CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the critical variables of the study. The main variables of this

study revolve around the harmonic distortion measurement in the electrical system. The

research problem and the gap are focused upon in this chapter.

Background of the Study

Electricity is one of the most significant things sciences has given to humanity.

Electricity has become a part of modern life, and it is hard to envision the world without

it. Furthermore, this may impact people's quality of life and living level [1]. Electricity

meets the demands of consumers, including those in the industrial, commercial, and

residential sectors, to carry out and maintain their daily needs. Knowing the positive

benefits of electricity on society is vital, as is understanding how to maintain those

benefits and the potential harm they might cause. One of the most important things to

consider when it comes to electricity is its electrical system; this is to have an effective

and reliable electrical design.

In the aspect of a building, an electrical system is a network of conductors and

machines intended to securely transport, disperse, and generate electrical electricity from

the source of delivery or generation to the different loads within the building that absorb

the electrical energy [2]. The capacity of electrical equipment to use the energy given to it

is denoted as power quality. The efficiency of electrical equipment is affected by a range

of power quality issues, such as electrical harmonics, inadequate power factors, voltage

instability, and imbalance [3].

1
 In addition to ensuring an electrical system's ability to function, it is critical to

ensure its reliability to protect against unwanted damage. System availability, when

needed, corresponds to the reliability of an electrical system. The modern electric power

system is made up of a sophisticated, interconnected network that is susceptible to

various issues that work against the system's dependability [4].

Harmonics is a single sinusoidal wave created as power lines' multiples of the

fundamental frequency cycle, as components of semiconductor circuits used in power

electronics are not loaded sequentially. Every sinusoidal form in electrical systems except

the fundamental frequency is known as hThe discrepancy between the ideal sinusoidal

waveform of the supply voltage or the load current waveform and what it is due to a non-

linear load is known as harmonics and harmonic distortion [6].

By addressing the corresponding function of harmonics in an electrical system,

there are variety of causes and effects for why harmonics exist in a system. One of the

main factors of the problem incidence in electrical equipment is current harmonics.

Harmonic generation in a system does not necessarily lead to problems. There is a limit

to how many harmonics the system can handle and still function correctly. Harmonics in

the voltage have an impact on any electrical equipment. Harmonic currents only impact

objects with harmonic sources [5].

Knowing that one of the causes of harmonics in an electrical system is the usage

of numerous nonlinear loads, the researchers took into consideration the Batangas State

University - Alangilan Campus given that it is a large university and has been using these

types of loads continuously. One of the contributing aspects to a good source of

harmonics is the variety of loads that are operating. Since these loads are operating
2
continuously, the researchers had the notion that the electrical system potentially contain

harmonic distortion.

In response, the researchers obtained the number of loads and collected data from

the office of Environmental Management Unit-Alangilan (EMU) as seen on Figure 1 to

support their claim that harmonics were being generated at the stated school.

Additionally, since the school is a large university and a National Engineering University,

the facilities and equipment are expanding and increasing the demand for loads, thus it is

important to deal with this kind of problems to prevent harm and damage.

0%

10% 1%
2%
2%
Fluorescent Lamps, LED tubes
and Bulb
12% Personal Computers
Copiers/Printers
Laptop
Air-conditioning Units
TV (View Board)
Water Pump
72%

Figure 1. Distribution of Nonlinear Loads in BatStateU – Alangilan Campus

As seen on Figure 1, huge percentage of non-linear loads existing in the university

is composed of fluorescent lamps with 73%. There have been studies proving that

fluorescent lamps, specifically its ballast have the highest contribution in generating

harmonics. Consequently, there are other sources of harmonics in the university, which

may consecutively affect the power system.

3
 Additionally, with the campus of Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus

being established towards more technologically-inclined to cater the quality education

they want to deliver to students, there is an increase in the number of non-linear loads

existing in the facilities. Non-linear loads are those that possess currents that are not

proportional to the voltage and fluctuates based on the alternating load impedance.

Fluorescent lamp, computers, printers TVs, electronic lighting ballasts, and switched-

mode power supplies constitutes the examples of non-linear loads [7]. Waveforms

significantly represent the behavior of the current in any electrical supply and represent

the deviation of harmonics.

To correlate this concept in measuring the harmonics distortion, the number of

non-linear loads was determined to establish the source of harmonics which is shown in

Table 1.

Table 1. Number of Non-linear Loads per Building

BUILDING

WHITE STEER
LOADS CEAFA CICS RGR CIT SSC GSO FIC TOTAL
HOUSE HUB

Fluorescent Lamps,
1,082 230 138 429 154 4 45 11 1,021 3,114
LED Tubes and Bulb

Personal Computers 138 189 40 19 20 2 6 89 503

Copiers/Printers 27 13 3 7 22 1 4 25 102

Air-conditioning
171 52 23 57 24 9 5 1 68 410
Units

Laptop 30 19 33 11 13 106

TV (View Board) 22 6 2 15 1 1 9 56

4
 Water Pump 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

TOTAL 1,471 510 207 561 233 17 50 22 1,226 4,297

As can be seen in Table 1, the campus currently employs a total of 4,297 non-

linear loads continuously. The CEAFA building, which contains 1,471 pieces, has the

most non-linear loads of all these buildings. The STEER HUB, which has 1,226 non-

linear load pieces, follows in second. The fluorescent lamps, LED tubes and bulb

contains the most equipment in both building, which is 1,082 pieces and 1,021

respectively.

Accordingly, with the existence of these non-linear loads in the electrical system

of the campus there is a high tendency that the level of harmonics in the power supply is

beyond recommended limits of standards, specifically in section 3.2.4.5 of the Philippine

Distribution Code 2017. With the absence of such measurement and analysis, there is a

call-to-action to conduct a study that will focus on such topic. As Batangas State

University being a technological hub in education and research, it is important to

establish a campus that is at par in standards and regulations, specifically its electrical

system.

As the prominence of these variables in the context of the study becomes more

distinguished, the researchers aim to assess the potential harmonic distortion in the

electrical system of the entire Batangas State University - Alangilan Campus specifically

the main distribution panel of the secondary side of the distribution transformer supplying

power to the campus. Also, the College of Engineering and Fine Arts building is

considered when measuring as it has the highest number of non-linear loads existing in

the campus.

5
Statement of the Problem

Problems like high failure rate for consumer electronics and power system

installations, transient and intransient faults, symmetrical faults, etc., are brought on by

the power system's inadequate reliability. One of several aspects that should be

considered while analyzing the reliability of analyzing the power supply's unreliability is

the harmonics [8].

The short bursts of current are drawn by non-linear loads, which results in a

scenario in which current and voltage are not proportional. These loads produce harmonic

distortion, which may harm your equipment. Modern electrical devices like variable

frequency drives (VFDs), arc furnaces, uninterrupted power supplies, fluorescent lights,

computers, and other items are the most linked to nonlinear loads. In addition, it includes

circuits for rectifying, charging and discharging, and phase control [9]. Excessive current

and heat are caused by current harmonics and equipment malfunctions are triggered on

by voltage harmonics [10].

Moreover, as harmonic distortions have serious negative impacts on an electrical

system wherein it is essential to deal with this kind of problem. Electrical equipment may

incur negative effects from harmonic distortion. Unwanted distortion can raise the current

in power systems, which raises the temperature of distribution transformers and neutral

conductors. Higher frequency harmonics increase core loss in motors, which leads to an

excessive amount of core heating. Since they fluctuate at the same frequencies as the

transmit frequency, these higher order harmonics can also disrupt communication

transmission lines. If left unchecked, elevated temperatures and interference can

drastically reduce the lifespan of electronic equipment and impair power systems [11].

6
 When harmonic distortion penetrates a power system, it affects its capacity to

operate at its best. Due to the increased need for power consumption, it causes

inefficiencies in equipment operation [12]. Under equipment failure and maloperation,

the effects of harmonics distortion can be seen through motor overheating, audible noise,

motor vibrations, electrical fires, LED lights flickering and the likes [13]. The need for

more current overall leads to greater installation and utility expenses, increased heating

costs, and declining profitability [12].

As electrical engineers, data is key towards an efficient and effective operation of

any system, therefore measurement always makes the difference [14]. Especially with the

field leaning towards abstract thinking, study such as this one becomes more significant

to maintain the reasonable energy usage of equipment without waiting for the problem to

occur before taking actions. Power quality surveys such as harmonic distortion

assessment should be considered as a routine maintenance to discover changes that may

be occurring in hindsight and fix it early on to avoid further development of electrical

problems [14].

Research Questions

Research questions distinguish the parameters that need to be investigated in a

population sample, and what would be the results of the investigation and examination

[15]. In this study, the proponents aim to measure, assess, and mitigate the potential

harmonic distortion in the electrical system of the Batangas State University – Alangilan

Campus. To address the research problem, the following specific questions should be

answered:

7
1. What is the level of harmonic distortion in the electrical system of Batangas State

University – Alangilan Campus caused by non-linear loads?

2. How are the levels of harmonic distortion measured in the electrical system of

Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus be assessed based on the

recommended standard?

3. How should the harmonic distortion existing in the electrical system be mitigated if

the measured level of harmonics exceeded and/or complied the recommended

standard limits?

4. What is the impact of the mitigation plan designed for the electrical system of

Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus?

Research Objectives

The objective of this study aims to measure, assess, and mitigate the potential

harmonic distortion in the electrical system of the Batangas State University – Alangilan

Campus. The following specific objectives shall be addressed:

1. Determine the level of harmonic distortion of Batangas State University – Alangilan

Campus caused by non-linear loads.

2. Assess the level of harmonic distortion measured in the electrical system of Batangas

State University – Alangilan Campus based on Philippine Distribution Code 2017.

3. To design the mitigation plan for the harmonic distortion that exceed and/or complied

with the recommended standards limits in the electrical system of Batangas State

University – Alangilan Campus.

8
4. To test the mitigation plan designed for the electrical system of Batangas State

University – Alangilan Campus based on Philippine Distribution Code 2017 standard

using simulation.

Research Hypothesis

A good hypothesis shall be able to address the problem of the study, determine

the questions imposed by the methodology, and clearly state the conclusions. By having a

good hypothesis, important variables for the completion of the study would be present

[16]. This qsection of the study presents the affirmative and null hypotheses based on the

main variables of the research.

1. The levels of voltage and current distortion due to the typical nonlinear loads in the

electrical system of Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus are measured.

2. The level of harmonic distortion existing in the electrical system of Batangas State

University – Alangilan Campus is beyond voltage distortion limit of 5% for bus

voltage less than or equal to 1.0kV and current distortion limit from the ratio of short-

circuit current and line current of the system as per Philippine Distribution Code 2017,

therefore requires a corrective action.

3. The design of the corrective action for the level of harmonic distortion that exceeds

and/or complied the recommended standard limits is provided and appropriate to the

system specifications.

4. The mitigation plan designed for the harmonic distortion existing in the electrical

system of Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus was able to limit the

harmonic distortion level as per Philippine Distribution Code 2017.

9
Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The design of the study shall be a design and analysis research which primarily

aims to measure, assess, and mitigate the potential harmonic distortion in the electrical

system of the Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus. The scope of this study

shall focus on measuring the potential harmonic distortion on the main distribution panel

of the secondary side transformer in Batangas State University – Alangilan, distribution

panel for CEAFA building. The measurement of the harmonic distortion will be

conducted within four (4) days wherein each main distribution panel is allocated two

days. The assessment of the level of harmonic distortion in the electrical system of the

building shall be based on Philippine Distribution Code 2017. Harmonic filter

specifically the single tuned filter will be utilized for the mitigation plan for the level of

harmonic distortion existing in the electrical system whether it exceeds and complied

and/or the recommended PDC limits and shall be designed and assessed using Electrical

Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) software. The study shall be conducted throughout

the academic year 2022 – 2023 within the premises of Batangas State University –

Alangilan Campus.

Moreover, this study delimits the measurement of the harmonic distortion on the

secondary side transformer and CEAFA building. Additionally, the number of days of the

measurement is delimited to four (4) days due to time constraints of the proponents. The

10
assessment of the level of harmonic distortion in the electrical system of the building

shall not be based on other electrical standards and codes existing, except the

abovementioned. Lastly, the mitigation plan is delimited to the sizing of harmonic filters,

specifically by using single tuned harmonic filters as it is the most widely used method.

The mitigation plan for the harmonic distortion in the electrical system of Batangas State

University – Alangilan Campus shall not be developed and installed in the system.

Importance of the Study

Recently, Batangas State University was declared as The National Engineering

University. The academic advancement of the university is supported by the utilization of

electricity, from face-to—face and virtual lecture set-ups, laboratories with materials and

equipment that are undeniably keep-up with the needs of the curriculum, and the offices

that suffice the services needed by the students. With the large energy consumption of the

university, the researchers are aiming to measure the harmonics in the electrical system

and present the possible corrections to maintain efficient energy distribution in the

university.

In general, the study will be significant to the following:

The BatState-U Alangilan. The corrections presented on this research may be

considered by the institution for the rehabilitation of the electrical system. By doing so,

lower energy consumption shall be expected.

The students, faculty, and staffs. This paper shall contribute in ensuring safe utilization

of electricity of the occupants in the building.

11
The future researchers. The research shall serve as a guide for the future researchers

who wish to study the same. The recommendations of this study may help them to focus

on more specific areas and continue foreseeing the consideration of applying the results

of this research.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section presents the conceptual literature and related studies of harmonic

distortion measurement and correction in power systems. Stated in this chapter also is the

synthesis of the study which correlates the literatures in the current study.

