Chapter 9

Air Quality, Noise, and Energy Impact

Introduction:
⮚ the main objective of the travel demand forecasting models is to
estimate the impacts of transportation system that are directly
related to travel
⮚ these impacts include the amount of trip making, the
geographical distribution and orientation of trips, the utilization
of the available and proposed modes of travel, and the
consequences of these travel choices on the loading of the
transportation network in terms of link flows and of the
impedance (hinder or obstruct) experience by the users of the
system
⮚ in this chapter we address three of the many transportation related
impacts that have become an integral part of contemporary
transportation planning and decision making
⮚ these are air quality, noise generation, and energy consumption
⮚ for each of these impacts a brief historical note is presented, several
mitigation strategies are described and simple models for estimating
the impact are illustrated
⮚ these models are simplistic and in some cases based on outdated data
⮚ they are included in this chapter to help the reader develop a “feel” of
how various factors affect the environmental impacts covered
⮚ contemporary practice involves the use of sophisticated computer
software, the complexity or which are beyond the scope of an
introductory transportation textbook
AIR POLLUTION
Background:
⮚ the release of air pollutants in the atmosphere is a contaminant result
of human activities
⮚ in some instances naturally produced air pollutants outweigh man-
made pollution, but the latter tends to be concentrated in urbanized
areas where people live and work
⮚ the problem of air pollutants is not new
⮚ in early 14th century London the smoke and odor consequences of coal
burning became such a public nuisance that several commissions were
appointed to combat them
⮚ in his book on air pollution, Perkins quotes the following declaration by
King Edward I:
 “Be it known to all within the sound of my voice, whosoever
shall be found guilty of burning coal shall suffer the loss of his head”
⮚ more recently connections between air pollution and respiratory
diseases have been demonstrated and detrimental effects on the
global scale have been observed or recognized
⮚ Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any
chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of
the atmosphere. Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities
and forest fires are common sources of air pollution.
⮚ supplementary values are approximate concentrations:
1. Primary standards are required to protect public health, including
physiological response of children, the elderly, and people suffering from
asthma and other respiratory diseases
2. Secondary standards are intended to protect the public welfare, including
annoyance, loss of visibility and damage to crops and livestock
Problem Dimension
⮚ the combustion of transportation fuels releases several contaminants
into the atmosphere, including carbon monoxide, oxide on nitrogen,
and lead and other particulate matter
⮚ Hydrocarbons, of which more than 200 have been detected in exhaust
emissions, are the result of the incomplete combustion of fuel
⮚ Particulate are minute solid or liquid particles that are suspended in
the atmosphere; they include aerosols, smoke, and dust particles
⮚ Photochemical smog is the result of complex chemical reactions of oxides
nitrogen and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight
⮚ once emitted in the atmosphere, air pollutants undergo mixing or
diffusion, the degree of which depends on topographic, climatic, and
meteorological conditions
⮚ these include wind speed and direction, and atmospheric
stability
⮚ the assessment of the air pollution effects of transportation
may be undertaken at three levels:
1. Microscale analysis in the immediate vicinity of a
transportation facility such as a highway
2. Mesoscale analysis in the areas that are somewhat
removed from the facility, which include the contribution of other
mobile and stationary sources of pollution
3. Macroscale analysis extending from the regional to the
global levels
⮚ available air pollution estimation models range from simple
models that provide estimates of emission levels to very
complex models that trace the diffusion of pollutants in space
and time and also simulate the chemical processes that follow
Emission Levels
⮚ vehicular emission of air pollutants are usually measured in
grams per vehicle-mile of travel and are related to several
factors:
1. vehicular type and age
2. ambient temperature
3. altitude
⮚ the operating cycle, which consists of starts and stops, speed
changes, and idling time, is an important factor
⮚ a disproportionate fraction of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons are emitted during cold starts of the engine
⮚ the general relationship between speed and emission are
illustrated on the next slide
 General relationship between speed and emission

