
Domains of Life

Currently, all living organisms are classified into one of three distinct domains:
• Eukarya – eukaryotic organisms (containing a membrane-bound nucleus)
• Archaea – extremophilic prokaryotic organisms (lack a nucleus)
• Bacteria – common prokaryotic organisms (lack a nucleus)

Nucleus Ribosomes Histones Introns

Eukarya Present 80 S Present Present
Archaea Absent 70 S Present Present
Bacteria Absent 70 S Absent Absent

All organisms are classified into three domains

Hierarchy of Taxa

Organisms in the three domains are further classified according to a series of taxa
• A taxon is a standard classification unit used to group related organisms

Each taxon includes all organisms derived from a single common ancestor
• Organisms in a common lower taxon must share all higher taxonomic ranks
o E.g. Organisms in the same genus must share the same phyla and class

Hence, the more taxa organisms share, the more closely related they must be

Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa

Taxonomic Ranks

Eukaryotic organisms are classified according to seven main taxonomic ranks

Taxonomic Rank Mnemonic

Kingdom Killer
Phylum Penguins
Class Comes
Order Over
Family For
Genus Grape
Species Soda

The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species
Binomial Nomenclature

Organisms are given scientific names based on a binomial nomenclature system

• This system was devised by the Swedish scientist, Carolus Linnaeus in 1735

Every organism is designated a name with two parts:

• Genus is written first and capitalised (e.g. Homo)

• Species follows in lower case (e.g. Homo sapiens)
• Organisms may have a sub-species designation Giant Panda:
Ailuropoda melanoleuca
• In addition, all organisms have a common name

When species are discovered they are given scientific names using the binomial system
Classification Examples

Animal Taxa Plant

Animalia Kingdom Plantae
Chordata Phylum Angiosperm
Mammalia Class Eudicotidae
Primate Order Ranunculales
Hominidae Family Ranunculacae
Homo Genus Ranunculus
sapiens Species acris
Human Common Name Buttercup

Classification of one plant and one animal species from domain to species level
Evolutionary Relationships

The binomial system allows for the identification of evolutionary relationships

• A taxon consists of all species that have evolved from a common ancestor
• This means that higher taxa are more generic and lower taxa are more specific

KINGDOM: Animalia
PHYLUM: Chordata
CLASS: Mammalia
ORDER: Carnivora
FAMILY: Canidae
GENUS: Canis
SPECIES: Lupus

A genus and accompanying higher taxa consist of all species that have evolved from a common ancestor
Dichotomous Keys

Dichotomous keys are a method of identification whereby a group of organisms is

sequentially divided into two categories until all the organisms are identified

Dichotomous keys can be represented in two distinct ways:

• As a branching flowchart (i.e. diagram)
• As a series of paired statements laid out in a numbered sequence

When developing a dichotomous key, it is important to use immutable features

• Size, coloration and behavior may vary amongst individuals or across time

Construction of dichotomous keys for use in identifying specimens

Phyla

PHYLUM is the taxonomic rank below kingdom (and above class, etc.)

Plant phyla include: Animal phyla include:

Bryophyte Filicinophyte Porifera Cnidaria Platyhelminthes

Coniferophyte Angiosperms Annelids Molluscs Arthropods Chordates

Plant Phyla: Bryophytes

Phylum Bryophyta includes mosses and liverworts

• Do not possess ‘true’ roots, leaves or stems

o Are anchored by root-like structures called rhizoids

• Do not display any vascularisation

o They lack a vascular system (xylem and phloem)

• They reproduce via spores Bryophyta

o Spores released via sporangia (reproductive stalks) Mosses & liverworts

Recognition features of bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta

Plant Phyla: Filicinophytes

Phylum Filicinophyta includes all types of ferns

• Have leaves, roots and stems

o Leaves are pinnate (large fronds divided into leaflets)

• Possess a vascular system

o Both xylem and phloem networks are present

• They reproduce via spores Filicinophyta

o Released from clusters (sori) on underside of leaf Ferns

Recognition features of bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta

Plant Phyla: Coniferophytes

Phylum Coniferophyta includes woody trees and shrubs

• Have leaves, roots and stems

o Stems are woody, leaves are waxy & needle-like

• Possess an advanced vascular system

o Both xylem and phloem networks are present

• They reproduce via non-motile seeds Coniferophyta

o Seeds are found in structures called cones Pine trees & conifers

Recognition features of bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta

Plant Phyla: Angiospermophytes

Phylum Angiospermophyta includes flowering plants

• Have leaves, roots and stems

o Individual species may be highly variable in structure

• Possess an advanced vascular system

o Both xylem and phloem networks are present

• They reproduce via seeds produced in ovules Angiospermophyta

o Ovules are in flowers, seeds may develop in fruits Flowers & grasses

Recognition features of bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta

Summary of Plant Phyla

Plant Phyla
No vascularisation Has vascular tissue

Seeds No seeds

Bryophyta Flowers No flowers

Filicinophyta

Angiospermophyta Coniferophyta
Animal Phyla: Porifera

Phylum Porifera includes sea sponges

• They are usually asymmetrical (no body symmetry)