Conceptual Literature

With the development of alternating current (AC) supply on 1888 by Nikola Tesla

[17], the demand with regards to the utilization of electricity in almost everything became

much relevant as time passes by. Electric utilities make use of AC supply to make the

transmission of electrical power more economical and transmit higher or lower voltages

without maximizing losses [18]. Alternating current is a form of current that changes its

direction sinusoidally and in two directions, positive and negative half-cycle [19]. To

easily represent the behavior of AC voltage, a sine wave is used as shown in Figure 2 and

mathematically represented by Equation 2.1:

V =V o si n ( ωt ) (2.1)

12
 Figure 2. Graphical Representation of AC Voltage

As seen on Figure 2, V represents the instantaneous voltage at time t, Vo indicates

the peak or maximum value of the voltage, and ω is the pulsatance or angular frequency

of the wave.

Sinusoidal current is usually produced by rotating machines. Moreover, passing

through a resistor, inductor, or capacitor produces another waveform with the same

frequency but different magnitude and phase angle. Sinusoids also has the ability to retain

their shape and frequency when adding other sinusoids [20].

Harmonics and harmonic distortion are the discrepancy between the ideal

sinusoidal waveform of the supply voltage and the load current waveform. A resistance

performs the same in an AC circuit as it does in a DC circuit. In other words, the voltage

across the resistance determines how much current flows through it. This is since a

resistor is a linear device, there is no phase difference between the two sinusoids if a sine

wave is applied to it. Sine wave is produced by the current that flows through it. The

output voltage and current waveforms of AC alternators, generators, and other similar

electrical machinery can all produce complex waveforms. As a result, even though the

voltage waveform is sinusoidal, the current waveform could be different. Most electronic

power source circuit applications, including rectifiers, power transistors, power

converters, and other solid-state switches that cut and chop the power supply's sinusoidal

waveform to regulate motor power or convert the sinusoidal AC input to DC. Since the

switching current waveform is non-sinusoidal and these switching circuits often only

demand current at the peak values of the AC supply, the resulting load current is said to

comprise harmonic content [6].

13
 Many waveforms of current and voltage are not sinusoidal, mostly, especially

modern electrical and electronic devices and equipment, are known to generate non-

sinusoidal waveforms [21]. There are several forms of non-sinusoidal waveforms as seen

on Figure 3. They are categorized depending on their output wave, specifically dc,

square, triangular, saw tooth, and rectified [22].

Figure 3. Different Forms of Non-sinusoidal Waveforms

The illustrations of non-sinusoidal waveforms as shown in Figure 3 can be

mathematically represented by Fourier Series [22]. Fourier series states that any practical

periodic function can be represented as an infinite sum of sinusoidal waveforms that have

frequencies which are integral multiple of ω o [23].

Non-sinusoidal current, as produced by non-sinusoidal waveforms, is directly the

invert of a sine wave. They are also called as cosine wave. Aside from the

abovementioned parameters of a sine wave, non-sinusoidal waves are characterized by

time as the independent variable. Furthermore, cosine waves can be produced by

14
combining two or more sine waves. With its complex nature, cosine waves consist of one

fundamental frequency which has the lowest frequency but has the highest amplitude and

one or more harmonic frequencies. Moreover, harmonics affects the waveform of cosine

waves. Harmonics causes the complex structure of cosine waves [24].

Before 1980, most loads had been categorized as linear. This means that if a piece

of equipment receives a sine wave as its voltage input, the resulting current waveform

that the load produces will also be a sine wave. Electronic hardware makers switched to

switch-mode power supplies in 1981, an effective internal power supply type (SMPS).

The applied voltage sine wave is transformed by the SMPS into a distorted current

waveform that mimics alternating current pulses. The load's impedance clearly varies

during the duration of the applied AC voltage waveform. Harmonics are produced by

most usage equipment today. Voltages or currents that have frequencies that are multiples

of the fundamental frequency are referred to as harmonics [25].

In any situation involving an electrical load, linear and non-linear types of loads

are frequently applied. A linear load is one whose impedance remains constant during the

voltage cycle applied. The linear category includes loads that are resistive, inductive, and

capacitive. As opposed to linear loads, non-linear loads are those whose impedance

continually changes with the applied voltage cycle [31]. Waveforms represent sine waves

of current and voltage. Waveforms that represent nonlinear loads has current affecting the

voltage wave. As this current is pulled throughout the system, voltage distortion occurs

[27]. In addition, non-linear loads were also described as loads whose current is not

proportional with the voltage. The waveforms of linear loads, which is an ideal

15
waveform, and non-linear loads, that produce a distorted waveform are presented are

presented in Figure 4.

Ideal Waveform (Linear Loads) Distorted Waveform (Non-Linear Loads)

Figure 4. Linear and Non-Linear Loads Waveform

Figure 4 shows that the regular electrical current waveform is distorted by

harmonics, which are typically conveyed by nonlinear loads that draw a non-sinusoidal

current from a sinusoidal voltage source [26].

Non-linear loads that are very inductive in nature, such as iron-cored inductors,

rectifiers, electronic fluorescent light ballasts, switching transformers, discharge lighting,

saturated magnetic devices, and produce harmonics. Some electrical loads on this type

include computer, printers, televisions, and telecommunication systems which uses

SMPS [28]. The most potent electronic switching circuits including silicon-controlled

rectifiers (SCR), power transistors, power converters, and electronic drives like variable

frequency drives (VFD) or variable voltage variable frequency drives are also to blame

for harmonics (VFD). Only at the peak values of the AC supply do these switching

circuits draw current, and because the switching current behaves nonlinearly, the load

current is not sinusoidal in nature and contains harmonics [29].

16
 To easily understand, harmonics in power systems are brought by non-linear

loads. This type of devices are known to produce non-sinusoidal currents when supplied

with a sinusoidal voltage, like AC supply [30]. With the magnification of the

development in technology, non-linear loads are classified into two as shown in Figure 5.

Transformers

Traditional Types Rotating Machines

Arc Furnaces
Non-linear Devices
Fluorescent
Lamps

Electronic Controls
Modern Types and Switched-Mode
Power Supplies
Thyristor-
controlled
Devices

Figure 5. Types of Non-linear Devices

As seen on Figure 5, traditional type of non-linear devices is composed of

transformers, rotating machines, and arc furnaces. Transformers are able to generate

harmonics in power systems due to magnetic materials, while rotating machines like

large generators are generating non-sinusoidal currents due to the supply current passing

through the windings inserted in the slots [30]. In contrast, modern types of non-linear

devices are mostly consisting of fluorescent lamps, electronic controls and switched-

mode power supplies, and thyristor-controlled devices. This non-linear load type is prone

to fluctuation since the load impedance is alternating. They draw currents on sudden short
17
pulses. The generating pulses distort waveforms, which develop as harmonics [28].

Hence, non-linear loads are harmonics-generating loads. Sine waves having frequencies

that are multiples of the fundamental frequency are called harmonics that may interact

with the original sine wave. Interference is a phenomenon that occurs whenever two or

more waves contact. They combine to produce a wave that can have a larger, smaller, or

identical amplitude. Wave interference comes in two types’ constructive interference and

destructive interference [31].

Constructive interference is the mutual reinforcement of two or more waves with

equal frequency and phase that results in a single amplitude that is equal to the sum of the

amplitudes of the individual waves. For constructive interference to take place, the phase

difference between the waves must be zero [32]. The constructive interference model is

depicted in Figure 6.

18
 Figure 6. Constructive Interference Waveform

The two waves that are traveling in the same direction and in phase are identified

by the Figure 6 as amplitudes. The upward displacement of the medium occurs when the

waves encounter constructive interference, which is bigger than the displacement of the

interfering pulses. Additionally, it demonstrates the waves' pattern of beneficial

interference. The term "resultant amplitude" refers to the total of all individual wave

amplitudes that occur when the crests of two waves of the same frequency cross. The

aggregate amplitudes of all the waves that interact are smaller than the size of the

resulting wave.

It is possible for

the aggregate of

two waves to be zero or

smaller than either wave

19
alone, this is a destructive interference [33]. The destructive interference model is

depicted in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Destructive Interference Waveform

Based on the illustration, considering two identical waves that are wholly out of

phase with one another. This implies that the crests of one will inevitably fall on the

troughs of the other, and vice versa. The two waves' combined amplitudes are subtracted.

As a result, the combined wave is smaller than the sum of the separate waves [31].

Viably, a pure positive or negative interference is quite unlikely. Thus,

interferences that are both positive and negative are produced because of wave

interactions. There are several harmonics in each wave. In relation to the original

waveform, some of these are in phase and some are out of phase. The harmonics' in-

phase locations are combined constructively at those moments. Additionally, the

harmonics are added destructively at the locations where they are out of phase with the

primary wave. So, a warped non-sinusoidal wave is the end consequence [31].

The fundamental frequency component of periodic waves is represented by

harmonic number 1, while odd harmonics have odd numbers (e.g., 3,5,7,9,11,13) and

20
even harmonics have odd

numbers (e.g., 2,4.6.8,10).

The constant or DC component of

the waveform is

represented by harmonic

number 0. The net difference

between the positive and

negative sides of an entire

waveform cycle is known as the DC component. Most nonlinear loads create odd

harmonics because even harmonics cancel out. Even harmonics can be produced by

uneven current draw in the positive and negative half of one cycle of operation [26].

Most systems are 60 Hz. Considering this, the harmonic order is 120 Hz, 180 Hz,

240 Hz, the list goes on. Typically, it uses the harmonic frequency or a multiple of the

fundamental frequency to indicate various orders [25]. The multiplicity of harmonic with

the fundamental frequency defines how many cycles were there [34]. Figure 8 below

represents the different order of normal waveform and the complex waveform due to

harmonics [6].

21
 Figure 8. Fundamental and Complex Harmonic Waveform

The fundamental waveform can also be referred to as a first harmonics waveform,

as shown in the Figure 8. As can be seen in the left-hand column, the second harmonic

has a frequency that is twice the fundamental, the third harmonic has a frequency that is

three times the fundamental, and the fourth harmonic has a frequency that is four times

the fundamental. Due to the harmonic content being added to the fundamental frequency,

the red waveforms represent the actual waveform shapes as perceived by a load. The

complex wave structure produced by the interaction between the fundamental waveform

and the harmonic waveform at various harmonic frequencies is displayed in the right-

hand column. In addition to the quantity and strength of the harmonic frequencies, the

final complex waveform's shape will also be influenced by the phase connection between

the fundamental or base frequency and the various harmonic frequencies [6].

A voltage sag is a brief reduction in the rms voltage magnitude, usually at 90%

for 0.5-60 cycles that is typically brought on by a power system fault. The It is the most

significant power quality issue that many industrial customers, particularly those with a

process. Process controllers, programmable logic controllers, adjustable speed drives,

and robotics are examples of equipment utilized in modern industrial plants that is

actually getting more sensitive to voltage sags as the complexity of the system

increases. Even motor starter relays and contactors can be susceptible to voltage sags,

shutting off a process when they fail [35].

22
 Sometimes, voltage sag is assumed to be an interruption. However, it is important

to remember that voltage sag happens when the voltage drops below 90% of the nominal

and interruption is a complete loss of voltage [35].

When large loads were turned off, the voltage on the power line increases for a

short period of time and hence the voltage is beyond the limit of the supply. This

phenomenon is known as voltage surges or voltage swells. The voltage activity can be

referred to as swelling when the voltage increases 10% or more above the nominal-an

opposite of the sagging [36]. Hence, dips can also be described as overcurrent.

A transient voltage is a sudden, unwanted electrical voltage that can range from a

few volts to several thousand volts and lasts for a few microseconds to a few milliseconds

in an electrical circuit. Transient voltages are produced when there is a quick release of

energy as a result of events like lightning strikes, unfiltered electrical equipment, contact

bounce, arcing, capacitor bank switching, or generator ON/OFF. Transient voltages are

stronger in magnitude and last for a shorter time than swells. Lightning and defective

contactors are the two most typical sources of transients [37].

Non-linear loads are those that possess currents that are not proportional to the

voltage and fluctuates based on the alternating load impedance [7]. As shown in Figure 9,

23
fundamental frequency of 60 Hz which is the standard frequency of AC supply in the

Philippines, is accompanied with a distorted waveform and a 3 rd harmonic power

frequency [38].

Figure 9. Harmonic Distortion of the Electrical Current Waveform

These waveforms significantly represent the behavior of the current in any

electrical supply and represent the deviation of harmonics.

Harmonics are typically categorized according to their name, frequency, and

sequence. In a balanced, 3-phase, 4-wire system, harmonic sequence refers to the phase

rotation of the harmonic voltages and currents about the fundamental waveform. The

fourth, seventh, tenth, and so forth in a positive sequence would rotate in the same

direction (forward) as the fundamental frequency. Positive sequence harmonics are

typically undesired because the combining of the waveforms causes conductors, power

lines, and transformers to overheat [6].

A negative sequence harmonic, however, rotates counterclockwise to the

fundamental frequency (2nd, 5th, 8th, etc.). Negative sequence harmonics circulate

between the phases and cause additional problems for motors because the opposite phase

rotation weakens the rotating magnetic field that motors, especially induction motors,

need in order to function properly, resulting in a reduction in mechanical torque [6].

The rotational sequence of a different collection of distinct harmonics known as

"triplens" (multiple of three) is zero. Triplens are displaced by zero degrees because, as

their name suggests, they are multiples of the third harmonic (3rd, 6th, 9th, etc.).

Harmonics in the zero sequence go back and forth between the phase and neutral or

24
ground [6]. Triplen harmonics do more than just distort voltage waveforms. It may cause

random failures of end-user equipment, nuisance tripping, overheating of transformer

units, and overheating of the building wiring [39]. Third order or triplen harmonics do not

cancel out, in contrast to the positive and negative sequence harmonic currents that do.

As an alternative, sum the numbers in the common neutral wire, which receives current

from all three phases. As a result, the neutral wire's current amplitude caused by these

triplen harmonics may be up to three times that of the phase current at the fundamental

frequency, which may decrease its efficiency and cause it to overheat [6]. The harmonic

frequency that relates to the 60 Hz fundamental waveforms is shown in the table below.