CO HC

Speed Speed
Speed
⮚ carbon monoxide emission generally decrease with speed,
partly due to air-to-fuel ratio supplied to the engine at different
speeds
⮚ up to about 30 to 40 mph a similar relationship occurs in the
case of hydrocarbons, but a mild increase in emission is seen
thereafter
⮚ the emission of nitrogen oxides exhibits a different pattern that
is, it generally increases with speed
⮚ the EPA has developed a MOBILE computer program that
estimates the emissions resulting from various combinations of
traffic flows, vehicle mixes, and other factors
⮚ additional important features (and modeling issues) shared by
current models include the following:
❑ Technology shares: Emissions from highway vehicles are
estimated on a fleetwide basis using information on the share
of each model year’s fleet that use the different technologies
(e.g., fuel type).
❑ Aging and the corresponding increase in emissions over time
as vehicle accumulate mile age and components, including
emission control components, age, and deterioration.
❑ Advanced engine management and diagnostics such as the
introduction of second generation onboard diagnostic system
to the light duty introduces complications to the modeling of
aging.
❑ Effects of fuel content such as sulfur and oxygenates.
❑ The estimation of emissions heavy duty vehicles is
complicated because their engine are regulated on a
mass/work basis, whereas emission analysis generally
requires emissions on a mass/activity basis, which
necessitates the use of complex conversion factors.
❑ Information on the total numbers of vehicles by vehicle type,
the registration distributions by the age of each vehicle type
are required to model emission factors for the entire in-use
fleet of highway vehicles.
❑ Nonexhaust, or evaporative, and leaks.
Air Pollution Dispersion
⮚ while the emission level is an important measure of the air
pollution impact of various sources, it is the concentration of
pollutants in the atmosphere that defines the levels and times
of exposure
⮚ following the emission of pollutants, dispersion and chemical
oxidation take place in the atmosphere
⮚ the dispersion of a pollutants is affected by strength of the source
and topographic and meteorological conditions
⮚ the topography of the terrain in the vicinity of the source of
pollution, affects the wind profile near the ground and the generation
of turbulence in the form of eddies
⮚ one of the most important meteorological conditions that affect the
mixing of the pollutants is the temperature lapse rate, which is
defined as the rate of change of temperature with altitude
⮚ this is usually referenced as the adiabatic lapse rate of – 5.4°F per 1000
ft, which correspond to an atmosphere that is characterized by
neutral stability, that is, where air particles tend to maintain their
positions
⮚ when the temperature drops at a faster rate than the adiabatic
(i.e., at a superadiabatic lapse rate), the atmosphere is unstable and
vigorous mixing takes place
⮚ on the other side of the adiabatic lapse rate, subadiabatic lapse
rate tend to inhibit mixing
⮚ due to various meteorological combinations, certain layers in
the atmosphere experience an increase of temperature with
altitude
⮚ this is known as a temperature inversion and is critical especially
when it occurs in a layer close to the ground because
pollutants are trapped within this layer
⮚ the mixing height is the height of the atmospheric layer within
which mixing occurs
⮚ this height varies from locality to locality and also exhibits
daily and seasonal variation
⮚ the degree of mixing is a function of the atmospheric stability
of this layer
⮚ typically the atmosphere near the earth’s surface becomes
unstable in the morning, allowing for energetic mixing within
the mixing layer, which attains its maximum height in the
afternoon
⮚ one of the simplest mathematical model of air pollution
dispersion is the box model
The Box Model
⮚ a box model is based on the assumption that pollutants emitted
to the atmosphere are uniformly mixed in a volume, or “box”
⮚ a simple atmospheric dispersion model, called a box model can
be used to calculate ground-level concentrations of specific air
pollutants of concern emitted from the project-activity.
⮚ the most critical aspect of the usage of the box model is to
establish, with rationale, the downwind, crosswind, and vertical
dimensions of the box
⮚ a box model is also based on the assumption that discharges
mix completely and instantaneously with the air available for
dilution, and the released material is chemically stable and
remains in the air
⮚ box models have been frequently used to analyze the air
quality impacts from line sources like airport