• Have no mouth or anus (pores facilitate circulation)

• May have silica or calcium carbonate-based spicules

o These function to provide structural support
Porifera
• They are all sessile aquatic animals (stay fixed in place) Sea sponges

Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda & chordata
Animal Phyla: Cnidaria

Phylum Cnidaria includes anemones, coral and jellyfish

• They typically possess radial body symmetry

• Have a mouth but no anus (single entrance cavity)

• May have tentacles with stinging cells (cnidocytes)

o These are used for capturing and disabling prey
Cnidaria
• Corals secrete a calcium carbonate skeleton (CaCO3) Anemones & jellyfish

Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda & chordata
Animal Phyla: Platyhelminthes

Phylum Platyhelminthes includes flatworms

• They possess bilateral body symmetry

• Have a mouth but no anus (single entrance cavity)

• Have a flattened body shape (very high SA:Vol ratio)

o This increases rate of material exchange via diffusion
Platyhelminthes
• May be parasitic and live within host organisms Tapeworms & planaria

Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda & chordata
Animal Phyla: Annelida

Phylum Annelida includes earthworms and leeches

• They possess bilateral body symmetry

• Have a separate mouth and anus (connected via gut)

• Their bodies are composed of ringed segments

o There is also specialization of these segments
Annelida
• They move via peristaltic contraction of segments Earthworms & leeches

Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda & chordata
Animal Phyla: Mollusca

Phylum Mollusca includes slugs, squids & bivalves

• They possess bilateral body symmetry

• Have a separate mouth and anus (connected via gut)

• Contain a visceral mass, muscular foot & mantle

o Mantle may secrete a calcareous shell
Mollusca
• Highly diverse in both size and anatomical structure Snails, octopi & clams

Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda & chordata
Animal Phyla: Arthropoda

Phylum Arthropoda includes insects & crustaceans

• They possess bilateral body symmetry

• Have a separate mouth and anus (connected via gut)

• Have jointed body sections and appendages

o Also contain a hard, chitinous exoskeleton
Arthropoda
• Account for >80% of all known living animal species Spiders & scorpions

Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda & chordata
Animal Phyla: Chordata

Phylum Chordata includes all vertebrate classes

• They possess bilateral body symmetry

• Have a separate mouth and anus (connected via gut)

• Have a notochord and a hollow, dorsal nerve tube

o In vertebrates, these develop into a backbone (spine)
Chordata
• Some sub-phyla are invertebrates (e.g. hagfish) All vertebrate classes

Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda & chordata
Summary of Animal Phyla
Invertebrate Phyla
Asymmetrical Symmetrical

Bilateral Radial

Anus No anus
Porifera

No visible segments Visible segments Cnidaria

Platyhelmintha
No exoskeleton Exoskeleton

Mollusca

Annelida Arthropoda
Class

CLASS is the taxonomic rank below phylum (and above order, etc.)

The phylum Chordata includes the sub-phylum Vertebrata

Vertebrata classes include:

Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Vertebrate Class: Fish

• Covered in scales (made out of bony plates)

• Reproduce via external fertilisation

• Breathe through gills (covered with an operculum)

• Do not maintain constant body temperature

• Have a swim bladder (aquatic organisms)

Example: Zebrafish

Recognition features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish

Vertebrate Class: Amphibians

• Have moist skin (permeable to gases and water)

• Reproduce via external fertilisation

• Breathe via skin but also have simple lungs (adult)

• Do not maintain constant body temperature

• Spends larval state in water, adult state on land

Example: Frogs

Recognition features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish

Vertebrate Class: Reptiles

• Covered in scales (made out of keratin)

• Lay eggs with soft shells (internal fertilisation)

• Breathe via lungs with extensive folding

• Do not maintain constant body temperature

• Possess simple teeth with no living tissue

Example: Lizards

Recognition features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish

Vertebrate Class: Birds

• Covered in feathers (made out of keratin)

• Lay eggs with hard shells (internal fertilisation)

• Breathe via lungs with parabronchial tubes

• Maintain a constant body temperature

• Have wings and beaks (but no teeth)

Example: Sparrows

Recognition features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish

Vertebrate Class: Mammals

• Skin follicles produce hair (made of keratin)

• Usually have live births (internal fertilisation)

• Breathe via lungs with alveoli

• Maintain a constant body temperature

• Feed young with milk from mammary glands

Example: Elephants

Recognition features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish

Summary of Animal Classes

1. Has hair / fur ……………….. Mammals 3. Internal fertilisation ………….. Reptile

No hair / fur …………….…….... Go to 2 External fertilisation …………. Go to 4

2. Has feathers ………………………… Birds 4. Gills as adult ………………………….. Fish

No feathers …………….……..… Go to 3 No gills as adult …………… Amphibian

Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Topic Review

Can you do the following?

• Distinguish between the domains of life

• Explain the hierarchy of taxonomic ranks
• Describe the binomial nomenclature system
• Distinguish between plant phyla
• Distinguish between animal phyla
• Distinguish between vertebrate classes
• Design dichotomous keys