Table 3. Harmonic Frequency Using 60 Hz Fundamental Waveforms

Name Fundamental 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th

Frequency, Hz 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540

Sequence + - 0 + - 0 + - 0

The sequence effects are represented in the Table 3 as multiples of the 60 Hz

fundamental frequency. Here, the frequencies and magnitudes of the most dominant

harmonic components, whose harmonic frequency is multiples (whole integers) of the

fundamental frequency, are directly related to the degree of waveform distortion that is

present and gives a complex waveform its unique appearance. Low order harmonics from

25
the second to the nineteenth are the most predominate harmonic elements, with triplens

being the worst [6]. With this, the third order waveform is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Third Order Harmonic Waveform

Figure 10 illustrates how the third harmonics between the phases combine to

produce oscillating current. The current in the neutral conductor increases because of the

abrupt increase in the zero-sequence current caused by this. As a result, the third

harmonic is what causes the majority of harmonic problems [39].

There are several sources of harmonics in power systems. As represented in

Figure 11, harmonic components are drawn due to the non-linear load connected to the

circuit [40]. Typically, these sources come from several electrical and electronic

equipment and devices that has rectifier or converter [30]. From these, there are several

configurations of rectifiers and converters that causes harmonics in power system.

Figure 11. Illustration of a Harmonic Current Source

Single-phase rectifiers are used in several power systems to convert AC power to

DC power, also it used in low-power applications as the front-end of switching power

supplies and small motor drives [40]. Usually, this type of rectifier is used for universal

power supply (UPS) systems, switched-mode power supply (SMPS) in computers, LEDs,

and battery chargers [41]. Aside from single-phase rectifiers, three-phase rectifiers are
26
another configuration of a rectifier that causes harmonics in power systems [40]. It is

commonly used for high-power applications due to its high utilization factor for three-

phase system [42].

Another harmonic source present in almost any establishment are high-frequency

fluorescent ballasts. This equipment has is rich in high-frequency voltage and current

harmonics due to increase their efficacy [40], [43]. Figure 12 shows a schematic diagram

of the fluorescent ballast.

Figure 12. Schematic Diagram of High-frequency Fluorescent Ballasts

From the configuration of the fluorescent ballast, several rectifications of the

electrical supply happens to generate the high voltage necessary to power the lamp [40].

Generally, all the electrical loads that convert AC power to DC power and vice

versa are considered are sources of harmonic frequency [39]. Electrical loads like

microwave ovens, personal computer, copier machines, televisions, welders, and energy-

efficient lighting systems such as fluorescent lamps and LED light were great sources of

harmonics. With the presence of harmonics, electrical waveforms are altered, and power

is distorted.

In order to effectively execute the analysis of the existence of harmonics in power

systems, there are certain information that is required to be determine under steady-state

conditions [44]. Parameters like resonance, harmonic currents and voltages, and

27
distortion levels and factors are just some of the information that is necessary when

conducting such study [30]. The amount of distortion in a voltage or current waveform is

known as total harmonic distortion, or THD [31]. Under IEEE Std 3002.8-2018, common

harmonic distortion indices like Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) and rms value factor

can be easily computed using Eqs. 2.2 and 2.3 [45].

√∑
∞
2
Un
n=2
THD=(100) (2.2)
U1

where:

n – the harmonic order and usually the summation is made starting from

the fundamental up to the 50th harmonic order

U – designates either voltage or current

√∑
∞
U rms = U 2n
n=1

(2.3)
where:

Urms – rms value

n – the harmonic order and usually the summation is made starting from

the fundamental up to the 50th harmonic order

U – designates either voltage or current

28
 These quantities can be further simplified when used in computation by

introducing several approaches. The first approach of performing harmonic analysis can

be done through a computer program, which utilizes a harmonic power flow analysis

program to conduct the analysis. The second approach of computation can be done

through a spreadsheet which computes harmonic impedances by inputting parameters like

Base MVA, short-circuit capacity, ratings, and fundamental voltages and currents for the

systems [30].

Another equation to measure the total harmonic distortion or THD is presented on

the equation below.

THD ( % )= √ (ID¿¿ 12 + ID22 +… ID2n ) ¿

(2.4)

where:

IDn – the magnitude of the nth harmonic

Along with this is the Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is the root mean square of

the harmonic content represented as a percentage of the maximum demand current,

considering harmonic components up to the 50th order and notably excluding

interharmonics. When necessary, harmonic components with orders greater than 50 may

be included [46]. The total demand distortion equation is presented below.

NL
TDD=THD NL X (2.5)
TL

29
 where:

TDD – TDD of the system

THDNL – THD of non-linear loads

NL – kVA of non-linear loads

TL – kVA of total loads

Voltage THD is the total harmonic distortion of the voltage waveform. The ratio

of the root-sum-square value of the harmonic content of the voltage to the root-mean-

square value of the fundamental voltage. The equation for VTHD is presented below.

V THD =
√V 2
2 +V 23 +V 24 +V 25 +…
X 100 % (2.6)
V1

Current THD is the total harmonic distortion of the current waveform. The ratio

of the root-sum-square value of the harmonic content of the current to the root-mean-

square value of the fundamental current. The equation for ITHD is presented below.

I THD=
√ I +I2
2
2
3 + I 24 + I 25+ …
X 100 % (2.7)
I1

The short circuit ratio, also known as I SC/IL, is the relationship between the

greatest fundamental load current and the short circuit current (I SC) available at the point

of common coupling (PCC) (IL). The recommended maximum load current (I L) is the

average current of the maximum demand during the previous 12 months. But because this

value is unclear by nature, it is difficult to calculate at the design stage when measurable

load is not available [39].

30
 Minimizing energy expenditures has become increasingly important as lean

manufacturing has become the industry standard. Controlling usage is important, but so is

the utility's billing policy for that consumption. Here, the power factor is important. The

power factor in an electrical system is the ratio of actual to apparent power. The current

draw increases as the power factor decreases. To reduce power dissipation, higher current

demands thicker wires and a more durable infrastructure. Facilities with low power

factors are charged more because of the increased cost to utilities [47].

However, methods are available to reduce harmonics and power factor. A

measure of an electrical system's efficiency is provided by power factor. Displacement

power factor and total harmonic distortion make up true power factor. Many times, it is

reduced to only displacement power factor, however that is only true for a particular

category of linear loads. The simplification is no longer valid for nonlinear loads like

servo drives and variable-frequency drives. Diode-bridge rectifiers are used in servo

drives and variable-frequency drives (VFDs). The power signal is distorted by harmonics

introduced by diodes since they only operate during the portion of the cycle where the

input voltage is greater than the DC bus voltage [47].

However, there are recommended harmonic limits on power systems that vary

depending on the level of voltage distortion as per the IEEE Std 519-2014 [48].

Harmonics control in a power system is a joint responsibility between suppliers (utility)

and end-users (customers). It is advised to set harmonic limitations for both voltage and

current. This can keep the voltage distortion within acceptable ranges by limiting the

harmonic currents [39]. It must be noted that these limits are applied only at the point of

31
common coupling of the system and shall not be applied to every individual equipment

[48]. Point of common coupling, as defined by the IEEE, is the connection where the

local electric utility and end-user meets [49]. The figure below shows the flow of point of

common coupling.

Figure 13. Point of Common Coupling

As depicted in the Figure 13, these connections connect the utility system to the

consumer. A PCC is located on the primary side of the transformer for an industrial user

on the left, and a PCC is placed on the secondary side of the transformer for commercial

customers on the right. To limit specific harmonic indices, currents and voltages at the

point of common connection in order to lessen the harmonic impacts at any location

throughout the entire system (PCC), any place that both the utility and the customer may

reach for direct communication, such as a point of metering both meaningful

measurements of the harmonic indices or estimations at the site of interference (POI)

using mutually acceptable means [50]. Table 4 presents the certain voltage distortion

limits are several ranges of bus voltages applicable.

Table 4. Voltage Distortion Limits

Total Harmonic
Bus Voltage V at PCC Individual Harmonic (%)
Distortion THD (%)

V ≤ 1.0 kV 5.0 8.0

1 kV ≤ V ≤ 69 kV 3.0 5.0

69 kV ≤ V ≤ 161 kV 1.5 2.5

161 kV < V 1.0 1.5*

32
 *High-voltage systems can have up to 2.0% THD where the cause is an HVDC terminal whose

effects will have attenuated at points in the network where future users may be connected.

For system levels up to 1,000 volts, IEEE Standard 519-2014 defines harmonic

limits on voltage as 8% of the total harmonic distortion and 5% of the fundamental

voltage for any single harmonic. The limits are 5% for total harmonic distortion and 3%

for any single harmonic, with a range of 1,000 volts to 69,000 volts [48]. Voltage

distortion will continually be larger downstream where harmonic currents are generated

and where system impedance is at its highest as voltage distortion is the result of

harmonic current passing through the impedance of the power system [39].

Aside from voltage distortion limits, there are also current distortion limits , as

seen on Table 5, set by the IEEE for systems rated 120 V through 69 kV [48]. Similar to

the voltage distortion limits, these are also applied to the point of common coupling

(PCC) and should be taken as the sum of the currents corresponding to the maximum

demand during each of the twelve previous months divided by 12 [48].

Table 5. Current Distortion Limits for Systems Rated 120 V through 69 kV

Maximum harmonic current distortion in percent of I L

Individual harmonic order ¿

I SC / I L 3 ≤ h < 11 11 ≤ h < 17 ≤ h < 23 ≤ h < 35 ≤ h ≤ 50 TDD

17 23 35

<20e 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0

20 < 50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0

50 < 100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0

100 < 1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0

33
 > 1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0

*Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonics limits above.
*Current distortions that result in a dc offset, e.g., half-wave converters, are not allowed.
*All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of
actual Isc/IL
Where:
ISC – maximum short-circuit current at PCC
IL – maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at the PCC under normal
load operating conditions

The table illustrates the largest value for both the total demand distortion (current)

and the individual harmonic current [48]. The restrictions are strictest for short circuit

ratios under 20, as this lower ratio denotes either a large user, a high impedance power

system, or both. Where the short circuit is low, voltage distortion is more likely to form

from the current harmonics consumed at a PCC [51].

This practice of setting harmonic distortion limits is done to establish steady-state

limitations when designing electrical systems. It the responsibility of end-users and

service operators to maintain these limit values to limit transient conditions in the

electrical systems [48]. Transient conditions happen when there is a change of operating

conditions such as faults, switching operations, lightning strikes or load variations [52].

The main distinction between how harmonics are constrained at current and voltage. All

specifications for voltage harmonics are rigid. The developers of IEEE 519 decided to set

a restriction on current harmonics dependent on the strength of the voltage source. This

makes sense because a robust grid will be able to suppress current harmonics to a far

greater extent than a weak grid without affecting voltage. Voltage distortion and current

distortion may have comparable levels in extremely weak grids. It may be claimed that

weaker networks require tougher emission regulations than stronger grids do [46].

34
 The Philippine Distribution Code has its own standards and limits. It was

indicated in section 3.2.4 of PDC 2017 edition that the THD of the voltage and TDD of

the current shall not exceed 5% during normal operating conditions, with 60Hz as the

standard frequency in the country.

Network analyzers can be utilized to check the presence of harmonics. Those

machines can measure all the electrical magnitudes in the electrical system. However,

portable analyzes are expensive making them unavailable to some. With that, the table

below can be utilized as a substitute. The table includes the potential damaged electrical

component that has specific indications to be observed. Any marking can be used to

indicate such presence in the system [53].

Table 6. Harmonics Analyzer

Electrical Components Indications YES NO UNSURE

CONDUCTOR Cable heating

Tripping of protection

NEUTRAL Heating of neutral conductor

CONDUCTOR

NEUTRAL Heating of neutral conductor

35
 CONDUCTOR Conductor degradation

Tripping of protection

CAPACITORS Heating of the capacitors

Premature aging of the capacitors

(loss of capacity)

Capacitor destruction

TRANSFORMERS Overheating of the windings

Decrease performance

Extra-large transformer

Table 6. Continuation of Harmonics Analyzer

MOTORS Overheating of windings

Winding degredation

Decrease in performance

Vibrations on the shaft

Mechanical wearing on bearings

Eccentricity of the axis

36
 Surges that destroy the windings

POWER SUPPLY Difficulty in synchronization and

UNIT switching-on the unit

Incorrect magnitude values

CONTROL AND Interferences in sensitive

MEASURING equipment

EQUIPMENT

The table provides a guide for manual diagnosis of harmonics in an electrical

system. This serves as a pre-testing method when proponents are doubtful of buying or

renting testing equipment. Though results from this test are not as precise compared to

network analyzers, manual testing provides ease and peace to the consumers.

Furthermore, the testing process does not have any standard procedures. Interpretation to

the results of the manual testing varies. It must be kept that the higher the indications

there are in the system, there is greater chance of possible decreasing power quality [53].

In the early 20th century, intensified efforts to improve the harmonics became

more widespread. To lower no-load THD, these techniques concentrated on designing

better main alternators. This, along with the 10% THD AIEE harmonic limit (Section

1.3), led to a noticeable waveform point [54].

Harmonics mitigation becomes more and more crucial as non-linear equipment

and loads are increasingly demanded. Mitigation must be considered if a harmonics

research or test reveals excessive harmonic levels or a resonance state that could be

37
hazardous. Depending on the circumstance, there are frequently a number of

countermeasures [39].

There are a lot of methods of controlling harmonics when a problem arises. One

of the most common technique in harmonic control is using single-tuned filters for

harmonic currents to have a path that low impedance compared to the fundamental

current [44].