⮚ the box model can be used for single-point, multiple-point,

area, or line, or “hybrid-type” sources of air pollution. It can
also be used in valley settings. The basic box model is
depicted in the figure above and mathematically expressed as
follows C=Qtxyz
⮚ where C = average concentration of gas or particulate < 20 μm
in size, throughout box, including at ground level,
μg/m3; Q = release rate of gas, or particulate; t = time period
over which mixing take place; x = downwind dimension of
box; Y = crosswind dimension of box, and z = vertical
dimension of box
⮚ the box-model approach could be focused on the key
pollutants of concern identified using mass-balanced
approaches
⮚ one method of establishing the dimensions of the box and the
time period for the emissions is to use the data on limiting
meteorologic shown on the figure
⮚ the box model may be used to approximate the concentration
of air pollution within an atmospheric volume defined by a
rectangular area and extending to the altitude of the mixing
height H as shown
⮚ pollutants emitted into the box at a constant rate E in pollutant
weight per unit time are assumed to be mixed instantaneously
with the air volume of the box
⮚ clean air is assumed to enter the box at a speed U, and air
containing the same concentration as the interior of the box is
assumed to exit from the opposite side
⮚ the concentration C(t) at any time t inside the box is expressed
in pollutants weight per unit volume
⮚ based on these assumptions, the following balance equation
applies:

where:

NOISE GENERATION
Background:
⮚ sound is acoustical energy released into the atmosphere by
vibrating or moving bodies
⮚ therefore, sound is reactive to objective scientific measurement
and investigation
⮚ on the other hand noise is the undesirable sound and such it is
cloaked or wrapped with a certain degree of subjectivity
⮚ extended exposure to excessive sound has been shown to
produce physical and physiological damage
⮚ because of its annoyance and disturbance implications, noise
adds to mental stress and therefore affects the general well-
being of those who are exposed to it
⮚ undoubtedly noise has always been a major source of friction
between individuals
⮚ transportation operations are major contributors to noise in
the modern environment
⮚ noise is generated by the engine and exhaust systems of the
vehicles, aerodynamic friction, and the interaction between the
vehicle and its support system
⮚ because noise diminishes with distance from the source, the
most serious transportation-related noise problems are
confined to transportation corridors (e.g., highway and railway
corridors and aircraft flight paths) and at major transportation
hubs (e.g., airport and transit terminals)
Noise Measurements
⮚ the quantity of energy or the intensity of a single sound is
usually measured on a relative logarithmic scale that is called
a bel (B) or in terms of its subdivision, the decibal (dB)
⮚ a bel represents a tenfold increase in energy and is measured
in relation to a reference intensity , which it usually taken at
the threshold or entrance of human hearing
⮚ the intensity of sound corresponding to L bel is:
🠶
⮚ in addition to these losses in intensity due to spreading,
absorption losses also takes place as the sound energy is
transferred between air particles
⮚ when the sound waves encounter natural and manufactured
solid objects, they undergo bending or diffraction and
reflection, the degree of which depends on the characteristics
of the object
⮚ trees and other vegetation, for example, tend to reflect the
sound waves in a diffused pattern and are considered to be a
good interceptors of noise
⮚ the major thrust of noise control strategies is to minimize the
noise levels to which the population is exposed
⮚ three categories of transportation noise control strategies are
possible: 1. source control 2. noise path controls and
3. receiver-side controls
⮚potential source controls include vehicle control devices,
vehicle maintenance practices, traffic controls, and
highway design controls
⮚noise path controls include the erection of appropriately
designed noise barriers that reflect and diffuse noise and
the provision of buffer zones between the transportation
facility and the population to provide a distance cover
which noise can be attenuated
⮚noise control strategies at the receptor site include public
awareness programs and building design practices
Oscillating Sound Waves
Noise Barriers
🠶
Buffer Zone
🠶
Buffer Zone
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Background
⮚ the enormous strides in industrial and economic growth that
occurred in the United States during the 20th century have
been closely related to an ample supply of inexpensive energy
particularly derived from fossil fuels
⮚ around 1970 the population of the US constituted about 6% of
the world’s population but used approximately 30% of the
global petroleum consumption
⮚ a little more than half of the petroleum used in the country is
expended for transportation-related purposes, and of this
amount the private automobile accounts for close to two-third
of the total petroleum consumed in the US
⮚ the potential impact that energy shortages can have was
experienced during World War II when strict rationing and
allocation of energy and other resources had to be imposed
⮚ after the war energy consumption resumed its upward spiral
and the problem came to the forefront in 1974 when the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
imposed an oil embargo and subsequently raised the price of
crude oil
⮚ the economic effects of this action reverberated around the
globe
Transportation-User Reactions
⮚ the 1973 – 1974 oil embargo found the nation’s transportation
system ill prepared, and long queues at gasoline station
became commonplace
⮚ according to subsequent reviews of the major events that
occurred during the period of low fuel supplies, the general
reaction of highway users was to curtail automobile usage by
20%, mainly by reducing recreational and nonessential trips
⮚ localized differences notwithstanding, modal shifts to transit
on a national scale were minimal during the emergency
⮚ this has been attributed to the lack of adequate transit
capacity and to uncertainties about the expected duration of
the emergency situation
⮚ however, a trend toward the use of more efficient motor
vehicles and other transportation equipment became evident
⮚ other transportation intensive sectors of the economy
responded similarly to the fact that an increasing share of
their operating costs were attributed to fuel costs
⮚ example, a report cited that most of the intercity freight
carriers began to convert to more fuel efficient equipment
and devices through replacement and retrofit programs and
to modify their maintenance and scheduling practice
⮚similarly, reports that the airline industry also moved
toward the purchase of fuel-efficient aircraft, implemented
new operational and maintenance practices, and reduced
cruise speeds
⮚in 1974 the airlines dropped a few thousand daily flights
in order to increase passenger-load factors and thus to
minimize their consumption of fuel
⮚highway and transit-operating agencies also took
measures to improve their own consumption rates
⮚among the action taken by highway agencies was a
conversion to fuel-efficient highway-lighting systems
Vehicle Propulsion Energy
⮚ the propulsion energy spent by individual vehicles is
typically reported in terms of either energy economy rates or its
reciprocal, that is, energy consumption rate
⮚ the energy measure is usually specified in terms of either the
amount of a particular fuel or, when applicable, electrical
energy
⮚ therefore, the energy economy of passenger cars is specified
as gallons of gasoline per vehicle mile and for electrically
propelled transit vehicles, as kilowatt-hour per vehicle mile
⮚ in order to be able to compare the energy efficiency of
vehicles using different types of fuel, several analyst resort to
the conversion of energy requirements to a common unit
such as British thermal unit (Btu) or the joule
⮚comparison based on such conversions, of course, are
not sensitive to the particular source of the energy used
(i.e., crude oil, coal, or nuclear energy), which have
certain important policy implication
⮚regarding the propulsion efficiency of nonhighway transit
vehicles and systems, it suffice to state that a great
variability is found, depending on the type of system, its
propulsion technology, and geometric characteristics,
including station spacing and gradients
Indirect Energy Consumption
⮚ the foregoing discussion has concentrated on the
propulsive, or direct, consumption of transportation
system
⮚a complete accounting of energy requirements of
transportation systems on the other hand also includes
indirect energy expenditures, consisting of construction,
maintenance, operational energy expenditures
⮚several analysts have attempted to estimate the total
energy needs of various modes and systems
⮚it is enough to state that these estimates depend on the
components of indirect energy that each analyst chose
for inclusion in the calculation
⮚any attempt to trace the full energy implications of
transportation systems is ultimately difficult, as it may
include the energy spent for the extraction, refinement,
conversion, and transportation of energy resources and
fuels, and even items such as the energy embedded in
the manufacturer of the vehicles
⮚consequently, a detailed review of total transportation
energy studies and their energy policy and economic
implications is beyond the scope of this chapter
 CE 4132
Chapter Exam
1. Which transport is highly responsible for air pollution? Why?
Explain briefly
2. What are challenges faced by transportation? Enumerate at
least 5 challenges.
3. What are the harmful effects of transportation? Discuss
briefly..
4. Enumerate the main causes of noise generation?
5. Road traffic noise depends on the following three factors:
a. Type of road vehicles
b. Friction between the vehicle wheels and the road surface
c. Driving style and driver behavior
Explain each of these factors how they generate traffic noise.
 CE 4132
Quiz

1. Make a write-up regarding this phrase:” How much does My

Energy Consumption Cost?”

2. What does Energy Consumption mean? Explain briefly.

3. Sino ang nagbibigay ng energy sayo? noon at ngayon.