Second method is through multilevel inverters wherein a variety of power

semiconductors and capacitor voltage sources are used in multilevel inverters to produce

voltages with stepped waveforms at their output. MLI is used to convert a DC input

source into an almost sinusoidal signal (AC). MLI is widely used in compressors,

synchronous motors, converters, and power production plants because it is easy to

implement, reduces the need for transformers, reduces the need for filters, and enhances

the harmonic quality of the output voltage. The MLI based DC-AC converter is

increasingly used in electronic power conversion systems because it has numerous

advantages over the traditional PWM inverter. When used as an inverter, MLI provides

superior output waveform than two level PWM inverters, and when used as active

rectifiers, they enable precise power factor correction and improve sinusoidal current

approximation. Cascaded Multi Level Inverter (CMLI) provides great performance with

less THD and employs less power electronic components than many other traditional

topologies, such as Diode Clamped Multi Level Inverter (DCMLI) and Flying Capacitor

Multi Level Inverter (FCMLI) [55].

Along with that, third method could be lowering the harmonic currents the load

produces. Fourth, adding filters will either eliminate harmonic currents from the system,
38
prevent harmonic currents from entering the system, or locally supply harmonic currents.

Last, implement filters, inductors, and capacitors to alter the system's frequency response

[56].

Aside from these, other techniques can also be applied when reducing harmonics

as seen on Table 7 [40], [44].

Table 7. Methods of Decreasing Harmonic Distortion

Method Description

Power Harmonic Filters
Network Topology Reconfiguration
Used when there are loads such as power
electronic converters or adjustable speed
drives; capacitors are used as power
harmonic filter to minimize the harmonic
voltage at PCC
Initially done by identifying sectors of the
power systems that generate large
harmonic currents, then distribute these
non-linear loads among different feeders

Table 7. Continuation of Methods of Decreasing Harmonic Distortion

Increase of Supply Mode and Stiffness In design perspective, this method is done
by adding cogeneration on the supply bus
and increasing the substation’s size; in
electrical concept, this is done in
increasing the short-circuit current and
39
 related load current ratio
Series Reactor as Harmonic Attenuator A method done to provide control on
short-circuit current levels; provides
Elements
attenuation to surge and harmonic
currents generated at both sides of the
reactor
Phase balancing Among all the methods, this is by far the
simplest; involves calculation of the
greatest deviation of the phase-to-phase
voltage from the average voltage

Based on Table 7, it can be observed that there are numerous ways to

reduce harmonics in a power system. When there are loads like power electronic

converters or adjustable speed drives, one approach to assist attenuate the harmonics is to

utilize a power filter. Capacitors are used as power harmonic filters to reduce the

harmonic voltage at PCC.

Mitigation techniques for harmonic distortion can be done either passive or active

filter solutions [57]. These solutions vary on how harmonics are mitigated in a power

system. Active filter solutions diminish harmonic distortion by generating actively

harmonics in opposite phase to the distorting harmonic and eliminating them by

superposition [57]. On the other hand, passive filter solutions are done by connecting

capacitors, reactors and resistors forming a conventional filter in the power system [57].

Among the many differences of these two, price is one of the most significant factors.

Active filters are relatively cheaper than passive filters due to the development of IGBTs

or insulated gate bipolar transistors and DSPs or digital signal processors [57]. Aside

from that, passive filters require designers to conduct careful network study necessary to
40
design a proper filter and it has no easy compensation in the dynamic changes of the

harmonic distortion [57]. Meanwhile, active filters are simple to retrofit and to scale,

however, harmonic voltages cannot be influenced directly and there is no voltage

buffering possible when it is connected in parallel to the system. Serial connection of

active filters is more costly compared to parallel-connected active filters due to its

structure [57].

There has been several available software in conducting harmonic analysis in

power system. One software commercially available is the EasyPower ® Harmonic

Analysis Software which identifies and mitigate harmonic and power-quality problems

straight from a dynamic one-line [58]. It has an intuitive user interface that is meant to

save time and frustration as seen on Figure 14.

41
 Figure 14. User Interface of EasyPower® Harmonic Analysis Software

Among its complex features is the delivery of integer and non-integer harmonics

for the most accurate modeling and real-world calculations. It also has a comprehensive

up-to-date device library, providing measured harmonic injections for specific

equipment. The software has the ability to analyze harmonic currents, voltages, and

system interference for IEEE 519 compliance [58]. Another commercial software for

harmonics is Eaton’s CYME Harmonic Analysis Module. Engineers may use it to test

various mitigation strategies and gauge the harmonic level of their electrical network. It

has several studies, including frequency scan, voltage and current distortion calculations,

capacitor rating and filter size analysis, K-Factor and Factor-K calculations, and more

[59]. The user interface of the software is provided on Figure 15.

42
 Figure 15. User Interface of Eaton’s CYME Harmonic Analysis Module

With the aid of the module as seen on Figure 15, users can readily identify

resonant frequencies caused by capacitor banks as well as simulate non-linear loads and

other sources of harmonic currents, such as converters and arc furnaces. The module

allows for the precise evaluation of the effect of non-linear loads on the electrical

network due to its extensive modelling and analytical capabilities [59].

Lastly, ETAP Harmonic Analysis Software is the most sought-after program used

by engineers in conduct harmonic studies. With the help of the harmonic analysis

module, engineers may simulate harmonic current and voltage sources, pinpoint

harmonic issues, lessen nuisance trips, develop and test filters, and detect harmonic

voltage and current distortion limits breaches [60]. A sample illustration of the ETAP

Harmonic Study is seen on Figure 16.

43
 Figure 16. Sample Illustration of ETAP Harmonic Study

As seen on Figure 16, power system component frequency models and intricate

harmonic source models are used to make thorough calculations for load flow and

frequency scan. In addition to Crystal Reports, the results are displayed graphically and

include harmonic order, harmonic spectrum plots, and harmonic waveform plots [60].

The power quality analyzer is among the materials and equipment required to

carry out this study. This analyzes electrical power signals to determine the load's

capacity in relation to the source. This can be used to measure the flow in either

alternating current or direct current, considering the discrepancies for AC circuits. It shall

also be used to determine the current and voltage in a system. Given these constraints, the

device can measure other electrical parameters such as harmonic distortion [61].

44
Related Literature

The operation of electrical systems can be hampered by a variety of various

disturbances, including harmonic waveform distortion. In view of the growing use of

power electronics, which essentially function through electrical switching, it is also a

unique difficulty. A variety of nonlinear loads generate distinct yet recognizable

harmonic spectra. Finding potential causes of harmonic distortion becomes easier as a

result [62].

Electricity users and utilities alike need to get familiar with the distinctive

waveform distortions that various harmonic sources can cause. This will make it easier to

develop more effective techniques for containing and removing them from the locations

where they are formed [62].

Any non-linear loads that generate voltage harmonics and current harmonics are

the primary sources of harmonics. This happens because of the device's variable

resistance. In actuality, the resistance varies with each sine wave. Therefore, a non-linear

device is one in which the relationship between the applied voltage and the current is not

linear [62].

In an investigation published by Chang et al [63], the waveforms produced by

fluorescent lamps with traditional electromagnetic ballasts is determined. Around 8% to

13% of THD is produced by the equipment and usually brought by the 3 rd harmonic

current [63]. Due to this, the power factor of the electrical system was observed to be

poor, and a capacitor is used to improve this parameter. To carefully analyze the

45
generation of harmonics brought by fluorescent lamps, 18 pieces of this was tested as

seen on Table 8.

Table 8. Harmonic Contents and Power Factor of 18 Fluorescent Lamp

NO. PF THD (%) I1(A) I3 (%) I5 (%) I7 (%) I9 (%) I11 (%)
1 0.535 10.95 1.34 10.86 1.10 0.55 0.55 0.19
2 0.534 8.55 1.18 8.39 1.26 1.05 0.21 0.13
3 0.512 10.34 1.20 10.12 1.86 0.83 0.41 0.21
4 0.518 9.84 1.23 8.26 1.61 1.01 0.20 0.40
5 0.527 11.76 1.19 11.64 1.46 0.41 0.62 0.21
6 0.528 10.93 1.28 10.85 1.16 0.58 0.38 0.20
7 0.546 8.93 1.14 8.71 1.52 1.09 0.43 0.43
8 0.536 11.05 1.23 10.89 1.62 0.81 0.40 0.20
9 0.535 11.73 1.22 11.59 1.63 0.40 0.61 0.20
10 0.528 11.87 1.22 11.74 1.62 0.40 0.40 0.20
11 0.549 11.57 1.15 11.40 1.72 0.64 0.64 0.22
12 0.561 8.80 1.15 8.59 1.72 0.64 0.43 0.43
13 0.564 8.38 1.13 8.12 1.76 0.88 0.43 0.43
14 0.557 8.66 1.17 8.47 1.48 0.85 0.42 0.21
15 0.561 8.60 1.13 8.35 1.76 0.88 0.44 0.44
16 0.553 12.53 1.14 12.34 1.95 0.65 0.65 0.22
17 0.552 11.88 1.14 11.71 1.96 0.43 0.22 0.22
18 0.544 9.68 1.13 9.43 1.76 1.10 0.43 0.43

As seen on Table 8, the 16th fluorescent lamp with a power factor of 0.553

generated a Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) value of 12.53%, the highest among all the

46
eighteen fixtures. It can also be observed from table that the power factor among all the

lamps lies between 0.5 and 0.6, causing the need to improve this and design a capacitor

[63].

There are now many energy-efficient products accessible because of the growing

emphasis on energy efficiency. One of these items is a compact fluorescent bulb with an

electronic ballast. CFLs can significantly reduce energy costs compared to energy-saving

initiatives are promoting the use of incandescent lighting. CFLs were created from

traditional fluorescent discharge lamps, however instead of the traditional system's initial

inductive components, they employ an electronic ballast that powers gas-filled

fluorescent lamps [64].

Recently, many consumers have shown a significant level of interest in switching

from traditional incandescent bulbs to compact fluorescent lamps as a result of

encouragement from power providers and governments. Due to its reduced energy

consumption and longer average useful life with equivalent luminous brightness, CFLs

are being employed more frequently. Although the current drawn from the power source

is far from sinusoidal, using it frequently could have a very negative impact on the

quality of the power supply [64].

To examine the effects of CFL on the distribution network, some researchers have

conducted field experiments as well as direct harmonic modeling on local feeder or

distribution network. Adopting CFLs can cut network losses by 27% while the overall

losses for the 110kV network's power transit is still at 2.86%. The losses in the low

voltage network are not included in these losses [64].

47
 Based on the study, compact fluorescent lights' behavior with electronic ballasts is

observed, and it is demonstrated that this behavior causes harmonics to be produced as a

result of CFL operation and increases current THD along CFL loading. The harmonic

performance of CFLs demonstrates a connection between the type of ballast and its

design. The widespread usage of small fluorescent lights would undoubtedly create

significant harmonic distortion of the input electricity [64].

Additionally, it raises the peak current, which could damage network fuses and

relays. As a result, consumers need to be informed about how to use CFLs and other light

sources in moderation so that the proportion of CFLs increases may be kept in check, as

well as the distortion they cause [64].

As previously mentioned by Hoevenaars [65] in his article, variable speed drives

found with front-end diode bridge rectifiers of 3-phase, 6-pulse static power convertors,

are known to produce harmonics due to its nonlinear nature. If these generated harmonics

are not treated, the Total Harmonic Current Distortion (THID) usually spikes from 100-

140% with the 5th and 7th harmonics being dominant [65].

Figure 17 shows the schematic diagram of this variable speed drive and the bar

graph of the harmonics generated.

48
 Figure 17. Variable Speed Drive with 3-phase, 6-Pulse Static Power Converter

As seen on Figure 17, the 5th harmonic level of the equipment was able to

generate 75% harmonic current of the fundamental frequency of 60 Hz [65]. With that,

methods of harmonic treatment are applied to mitigate the consequential effects of

harmonics to the power system.

The production, transmission, and consumption of electric distribution networks

that support modern civilization are based on alternating voltage and current that have

sinusoidal waveforms. A nearly flawless sine wave of current underlies every physical

phenomenon upon which the energy system is built. The sine wave is maintained, and the

system components are linear when loads made up of inductances, capacitances, and

resistances are connected to it. The system's essential sinusoidal nature of the current

flowing through it remains when nonlinear devices are coupled to it. The issue with

nonlinear load converters of power (rectifiers and thyristor power supplies) are linked to

the network. There are numerous types of static power converters available for various

uses. Different circuit topologies for static power converters are referred to by different

names, including rectifiers, inverters, cycloconverters, single-phase, three-phase, single-

way, double-way, bridge, star connection, and six-pulse. They are all nonlinear, which is

something they all share. They need non-sinusoidal current from the power system. Even

49
so, they are subject to a few fundamental laws that allow for a study of the nonlinearity's

impacts [66].

With the increasing development in technology, most of the electrical and

electronic devices prevalent nowadays are mostly utilizing rectifiers to convert AC to

DC. In the telecommunications sector, rectifiers are necessary in constructing network

systems [67]. Network systems such as wireless access network and fixed access network

are just some of the areas of telecommunications where rectifiers are deemed to be used

[67]. Consequently, electronic devices such as televisions are also composed of rectifiers

since DC is important in the operation of this equipment.

In a study by Anga et al [68], various rectifier circuits are compared in terms of

the THD value generated, as seen on Table 9. These rectifier circuits are commonly

applied in power appliances like televisions among other electronic devices [69].

Table 9. THD Value of Different Type of Rectifier Circuit

Type of Rectifier THD (%)

Diode rectifier without filter

0.1
capacitor at output

Diode rectifier with filter

300
capacitor at output

PWM Rectifier 2.6

As seen on Table 9, several types of rectifiers are studies in terms of its THD

output. The diode rectifier with filter capacitor at output has produced the highest THD

50
value of 300%. Usually this type of rectifier circuit is used to perform signal processing

and have a stable DC voltage [70]. As observed, the diode rectifier without filter

capacitor at output produced the lowest THD value of 0.1.

Operating electronic control devices in harmonic systems can occasionally result

in malfunctions. Harmonics modify and move zero pass points as well as the voltage

waveform. In electronic control systems like PLCs, the zero pass point serves as a crucial

reference point, and any change to this reference has an impact on the system's overall

performance [71].

Buildings like office spaces, hospitals, data centers, and others must have

HVACR (heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration) systems to keep the air

conditioned and comfortable. Systems for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning use a

lot of energy. Variable-frequency drives (VFDs) used properly in these systems will

significantly lower their energy usage. Power line harmonics is a phenomenon that is

brought on by VFDs and numerous other sorts of electronics. It is crucial to be aware of

harmonics, the potential issues they can lead to, and the solutions that are available to

eliminate those harmonics because the benefits of utilizing a VFD greatly exceed the

disadvantages [72].

It's crucial to remember that VFDs are not a system's lone source of harmonics.

However, because VFDs in HVACR applications may account for a sizable fraction of

the total building power consumption, they are frequently the subject of discussions about

harmonic calculation and reduction. For HVACR applications, some examples of VFDs

are pumps (for chilled water, condenser water, and hot water), fans (for supply,

compressors, return, exhaust, and cooling tower). Other sources of strong harmonics, for

51
instance, include fans with electronically commutated motors (ECMs), lighting systems,

both single-phase power supplies and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems [72].

The EEP had presented that air-conditioning units can produce a %THD of less than 5%

[73].

The most common VFD design operates by rectifying a three-phase AC line input

voltage using diodes. This converts the voltage across a bank of capacitors into a steady

DC voltage. The motor's speed, torque, and direction are then controlled by the VFD by

converting the DC back into an AC waveform. The three-phase rectification of the AC to

DC produces the non-linear current [72].

The use of variable frequency drives (VFDs) in HVAC applications has

significantly risen. Those VFDs air handlers, pumps, chillers, and tower fans are now

often used. A deeper comprehension of VFDs will improve the use and selection of

HVAC systems as well as equipment. Only when the line voltage is higher than the

internal DC Bus voltage do VFDs draw current from the line. This only happens close to

the sine wave's peaks. As a result, the entire current is drawn in brief bursts (i.e., at higher

frequencies). The harmonics generated are impacted by variations in VFD design [62].

Electric arcs have very non-linear voltage-current properties. After the arc ignites,

the short-circuit current, whose value is solely constrained by the power system

impedance, causes the voltage to drop. The electric arc furnace is the category's primary

harmonic source. It has magnetic ballasts and discharge lighting. Due to variations in the

arc feed material, the harmonics generated by electric arc furnaces cannot be accurately

predicted. The arc current exhibits a continuous range of harmonic frequencies of both

integer and non-integer order and is very nonlinear. The arc furnace load exhibits the
52
worst distortion as a result of the physical phenomenon of the melting with a moving

electrode and molten material. From cycle to cycle, the wave might not be the same [62].

To continuously adapt and get on to the technological advancement, personal

computers are utilized in the campus. Aside from the offices that uses computers for their

transactions, there are numerous computer laboratories in the campus to help students in

the learning process as those were mostly used for research purposes, programming, and

other academic-related lectures [74], [75]. To continuously adapt and get on to the

technological advancement, personal computers are utilized in the campus.

However, personal computers are nonlinear load and the number of personal

computers utilized in BatState-U Alangilan can be considered as harmonic source.

Depending on the amount, single-phase nonlinear loads have the potential to cause

harmonic distortion in the voltage and current of the electrical system which may lead to

overheating of the distribution system, increased neutral currents, and mechanical

oscillations in generators and motors. The power quality in King Fahd University was

measured, specifically the harmonics produced by the thousands of personal computers

inside the university. The single line diagram of a specific building at the university is

presented on the figure below [74], [75].

53
Figure 18. Building 14 Single Line Diagram and Points of Measurements and Switch

Boards

The figure above shows that there are three different points of connection. The

point 1 has the connections of each of the classrooms and laboratories in Building 14;

point 2 has the uninterruptible power supply connection; and point 3 has the electrical

power distancing problem connection, a 4KW connection, and is the one connected to the

main power supply.

Each point was tested separately using Fluke 43B power quality analyzer. Three

testing at point one was made which resulted to.

Table 10. Testing at Point One of Total Harmonic Distortion

Testing Total Harmonic Distortion

1 10.6 %

2 10.7 %

3 10.8 %

The table shows that the THD level increases after each testing. Moreover, the

testing at point two resulted to:

Table 11. Testing at Point Two of Total Harmonic Distortion

54
 Testing Total Harmonic Distortion

1 29 %

2 28.4 %

3 28.9 %

Unlike the results from testing point one, the THD level at point two were

unstable. The maximum THD level at point two is at 28.9%, considering that this is the

median among the three. Lastly, the maximum THD at point 3 is at 20.6%. The

maximum THD levels were analyzed according to the standards provided by the PQ

analyzer, which states that harmonic distortion is probably acceptable if the THD is less

than 20%. The point one has only the maximum THD level within the standards, hence

harmonic distortion produced by points two and three are alarming. The huge difference

between the THD measured in points one and two were caused by the uninterruptible

power supply connected at point two. This point has the connections of the personal

computers from the main student laboratory in the building [74], [75].

Printers aid the communication process by providing tangible copies of encoded

information. A study made by Bajpai, U., et al. focused on the heavy-duty printers used

usually in printing industry and its harmonics. A certain printing shop establishment was

being tested. It has its own 11kV sub-station, 11kV/433V outdoor transformer, and

500kVA transformer connected indoor. Active filters are also installed in the power

system to filter harmonics. Using Fluke 434 Series 2 PQ and Energy analyzer, the

harmonics in the system was measured. The device was connected at two different points

and several electrical parameters were gathered such as the THD, IHD, Power Factor, %
55
Unbalance, and voltage and current rms. After the testing, the maximum THD was at

20.46% for condition 1 and 27.6% at condition 2; while the minimum THD was 1.54% at

condition 1 and 1.35% at condition 2. The harmonic order was predominantly above 4%.

In addition, after turning off the filter, the maximum THD reached 37.2%, with the

current waveform heavily distorted. The harmonic orders 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, and 13 were

observed [76].

In addition, water pumps as non-linear loads also contribute to the harmonic

distortion in an electrical system. Idemne et al., had studied the level of harmonics

produced by induction type water pump motor. It was found that a 5-HP water pump

motor alone can generate 2.10% THD. However, when the motor was controlled by a

variable frequency drive it was found that it can generate higher THD that can be as high

as 8.42% [12]. The THD generated by the water pump motor is within the IEEE 519

limit; on the other hand, controlling such by a VFD results to a THD level that is beyond

the limits. Thus, it is not the water pump motor that largely contributes to the harmonic

distortion in the electrical system, but rather the addition of variable speed drive that acts

as a controller.

Considering the abovementioned THD values, the occurrence of current

harmonics is determined. The installed active filters are ineffective for eliminating the

harmonics produced by printers [76].

Switched mode power supply itself can be affected by non-sinusoidal supply

voltages, which can increase or decrease current harmonics depending on the nature of

the voltage distortion. Utilizing SMPS can improve the reliability and efficiency of the

system. However, this draws high frequency, speed, sensitivity, reliability, and
56
versatility, with its small size. It can increase the power density of power electronic

devices. Turning off and on the SMPS during high frequency will result to generating

high levels of harmonics and electromagnetic interference [76].

Through using three-phase passive filters, the harmonics generated can be filtered.

The supply system can be on its ideal effect. This causes the harmonics to be lower than

the IEEE standards [78].

As new technology emerged, such as personal computers, laptops, chargers, LED

lighting, and CFL bulbs. Harmonics are produced by all these nonlinear loads' properties.

Because there are very few disruptions, earlier harmonics generated by home loads in the

grid are disregarded. These new loads advance and become more prevalent. However, a

huge number of these gadgets will have a major negative impact on the energy network,

generating distortion, dips, and harmonics. This replacement entails the conversion of

resistive loads into electronic loads, and the ongoing replacement has a detrimental

impact on the power system [79].

Power quality analyzer Fluke 43B was used to assess THD and distorted current

in an experimental setup for a 230Y, 50Hz residential dwelling. The measurements

consist of a laptop, tabletop, charger, and other small appliances printer, copier, scanner,

and CFL and LED lighting. Using power quality, the consumer load has been measured

due to current distortion. If there are more people carrying such loads, then significant

harmonic distortion was produced [79].

This significant harmonic distortion has an impact on the grid's overall power

quality and the distribution system's quality of electricity. In comparison to conventional

57
solutions, newer equipment can save a substantial amount of energy, but at the expense of

power quality [79].

There are several studies that deal with how power quality-related problems,

specifically harmonic distortion, are measured and quantified. As electrical and

electronics technology becomes much relevant in the effective distribution of electric

power, the need to have an accurate and effective measurement of this power becomes

much clearer [80].

Any system's reliable and effective operation requires an electrical system that is

correctly designed is required. The system should be devoid of harmonics. To achieve

this, capacitors are used in harmonic environments. They are advantageous because they

lead to reduced THD and increased power factor and the abolition of penalty for power

factor [81]. There are two methods for detecting harmonics, and these are selective

harmonic compensation and overall harmonic compensation [82].

A new approach is given for measuring individual harmonics of a frequency that

changes throughout time. The proposed approach is founded on a nonlinear, adaptive

mechanism. This method provides the highest level of precision and bandwidth [81].

There is also a new approach to measuring time-varying frequency harmonic wherein this

is based on the adaptive evaluation of the power signal's fundamental frequency and its

harmonic components [81].

Harmonic distortion and harmonic components can both derived from a distortion

meter. This makes use of a microcontroller-based harmonic distortion meter, and its

software component does DFT computations. To quantify THD in a power system,

58
amplitude is found using DFT. This refers for frequency domain approaches of selective

harmonic detection [81].

It is challenging to identify any given frequency's fundamental frequency and to

measure its harmonics and interharmonics. However, this is possible by using an adaptive

notch filter. This approach values for fundamental frequency, harmonic frequency, and

interharmonic components immediately [81].

Poor performance is caused by non-linear load in power system where these leads

to harmonic sources. Since this is becoming a really significant issue, one of the most

widely International Journal of Computer Applications used Fast Fourier Transform, a

method that used an algorithm for harmonic analysis [81].

Harmonic analyzer is implemented on an ARM7 core processor using FFT

(LPC2138). The supply voltage is divided into 6V for matching power rating employing

a voltage divider. Using this harmonic analyzer, frequency, and harmonics in a single-

phase supply range of harmonics. This system's benefit is that being inexpensively

available [81]. Experimental results demonstrate that the provided device is more

accurate to obtained, and the flow of harmonic power is also analyzed [83].

Králiková & Čičáková [80] has conducted a research that deals mainly with the

measurement of distortion power measurement. The application has used the harmonic

distortion in measuring power components in single-phase electrical systems, and proved

to effective in measuring any kind of periodic voltage and current waveforms [80].

59
 Using the tools and environment of LabVIEW and a DAQ card to transfer all the

voltage and current signals to the computer, the program was able to simulate the

parameters of the voltage and current such as rms values, mean value, and total harmonic

distortion (THD) [80].

In a study by Timens et al [84], equipment with rating smaller than or equal to 16

A present in the commercial building at Carre are classified into four classes depending

on the length of use. Table 12 shows how the equipment is classified.

Table 12. Classes of Equipment with Rating Smaller than or Equal to 16 A

Class Length of Use Equipment

Balanced Three-phase Equipment

Household Appliances

A Normal Usage Tools

Dimmers for incandescent lamps

Audio equipment

Portable tools
B Very Short Usage
Arc welding equipment

C Continuous Usage Lighting equipment

Normal Usage but PCs

D special current wave PC Monitor

shape TV sets

60
 After such classification, the measurement of harmonic distortion proceeded. In

measuring the voltage total harmonic distortion (V-THD), two instruments were used,

specifically PSL PQube and Dranetz PowerXplorer. These two devices were utilized for

different purposes; the PQube for measuring the voltage in the offices; and the

PowerXplorer use to measure the voltage at three different locations [84].

Figure 19 shows the schematic diagram of the power supply of the establishment

to determine these three different locations.

Figure 19. Schematic Diagram of Distribution of Power Supply in Carre

As seen on Figure 19, the main switchboard is connected to the low voltage side

of the feeding transformer, M1 counted as the first location, the distribution board M 2 as

the second location, and the office building at Carre as the final location of the

measurement which is M3 [84]. The measurement of the result is presented on the table

below.

VTHD (95% limit) VTHD (95% limit)

Lecture and conference Lecture and conference

Location
hall connected hall disconnected

VA VB VC VA VB VC

61
 Main Switchboard M1 5.3 5.4 5.7 2.4 2.3 2.3

Distribution board M2 5.8 5.9 6.7 X X X

Office M3 6.7 3.1

Table 13. Measurement Results of Timens et al

Timens et al [84] concluded that due to the construction of this new modern

building and existence of non-linear loads in its offices, the V-THD was measured to be

higher than expected as seen on Table 13. The effect of harmonic distortion led to the

overheating of transformers and distortion of voltage [84].

In the earlier, the magnetic saturation of transformers and industrial loads like arc

furnaces and arc welding machines caused the harmonic problem in the power system.

The main issues were harmonics' effects, particularly on induction and synchronous

devices. But today, further approaches to harmonics are required for the following

considerations [85].

1. In recent years, nonlinear loads have increased rapidly in locations that are

industrial, commercial, and residential.

2. The modifications in the growth of network resonances.

3. The equipment and system loads in a power system are typically harmonically

sensitive.

In a study by Balci et al [86], they determined the uses of harmonics modelling

and simulation. Harmonics modelling are done to estimate the harmonic impact of a new

or existing customers and electric utility and assess the effectiveness of harmonic

mitigation techniques. Outlined in Table 14, Balci et al critiqued commonly used

62
harmonic models and their differences in terms of data requirements, complexity,

problem formulation and solution algorithms.

Table 14. Commonly Used Harmonics Models

Model Representation Description

Used for loads that are

not sensitive to

voltage and networks

that has small voltage

variations.
Constant
Used for wider range
Current
of operating
Source Model
conditions; loads are
Norton Model
modeled in parallel

with the Norton

impedance and Norton

current source for each

harmonic number.

63
 Cross

Frequency

Admittance

Matrix Model

Among all the harmonic models cited by Balci et al, the study concluded that

Norton model is the best approach in modelling harmonic-producing loads, which is

statistically proven by having a standard deviation of 0.0735, the lowest among the three

models [86].

As per (IEEE-519) standards for power quality improvement, there is a need to

minimize the amount of harmonics established in electricity grids as an outcome of such

nonlinear loads owing to the upsurge in harmonics in the distribution system, which is

brought on by a swift increase in the generation of equipment that controls power [87].

The most often used technique for removing harmonics from a system is filtering,

which can be done with passive, active, or hybrid filters. Passive filters are those that

have passive components like capacitors, inductors, etc. and operate without the use of an

external power source. These filters, which are the least expensive kind, can be linked in

series or parallel [87].

64
 Active filters are a type of analog electronic filter that are frequently employed in

high- and variable-voltage environments. They are expensive and complicated, yet they

are used because passive filters have some problems [87].

Hybrid filters, which combine passive filters with fundamental active filters, are

an additional filter used to improve power quality. The drawbacks of passive and active

filters used separately can be solved by hybrid filters, improving performance quality.

These kinds of filters also help to lessen electromagnetic interference and switching

noise. The fundamental goal of a hybrid filter is to dynamically improve the efficiency of

filtering harmonics by supplying efficient methods for mitigating harmonics [87].

Hybrid filters are used to reduce the level of harmonics in the source current and

improve the system's power quality. A series passive filter and an active filter based on p-

q theory have been developed. Based on the results of the simulation, it also compares

passive and hybrid filters and determines that hybrid filters are better suited for lowering

the THD of the distribution system [87].

65
 For the study of Faraby et al [88], another approach in mitigating harmonic

distortion was used. The concept of network reconfiguration technique on coordinated

planning was applied to solve the power quality issue brought using non-linear loads.

Using a hybrid particle swarm optimization (HPSO), the best locations, sizing of

distributed generation (DG), capacitor, and network reconfiguration were determined

along with the compliance of IEEE 33-bus radial distribution system. The solution was

modeled and simulated using MATLAB2018 and results were compared to related

previous literatures [88]. Figure 20 shows the comparison of the %THDv before and after

the solution was implemented.

Figure 20. Comparison of %THDv Value Before and After Optimization

From the trend of the graph on Figure 20, there can be seen some sight of

decrease in the different scenarios of the simulation. Through the use of HPSO in

applying network reconfiguration and placement of capacitors and DG in mitigating

harmonic distortion, there is a significant effect in minimizing the %THDv of the system

and voltage deviations when compared to previous studies [88].

Industries are integrating capacitor banks in their power circuits to use the

electrical system efficiently. In recent years, there has been a growth in the usage of

power electronic equipment, which has led to an increase in harmonics in the power
66
system. According to the study, this explains how harmonics are produced, their impact

on the electricity grid, and how to lessen (mitigate) their effects. With the aid of a

waveform that displays % current and voltage harmonic distortion variation at the

incomer with respect to APFC ON/OFF status and harmonic reduction strategies, a

capacitor bank on power system harmonics was demonstrated in real-time [84].

Harmonic mitigation approach and the capacitor bank energizing transients is done

according to the study. Reactive compensation factors make a capacitor bank connection

necessary. Since capacitor switching typically happens very frequently, transients

generated during capacitor bank energizing that reach in harmonics may be detrimental to

the capacitor and represent a growing concern for both electric utilities and customers.

Power factor correction capacitors are susceptible to harmonics, and one cause of power

capacitor failures is the presence of prime odd harmonics, such as the fifth, seventh,

eleventh, and thirteenth harmonics [90].

There are currently devices available for capacitor bank energizing transient

control, and these are used to reduce the transient overcurrent and overvoltage effect at

the point of application. According to modelling and simulation studies, choosing the best

control scheme necessitates a thorough analysis because the effectiveness of these control

methods is system dependent. Each of these techniques has different benefits and

drawbacks in terms of reducing transient overvoltage, cost, and installation, necessities,

operating/maintenance necessities, and reliability [90].

Synthesis

67
 In 1888, Nikola Tesla had recognized the alternating current [17]. This type of

current changes its direction sinusoidal, positive and negative half-cycle [19]. The

utilization of AC became rampant as technology advances. Through AC, energy

transmission became more economical, transmitting higher or lower voltages with

minimal losses [18]. Being one of the known universities when it comes to engineering

and as the newly hailed National Engineering University, the BatState-U Alangilan has

massive number of loads that depends on AC transmission.

Rotating machines are the common sources of sinusoidal currents, which when

passed through a resistor, inductor, or capacitor produces another waveform with the

same frequency but different magnitude and phase angle [20].

The discrepancy between the ideal sinusoidal waveform of the supply voltage and

the current waveform is referred to as the harmonics and harmonic distortion. The

behavior of resistance in an AC and DC machine is similar, hence the voltage across the

resistance determines the amount of current flowing. This is because a resistor is a linear

device. Complex waveforms produced by machines can affect the behavior of the current

waveform. Moreover, switching current waveforms utilized in switching circuits usually

demands current at the peak values of the AC supply, hence the resulting load current is

expected to contain harmonic [6].

Non-sinusoidal currents exist either because a linear circuit has a non-sinusoidal

voltage acting upon it, or the circuit is composed of non-linear elements but a sinusoidal

voltage act on it. The inductive resistance of an element rises as with the harmonic

number, in contrary of the capacitive element. A DC component does not have any

capacitor, so as the resistance that cannot be replaced by inductance [21].

68
 There are different types of non-sinusoidal waveforms as presented in Figure 5.

These waves can be mathematically computed through the Fourier Series which states

that any practical periodic function can be represented as an infinite sum of sinusoidal

waveforms that have frequencies which are integral multiple of ω o. In addition, other

characteristics of harmonics such as symmetry, phase sequence, and independence should

also be determined. [24]– [26], [33].

Non-sinusoidal waves can also be referred to as cosine waves, a direct opposite of

a sine wave. This produces non-sinusoidal currents which is characterized by time as the

independent variable. Cosine waves can also be from two or more sine waves. With its

complex structure, cosine waves have one fundamental frequency which has the lowest

frequency but has the highest amplitude and one or more harmonic frequencies. It is the

harmonics which causes the complex structure of cosine waves [24].

Loads had been linear before 1980. The shift happened in 1981 when electronic

hardware makers shifted to switch-more power supply (SMPS). This transforms the

applied voltage into distorted current waveform which copies AC pulses. Voltages or

currents that have frequencies are multiples of the fundamental frequency were referred

to as harmonics [34]. With the status of technological advancements, almost all the

electrical loads present today generate harmonics. Voltages or currents that have

frequencies are multiples of the fundamental frequency were referred to as harmonics

[34].

Waveforms represent sine waves, and those that represent nonlinear loads has

current affecting the voltage wave. The affecting current results to voltage distortion

when the entire system is affected [27].

69
 Harmonics is generated by the electrical loads utilized every day, specifically

those that has rectifier or converter or those that convert AC to DC power vice versa [34].

Non-linear loads are highly inductive in nature, and they were the harmonic producers.

These are the loads that whose impedance changes according to the applied voltage cycle.

This is because devices of this kind draw current at the peak values of the AC supply

which then causes the current to behave nonlinearly. This includes loads like computers,

printers, televisions, and those that utilizes SMPS [26], [28]. Hence, nonlinear loads were

loads whose current is not proportional with the voltage that produces distorted waveform

[51]. With the presence of harmonics, electrical waves are altered and power is distorted

[33]. Nonlinear load type is prone to fluctuation because of the alternating load

impedance. Current were drawn at short pulses which distort waveforms and result to

harmonics [28].

When two or more waves interact with each other, wave interference occurs. This

can result to large, smaller, or identical amplitude. Wave interference may either be

constructive or destructive. Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference

between waves with equal frequency is zero, this results to single amplitude which is also

equivalent to the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves [32]. On the other hand,

when the resultant amplitude is a smaller than the aggregates, the interference is

considered to be destructive [33]. Hence constructive interference results to larger sine

waves and destructive interference are an invert, which results to smaller sine waves

amplitude. Several harmonics can be found on each wave.

Both positive and negative interference are produced during the interaction.

Considering the original waveform and the harmonics present, the harmonics’ in-phase

70
location is combined constructively and those destructively added to the out of phase

location. This results to warped non-sinusoidal wave [31].

The fundamental frequency is equivalent to harmonic number 1 since it is

considered as the first harmonics waveform, while the DC components is represented by

0. The odd harmonics which are represented by odd numbers are commonly produced by

nonlinear loads, and the even harmonics represented by even numbers are generated by

uneven current drawn in the positive and negative half of one cycle of operation [31].

Most of the systems has 60 Hz as the fundamental frequency, especially in the

Philippines where it is considered as the standard frequency for the AC supply. Any

frequency higher than this is its multiple, and the multiplicity defines the number of

harmonic cycles present [34], [38].

The categories of harmonics depend on its name, frequency, and sequence. In a

balanced system, the harmonics refers to the phase rotation of the harmonic voltages and

current like the direction of the fundamental frequency. This is considered as the positive

sequence harmonics because they rotate on the clockwise direction, however this is

usually undesirable as it causes overheating. On the other hand, negative sequence

harmonics rotates on the counterclockwise direction to the fundamental frequency. This

causes reduction in the mechanical torque of motors as the rotating magnetic field

weakens. In addition, triplens is known as another rotational sequence. Harmonic orders

that are multiples of 3 rotates on this sequence. This is displaced by zero degrees, which

results for the harmonics to bounce back between the phase and the ground. This makes

the current in the neutral wire to be up to thrice of the phase current, since the numbers in

71
the common neutral wire were added up. Therefore, the third order harmonics causes

most of the harmonic problems [6], [34].

The voltage in a system can be easily distorted, may it be increased or decreased.

The decrease in supply voltage is known as sag. This usually results to an assumed

interruption. However, voltage sag happen suddenly as during sagging the voltage drops,

while complete loss of voltage occurs when there is interruption. An opposite of sag is

likely to occur when the voltage is increased by 10% of the nominal, this is described as

dips or voltage swells. A resemblance of voltage swell can also be observed in a system-

transient voltage. Its occurrence has stronger magnitude and lasts quickly than drips. The

common reasons for such voltage disturbances revolve within sudden turning ON/OFF of

a huge load [35]–[37].

Generally, all electrical loads that convert AC to DC powers and vice versa are

considered as sources of harmonics [25]. Nonlinear loads cause changes in behavior of an

electrical system, especially current disruptions which results to harmonics. Looking

back, most of the indicated loads can be found inside Batangas State University -

Alangilan campus.

There are several sources of harmonics in an electrical system, this includes

different nonlinear loads. Single phase rectifiers are used in electrical system to convert

AC power to DC power, they can be found on universal power supplies and switched-

mode power supplies of computers, LEDs, and battery chargers [40]–[42].

72
 High frequency electronic ballasts are commonly found on fluorescent lamps.

This equipment is loaded with high frequency voltage and current harmonics to achieve

its efficacy [40], [43].

Harmonic resonance occurs when the natural frequency of the power system and

the frequency of a harmonic source coincide [91]. The resonance is considered to be

series when the inductance and capacitance are combined in series or almost in series,

this results to low impedance path of the harmonic currents of the natural frequency [39].

Analyzing the electrical system is vital in employing different mitigation

techniques. The analysis can be done through computations, having known the different

electrical parameters such as resonance, harmonic currents and voltages, and distortion

levels. Common harmonic distortion indices like Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), rms

value, telephone interference factor was indicated under IEEE Std 3002.8-2018. [30],

[45].

A computer program can be considered to determine the harmonics in a system,

this requires harmonic power flow analysis. Another is a spreadsheet that results to

harmonic impedances by having the required variables [30]. The voltage and current

THD were both the root-sum-square of the harmonic content of the voltage or current to

the root-mean-square value of the fundamental frequency or voltage respectively. The

maximum load current shall be the average current of the maximum demand during the

previous 12 months. This is used to calculate the short circuit ratio [39].

The concerns regarding minimizing the expenditures and controlling the usage

can be addressed by the power factor, which is the ratio between the actual and apparent

73
power. As the current increases, the power factor decreases. Facilities with low power

factor are charged more in terms of utilities because they require thicker wires and more

durable infrastructure. However, there are methods on how the power factor and the

harmonics can be reduced [47].

The recommended limits of voltage and current harmonics can be found at Tables

3 and 4 respectively. There were as indicated in IEEE Std 519-2014 [48]. These limits

were applicable to common coupling points. Harmonics control is a joint responsibility

between the utility and the customers [39], [48]. The limits were categorized according to

the conditions of the electrical system and the strength of the voltage source. In cases

where the harmonic current limit needs to be increased, multipliers were used. Setting the

harmonic distortion limits is done to establish steady-state limitations when designing

electrical systems, maintaining such can limit the transient conditions [48]. The

restrictions set on the current harmonics is dependent on the strength of the voltage

source, as huge grids can be able to suppress current harmonics to a far greater extent

than a weak grid without affecting the voltage [46].

Since the standard frequency in the Philippines is different from the standard in

other countries, the country has set its own electrical requirements and limits. It was

started in the 3.2.4 of the Philippine Distribution Code 2017 Edition that THD and TDD

of a 60Hz system should not exceed 5%.

Different countermeasures and mitigating techniques can be done to eliminate or

reduce harmonics that can be hazardous. Using single-tuned filters provides path for

harmonic current that lowers impedance [44]. Multilevel inverter is one of the key

methods to reduce harmonics, as this converts DC source into an almost sinusoidal

74
signal. It reduces utilization of transformers and filters. MLI ensured great output

waveform [55]. Other methods for controlling harmonics include lowering the harmonic

current of loads, adding filters to the electrical system, and implementing filters,

inductors, and capacitors that may alter the frequency response of the system [40], [44],

[56] .

There are five different methods available which can be used to decrease the

harmonic in an electrical system. Capacitors can be added to the system to decrease the

existing harmonic level in the system; the capacitor acts as the power harmonic filter. The

specific loads or sections in the system who were found generating high levels of

harmonics can be distributed to other feeders, in some cases harmonic generating loads

are also eliminated from the system. However, the network topology reconfiguration

cannot be adopted by the BatState-U Alangilan considering the functions of the existing

nonlinear loads. Another method that can be adopted is done by increasing the supply

mode stiffness, this requires the addition of cogeneration system which can be seen inside

the university through the solar-powered streetlights and PV modules installed on some

of its buildings. Series reactors can also be used to reduce the harmonic element, but this

method is only ideal for neutral to ground connection of power transformers. Lastly, the

phase balancing method which is the simplest among the five methods mentioned.

However, the expected outcome of this method is difficult to attain as single phase loads

are constantly changing which then generates unbalanced voltages [40], [44].

The abovementioned methods were further studied by the researchers. Given that

the network topology reconfiguration cannot be done, the addition of cogeneration

system is already existing, and the phase balancing and addition of series reactors is

75
difficult to attain, the researchers came up with the addition of power harmonic filters to

the electrical system. This method provides a more accurate expected outcome and is

more convenient to be applied. There are different filters available in the market that may

help to provide the appropriate harmonic level for an electrical system.

Mitigation techniques for harmonic distortion can be done either passive or active.

Active filter solutions generate actively harmonics in opposite phase to the distorting

harmonic and eliminate them by superposition. Passive filter solutions are done by

connecting capacitors, reactors and resistors forming a conventional filter. Active filters

are way cheaper that passive filters. Such is also simple to retrofit and scale but requires

costly serial connection to achieve the desired function. Passive filters on the other hand

requires careful network analogy and can be connected in parallel [57].

The advancements in technology paved way for different software developments.

There were several software’s that is commercially available to be used in harmonic

measurement and mitigation. EasyPower® Harmonic Analysis Software can identify and

mitigate harmonic in a system though a dynamic single-line. It has analogical features,

providing ease in utilization. But it can also provide integer and non-integer harmonics

which can be used for accurate modelling and calculations. This has the ability to

measure and examine harmonic currents, voltages, and system interference [58]. Aside

from this, Eaton’s CYME Harmonic Analysis Module is also used by engineers to

measure and test different applicable mitigation techniques in a power system. This

software can provide frequency scanning, calculations for voltage and current distortion,

capacitor rating and filter size analysis, K-Factor and Factor-K calculations, and others.

The resonant frequencies caused by capacitor banks as well as the effects of the nonlinear

76
loads can be projected in the testing. With these features, the Eaton’s CYME Harmonic

Analysis Module can provide precise assessment of an electrical system [59]. Moreover,

the Harmonic Analysis feature of ETAP is considered the most used program when it

comes to harmonic measurement and assessment. Through this software, users can

simulate harmonic current and voltage sources, pinpoint harmonic issues, lessen nuisance

trips, develop and test filters, and detect harmonic voltage and current distortion limits

breaches [60]. Aside from the Crystal reports, the result of testing is also projected in

graphs which provides clearer understanding. The source and power system component

frequency are modelled in the program and are used for calculations of load flow and

frequency scanning. The features and capabilities of ETAP Harmonic Analysis Module

provides ease, such that even students can make a mitigation model for harmonics in a

power system. The said software is also used in other electrical system testing and

modelling [60].

Different disturbances hamper the operation of electrical systems, including

harmonic distortion. Familiarity with different waveforms distortions from various

harmonic sources can help to easily develop techniques in detecting and eliminating

harmonics [62].

The waveforms produced by electromagnetic ballasts is determined in a study

made by Chang et al, [63] and is presented above. From there it can be drawn that the

power factor is poor, and a capacitor is used to improve. The quality of the power factor

is caused by THD is produced by the equipment; this is usually produced by the third

harmonic current [63]. One of the commonly seen and used device that utilizes electronic

ballasts are the compact fluorescent bulbs that significantly reduce energy costs

77
compared to incandescent lightings. Adopting such lighting can cut the network losses

by 27%, while the overall losses for the 110kV networks power transit is still at 2.86%.

The widespread usage of small fluorescent lights would undoubtedly create harmonic

distortion on the input of electricity [64].

Due to its nonlinear nature, VFDs found with front-end diode bridge rectifiers of

3-phase and 6-pulse static power convertors are known to produce harmonics. If the

generated harmonics are not treated, the THID can raise up to 100-140% with fifth and

seventh harmonics being dominant [65].

In the telecommunications sector, rectifiers are necessary in constructing network

systems [67] as they were used to convert AC to DC power. A table obtained from

research made by Anga et al [68] is presented above as table 10 to exhibit the THD

values of the different rectifiers used in the circuit.

The HVACR is utilized to maintain good ventilation system in any establishment,

this uses as lot of energy. But with the addition of VFDs, the power usage can be

lowered. The most common VFD design operates by rectifying a three-phase AC line

input using the diodes. This three-phase rectification of AC to steady Dc voltage

produces nonlinear current [72]. Air-conditioning units which are prominent in the

university can produce less than 5%of THD [73].

Electric arcs, especially electric arc furnace is another harmonic source. After the

arc ignites, the short circuit current causes the voltage to drop. It has magnetic ballasts

and discharge lighting, but the harmonics generated cannot be easily predicted as the

wave varies from each cycle [62].

78
 The power quality at King Fahd University was measured with the personal

computers as the existing load. The research has shown that the THD level was beyond

the 20% limit of the standards. Hence, it can be proved that depending on the amount

single-phase nonlinear loads can contribute to the harmonic distortion in the system [74],

[75].

Research made by Bajpai et al have shown the harmonics generated by printers in

a large-scale printing industry. After conducting the testing using a power quality

analyzer, it was found that the maximum THD level was also beyond the 20% limit.

Also, the harmonic orders such as 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, and 13 were observed [76].

Water pump motor is another type of harmonic generating load. The %THD

generated by such can range from 2.10% to 8.42%. Idemne et al., presented that the

minimum THD is generated by the motor alone and the maximum THD is produced

when variable frequency drive is added to the motor as a controller [77]. From there, it

can be drawn that addition of VFD’s results to higher harmonic generation.

Switched-mode power supply itself can be affected by non-sinusoidal supply

voltages, that can increase or decrease current harmonics. This produces high frequency

speed, that when the SMPS is turned off and on, can generate high levels of harmonics

and electromagnetic interference [76].

With three-phase passive filters, harmonics can be filtered out; and it can be lower

than the IEEE standards [78]. The significant harmonic distortion has an impact in the

grid’s overall power quality as well as to the distribution system. Compared to repairing

79
broken electric and electronic devices, newer ones can save substantial amount of energy

[79].

Reducing and controlling harmonics ensures a more reliable system operation.

Capacitors may be used as they reduce THD and increase power factor. There are

different approaches available for detecting harmonics, each providing the needs of the

end-users. Microcontroller-based harmonic distortion meter with its software does DFT

computation which quantifies THD [82], [83].

Using an algorithm for harmonic analysis, the Fast Fourier Transform technique

was applied [83]. FFT is used to construct a harmonic analyzer on an ARM7 core CPU

(LPC2138). Using a voltage divider, the source voltage is divided into 6V for matching

power rating. With the use of this harmonic analyzer, one may determine the frequency

and harmonic range of a single-phase supply. The fact that this system is reasonably

priced makes it advantageous. Experimental findings show that the suggested gadget is

more accurate to use, and an analysis of harmonic power flow is also presented [83].

Researchers Králiková & Iáková have undertaken research that primarily focuses

on the measuring of distortion power. The application has demonstrated its effectiveness

in measuring any type of periodic voltage and current waveforms by using harmonic

distortion to measure power components in single-phase electrical systems. The program

was able to simulate the parameters of the voltage and current, such as rms values, mean

values, and total harmonic distortion (THD), using the tools and environment of

LabVIEW and a DAQ card to transport all the voltage and current signals to the

computer [80].

80
 In addition, Table 13 shows the classification of equipment with rating smaller

than or equal to 16 A as proposed in the study of Timens et al [88]. This makes use of

PSL PQube and Dranetz PowerXplorer as measuring devices. Researchers came up

concluding that the overheating of transformers and voltage distortion were caused by

harmonic distortion.

The harmonic problem in the power supply was previously brought on by the

magnetic saturation of transformers and commercial loads like arc furnaces and arc

welding equipment. The effects of harmonics, particularly on induction and synchronous

devices, were the main problems. But today, more harmonics-related techniques are

necessary for the following reasons [92].

1. In recent years, nonlinear loads have increased rapidly in locations that are

industrial, commercial, and residential.

2. The modifications in the growth of network resonances.

3. The equipment and system loads in a power system are typically harmonically

sensitive.

Harmonics modelling are done to estimate the harmonic impact of a new or

existing customers and electric utility and assess the effectiveness of harmonic mitigation

techniques are the commonly used harmonics models as studied by Balci et al. It is being

said that the Norton model is the best modelling approach. This has the lowest standard

deviation among the three models [86].

The (IEEE-519) standards for power quality improvement, states that there is a

need to minimize the number of harmonics established in electricity grids as an outcome

of such nonlinear loads owing to the upsurge in harmonics in the distribution system,
81
which is brought on by a swift increase in the generation of equipment that controls

power. The most common approach used is filtering, which uses active, passive or hybrid

filters [87].

In addition, the network configuration technique was also developed. This utilizes

HPSO, the best locations, sizing of distributed generation (DG), capacitor, and network

reconfiguration were determined along with the compliance of IEEE 33-bus radial

distribution system [88].

There were also industries who uses capacitor banks as mitigation. This helps for

the switching to happen frequently. Capacitor banks were used to reduce transient

overcurrent and overvoltage effect at the point of application [89].

The measurement and mitigation techniques available shall be carefully analyzed

and selected depending on the research objectives of this research paper and the available

resources. Any of the measuring and testing methods stated above can be utilized,

provided that the researchers have enough resources, most especially to the testing

devices and the access to the software. Afterwards, the appropriate controlling methods

mentioned shall be employed in the electrical system of the university. In BatState - U

Alangilan, there were an estimated 3114 fluorescent lamps, 503 personal computers, 102

copiers and printers, and 410 ACU. With this huge amount of the electrical and electronic

loads resent in the university, high level of harmonics can be expected. However, after

testing and mitigation a more efficient and reliable power distribution shall be expected

inside.

82
 CHAPTER III

EXPERIMENTS AND METHODS

This chapter presents the methodologies that will be applied in the conduct of the

study. This includes the research paradigm, experimental design and procedures which

describes the flow of research.

Conceptual Framework

Conceptual frameworks are visual representation of the flow of study and help on

describing the natural progression of the research [93]. It is important to have a good of

choice of paradigm for this affects the research questions, data collection instruments and

collection procedures, and data analysis [94]. Figure 21 shows the illustration of the

research paradigm for the assessment and mitigation of the potential harmonic distortion

in the electrical system of Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus.

83
 Figure 21. Research Paradigm

As seen on Figure 21, the paradigm to be utilized for this study is divided into

four (4) phases: Conceptual Phase, Philosophical Phase, Methodological Phase, and

Implementation Phase.

On the conceptual phase, this frame of the study determines the vital concepts and

key variables in establishing the foundation of the study, specifically, these variables are

harmonic distortion and electrical system. Aside from these, the statement of the problem

and research questions and objectives shall be known to define the direction of the study.
84
 Succeeding this is the philosophical phase which contains the hypotheses of the

research. Also, the related studies and literature are vital to this phase to provide the basis

of harmonic distortion measurement and mitigation techniques in electrical systems and

determine the recommended limits of total harmonic distortion (THD) and Total Demand

Distortion (TDD) in the electrical system of establishments.

Following this is the methodological phase which specifies the experimental

design and procedures, and the data collection and treatment that will be adhered to this

study. This includes the procedures that would be implemented in measuring the potential

harmonic distortion in the electrical system of Batangas State University – Alangilan

Campus, the necessary equipment and facilities required, the appropriate software and

computational analysis for the assessment of the level of harmonic distortion, and the

steps to be pursued if a mitigation plan is required upon assessment.

Lastly in the paradigm of the study is the implementation phase which covers the

analysis of the measured parameters, determination of harmonics existing in the electrical

system of the said campus, design of the mitigation plan for the harmonic distortion in the

electrical system of the building, and recommendation for a mitigation plan for the

harmonic distortion that may occur in the electrical system in the future.

85
Experimental Design and Procedures

The steps to attaining the goals of this research are outlined in the Figure 22. This

involves various stages, which are discussed in even more detail below.

Figure 22. Experimental Procedures

86
 From the related studies gathered by the researchers, specific experimental design

and procedures shall be adhered throughout the study to collect data that are accurate and

precise. As seen on Figure 22, the experimental procedures implemented by Mekhamer et

al [95] was utilized and retrofitted to the objectives of the study to execute the

measurement of harmonics distortion in the electrical system of the campus.

Methods of Experiment

1. Prepare the necessary materials and equipment in the measurement of

harmonic distortion in the electrical system. The materials and equipment needed

for the measurement consists of a 3-phase power quality analyzer (PQA) FLUKE

438-II and a laptop. The power quality analyzer was made sure that is calibrated

and working properly. For the laptop would be used supplementary with the PQA

to record the data that were measured using the instrument. The necessary

software was installed to the laptop prior to the measurement.

2. Using a power quality analyzer, measure the total harmonic distortion

(THD) and total demand distortion of the feeder panel on the secondary side of

the distribution transformer and the main distribution panel of College of

Engineering and Fine Arts building inside the powerhouse with the highest

number of nonlinear loads. The feeder panel of the transformer will serve as the

point of connection where the values would be determined. The THD and TDD

values that would be measured at these points would represent the potential

harmonic distortion existing throughout the electrical system. Both voltage and

current distortion would be measured for a comprehensive assessment of the

87
existence of harmonic distortion in the electrical system of the building. The

duration of the measurement shall last for five (5) days to attain the maximum

demand of the loads. Tables 15 and 16 are provided to record the data that would

be measured using the instrument. To provide a more comprehensive procedure of

the method of measurement, the following steps are listed as follows:

a. Locate the main distribution panel of the secondary side of the distribution

transformer for the electrical system of the campus.

b. Trace the cables connected from the secondary side of the transformer to

the main distribution panel. The number of cables should be three (3) to

represent the 3-phase power supply.

c. Switch the power quality analyzer on and configure the device for

harmonic measurement.

d. Connect the leads and current sensors to their respective terminals on the

device and the panel.

e. With the device powered up and connected to the system, measure the

total harmonic distortion of the phase-to-phase voltage with the RMS

value of the fundamental as reference and harmonic distortion of the

current with the RMS value of the fundamental as reference.

f. Simultaneously, record the waveforms of the signals measured over the

total voltage and current harmonic distortion.

g. All measurements are recorded every second.

88
h. The integration period over which the measurements of each recorded

values are averaged, is set to be fifteen (15) minutes over the span of five

(5) days.

i. The recorded parameters are stored in a memory card and transferred in a

laptop for assessment.

j. Repeat the measurements on the two (3) remaining distribution panels

inside the powerhouse.

Vharmonic (A-B) Vharmonic (B-C) Vharmonic (C-A)

[V] [V] [V]
RMS

THD

THD %

Result

Remarks

Table 15. Voltage Distortion at Point of Connection

Iharmonic (A) Iharmonic (B) Iharmonic (C)

[A] [A] [A]
RMS

THD

TDD %

Result

Remarks

89
 Table 16. Current Distortion at Point of Connection

3. Compute the ratio of the short-circuit current and line current at the feeder

panel on the secondary side of the transformer and the main distribution panel of

the CEAFA building. The values obtained from this computation shall be used

later in determining whether the current harmonic distortion level measured at

these points using the power quality analyzer exceeds the 2017 Philippine

Distribution Code current distortion limits.

4. Obtain electrical system single-line diagram and determine the location of the

point of connection. The single line diagram shall be made with the help of the

university electrician and would be drawn using ETAP. This drawing includes the

specifications of the equipment, cables, point of connections, and circuit breakers.

5. Model the electrical system using Electrical Transient Analysis Program

(ETAP) and perform harmonic analysis at the respective buses determined at the

actual measurement. Table 17 records the harmonic distortion measured using the

said software.

THD% Bus Voltage Line Current Remarks

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Table 17. Harmonic Distortion from ETAP Harmonic Analysis

Methods of Assessment

90
 1. Evaluate the results of the measurement of harmonic distortion. Comparing

the result of the harmonic levels to the recommended limits mandated at Chapter

3 Sec.2.4 of the 2017 Philippine Distribution Code, the voltage and current

harmonics levels shall be determined whether it exceeds the allowable range or

not. For the voltage distortion limits, the assessment of the THD% is based on the

bus voltage of the point of connection where the harmonics was measured.

According to the said provision, the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the

voltage shall not exceed 5% during normal operating conditions. On the other

hand, the assessment of current distortion is based on the ratio of the short-circuit

current and line current at specified bus or point. Typically, this ratio is valued

less than or equal to 20 for systems rated 1 kV and below. Under this ratio the

acceptable limit of total demand distortion (TDD) for current is 5.0%. Table 15

includes the result of the assessment for voltage distortion and shall be remarked

by either “passed” or “failed”. Table 18 indicates the ratio of the short-circuit

current and line current as well as the allowable TDD % which shall be a

supplement in the assessment of the current distortion on Tables 16 and 17.

Similarly, it shall be remarked by either “passed” or “failed.”

Table 18. Allowable TDD based on Isc/IL

Line A Line B Line C

Line Current, IL (A)

Short-circuit Current, Isc (A)

Isc/IL

91
 Allowable TDD (%)

2. If results are within allowable range, prepare a pro-active mitigation plan that

will address the potential increase of harmonic distortion in the electrical system

of the campus in the future.

3. If results exceed the allowable range, design a mitigation plan to address the

harmonics distortion in the electrical system of the campus.

4. Model the modified electrical network after applying the mitigation plan. ETAP

would be utilized to simulate the effects of the harmonic mitigation technique.

Methods of Mitigation and/or Correction

In this study, the mitigation plan that would be designed for the potential

harmonic distortion in the electrical system of the university mainly focuses on the design

of a harmonic filter. A high-pass passive filter would be used to mitigate the harmonic

distortion in the electrical system of the campus. This type of filter is commonly used in

industries to suppress a wider range of frequencies and reduce the size of the

components, and to avoid a capacitive power factor when the system is not loaded. The

harmonic filter would then be sized appropriately based on the readings from the actual

measurement and ETAP simulation. The method of mitigation for both when the

harmonic distortion level is within recommended limits or not shall be similar. The

mitigation for these different scenarios would only vary on how the harmonic filter would

be sized. The following steps would be taken in designing the mitigation plan:

92
 1. Utilize the ETAP software in sizing the harmonic filter. The data obtained

from the actual measurement using the power quality analyzer and ETAP

simulation shall be used for the appropriate sizing of the harmonic filter.

2. Determine the necessary parameters of the filters. Parameters such as the filter

type, and capacitor and inductor ratings are to be determined to size the filter fit

for the harmonic distortion in the electrical system. Table 19 shows all the

parameters needed in sizing the harmonic filter.

Table 19. Parameters in Sizing the Harmonic Filter

Element Parameter Value

Rated Voltage

Capacitor Maximum Voltage

kVAR

Inductor XL

Maximum Current

Q Factor

Harmonic Info Harmonic Order

Harmonic Current

PF Correction Existing PF

Desired PF

Load MVA

3. Simulate the electrical network using MATLAB. The electrical network

modified with a harmonic filter shall be simulated using the software to determine
93
 whether the harmonic levels are mitigated to allowable levels. Table 18 shall also

be utilized in tallying the data obtained from the simulation.

Equipment/Facilities/Program

1. Equipment

In the actual measurement of the harmonic distortion in the electrical system of

Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus, a 3-phase power quality analyzer,

specifically FLUKE 428-II would be used to measure the voltage distortion and current

distortion. The measuring instrument mainly consists of the power quality analyzer itself,

test leads, and AC Current clamps. The current clamps are put around the conductors per

phase, and oriented on the correct signal polarity. After this, the test leads are connected

to the conductors for voltage connections. The connection of the test leads starts with the

ground and then in succession with the neutral conductor, Phase A, B, and then C. When

measuring, Phase A is always regarded as the reference phase.

1.1 Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment, or "PPE," is gear worn to reduce exposure to risks

that might result in significant workplace diseases and injuries. Contact with chemical,

radioactive, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other job hazards may cause these

wounds and illnesses. Items like gloves, safety goggles, shoes, earplugs or muffs, hard

hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests, and full body suits are examples of personal

protection equipment [96].

1.1.1 Electrical gloves

94
 Gloves are one such item of PPE, or personal protective equipment that is

essential. Through this, users can protect themselves from electric shocks and ensure their

safety. In the field of work, this helped to avoid all electrical risks. Additionally, these

gloves protect your hands from abrasions and cuts [97].

1.1.2 Safety helmet

A safety helmet or hard hat is required while working in environments where

there is a risk of exposure to electrical conductors that could possibly come into contact

with the head or where there is a risk of head injuries from falling objects [98].

2. Facilities

The research will be conducted at the Batangas State University, Alangilan

Campus, formally known as the National Engineering University. Specifically, the

measurement of the potential harmonic distortion would be commenced in the secondary

side of the distribution transformer of the system. This houses to approximately a

hundred rooms, including laboratories and offices. The campus’ electrical system is

determined through the electrical system one-line diagram, which would be vital in

determining the point of connections of the selected equipment that would be measured.

3. Program

The programs needed to conduct the study and for measuring the harmonics are

accessible for use by the researchers. The following applications would be used by the

researchers to construct and analyze the study.

95
 3.1 Electrical Transient Analyzer Program or ETAP

The design, simulation, operation, and automation of generating, distribution, and

industrial power systems may all be done using ETAP, which is the most complete

analysis platform available. ETAP is a high impact software that is utilized all over the

world and is produced in accordance with a recognized quality assurance program [99].

The researchers will construct a single line diagram of the campus through ETAP. The

corrective measure to reduce the harmonics of the school has should be employed using

ETAP. It is a software that focuses on electrical power system analysis, simulation,

monitoring, control, optimization, and automation. The most complete and integrated

suite of power system enterprise solutions, from modelling through operation, is provided

by ETAP software. ETAP provides a great interface for conducting thorough analysis on

electrical power systems. One of its many unique features is its connection with

Microsoft Excel. The ETAP Software offers a straightforward, user-friendly environment

combined with a thorough user manual that guides the user through any simulation-

related concerns [100]. See Appendix for the module of ETAP’s Harmonic Analysis.

3.2 Microsoft Excel

A software program developed by Microsoft that employs formulas and functions

to organize data and numbers using spreadsheets [101]. As one of the benefits of the

ETAP is its connection with this program, the researchers will utilize Microsoft Excel to

conveniently collect, analyze, and integrate all the data and results that the equipment

96
will generate. This would also be used in recording the harmonic values that would

obtained from the power quality analyzer.

Data Collection and Treatment

The methodology of the experiment in this study involves obtaining data from an

equipment and simulation software. In the actual measurement of harmonic distortion in

the electrical system of the campus, a 3-phase power quality analyzer would be used to

obtain the data needed in assessing the potential harmonics. The measurement of the

potential harmonic distortion begins at the feeder panel on the secondary side of the

distribution transformer which supplies power for the entire university. This would then

be followed with the measurement of harmonic distortion at the main distribution panels

with the highest number of nonlinear loads. The number of nonlinear loads was obtained

from the DOE Inventory Form requested at the Environmental Management Unit (EMU)

Office – Alangilan. The data collection for the measurement of the potential harmonic

distortion shall be done within five (5) days with allocated recording of data every one

(1) second and integration period of fifteen (15) minutes. The measurement would be

conducted during the peak demand of the said loads to acquire accurate data.

Consecutively, harmonic distortion measurement would also be done using the Electrical

Transient Analysis Program (ETAP) to compare the two results. The electrical system

that would be used on the simulation shall be based on the system one-line diagram of the

campus to mimic the load and system specifications of the establishment.

Moreover, the assessment of the harmonic distortion in the electrical system of

the building shall be done based on the 2017 Philippine Distribution Code, specifically

97
Chapter 3 Section 2.4. The recommended limits given for the voltage and current

distortion shall be followed with the appropriate steps in using it. This assessment acts as

the treatment for the data obtained from the actual measurement of the harmonic

distortion and simulation of the harmonic analysis in the ETAP. Upon assessment, it shall

be determined whether the mitigation plan to be designed is to address the existing

impermissible level of harmonic distortion or to prevent the further increase of these

levels in the future.

For the mitigation plan of the harmonic distortion in the electrical system of the

campus, the design of the plan shall be made appropriate for the existing specification of

the electrical system. The data collected from the ETAP simulation and actual

measurement would be used in completing the parameters needed in sizing the harmonic

filter. After sizing the harmonic filter, the application of the mitigation plan would be

simulated using ETAP and to determine and assess the level of harmonic distortion after

the application.

Budget Requirements

Experiment is necessary for the research to determine the level of harmonic

distortion present in the electrical system of CEAFA building in Batangas State

University – Alangilan Campus. The expenses associated with the materials, components,

and equipment that will be used are all listed in the budget requirements as seen on Table

20 below. It displays the quantity of each commodity along with its details, cost, and total

cost.

98
 Table 20. Budget Requirements

Quantity Unit Description Specification Unit Price Total

(Php) (Php)

Power

Quality 20,000.0
4 day 3-Phase, FLUKE 438-II 5,000.00
Analyzer 0

Rental

Assistance in the As-built

Single Line Diagram of the

Labor Cost 3,000.00 3,000.00
Electrical System of the

University

Consultation of Harmonic

Study and Design of

Consultation 3,000.00 3,000.00
Mitigation Plan with

authorized personnel

TOTAL Php 28,000.00

Expected Output

99
 With the nature of the study, its output is oriented towards the acquisition of data

regarding the harmonic distortion in the electrical system of Batangas State University –

Alangilan Campus. These data are expected to contribute to the existing knowledge

regarding the power quality of the campus, since harmonics is one of its components.

To signify the determination of the harmonic levels in the electrical system of the

campus, tables would be provided as an outcome of the study. This data could further be

used in assessing the power quality of the electrical system. With the harmonics being

measured by this study, the ease on the study of the system’s power quality would be

higher.

Consequently, a mitigation plan would be designed and assessed to address the

harmonic distortion in the electrical system of the campus. The design of the mitigation

plan may diminish the impermissible level of harmonic distortion that may have been

measured on the experiment or a plan that would anticipate the increase of harmonic

distortion in the future.

Lastly, recommendations future studies regarding harmonic distortion shall be

presented upon the end of the study to further expand the body of knowledge regarding

this concept.

100
Gantt Chart

Table 21 provides the detailed view of the Gantt Chart of the study. The table entails the contents of the study that are needed

to be accomplished discerned with appropriate deadlines. The Gantt Chart shall provide the timetable and visual representation of the

accomplishments of the proponents.

Table 21. Gantt Chart

99
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