Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Seismic behavior of Double-Skin tubular E-waste concrete columns

transversely confined with steel and GFRP tubes
Ali Raza a, *, Mohamed Hechmi El Ouni b, c, Qaiser uz Zaman Khan a, Nabil Ben Kahla b, c,
Haytham F. Isleem d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, 47050, Pakistan
b
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, PO Box 394, Abha 61411, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
c
Applied Mechanics and Systems Research Laboratory, Tunisia Polytechnic School, University of Carthage, La Marsa, Tunis 2078, Tunisia
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nowadays, FRP-confined steel tubular columns are emerging as advanced hybrid structural members due to their
Composite column efficient performance under seismic loads. Such types of double-skin tubular columns (DSTCs) usually contain
GFRP tube two different tubular systems, the first is the inner steel tube (ST) and the second is outer FRP tube, consisting of
Dynamic performance
a concrete-filled space between them. The main objective of the present investigation is to examine the dynamic
E-waste aggregates
Quasi-static load
response of novel FRP-electronic waste (E-waste) concrete steel tubular columns (FESTCs) having an inner ST,
outer glass-FRP tube (GT), and E-waste filled between the two different tubes to propose a sustainable structural
column. Five FESTC elements were fabricated and tested under quasi-static loading to examine their dynamic
performance under axial compressive and lateral cyclic loadings. The effect of three variables of FESTC samples
on their performance was examined in the present study including ST reinforcing ratio, compressive loading
ratio, and E-waste replacement ratio. The hysteretic cycles, strain spreading, ductility, skeleton curves, stiffness
behavior, dissipation of energy capacity, damaging behavior, and strength reduction of fabricated samples were
evaluated and deliberated. The outcomes of the present study showed that the effect of percentage replacement
of E-waste aggregates on the dynamic behavior of FESTCs was low whereas compressive loading ratio portrayed
a significant influence. Moreover, the capacities of the dissipation of energy and load-carrying strength of FESTCs
elements were greater as compared with DSTCs elements containing natural aggregates.

1. Introduction waste coarse aggregates obtained from the electronic appliances is

The use of electronic waste (E-waste) has been significantly
increased for human survival according to the need of the time. But now
the E-waste has become an environmental hazard that is inevitable
[1,2]. Inopportune processing of E-waste can lead to pollution and
health issues. The waste being manufactured by the fresh sales of elec­
tronic appliances such as laptops, monitors, TVs, and LE/CDs is a huge
development of E-waste. In the present age of the internet of electronics,
it is not possible to stop the manufacture of electronics among the
common humanitarians. Consequently, it is important to take measures
for the reclamation of recyclable materials from E-waste remains for
sustainable concrete production and the inhibition of environmental
contamination [3,4]. In the present study, the concrete containing the E-
defined as E-waste concrete while the concrete containing natural coarse
aggregates is defined as normal concrete. Due to the lightweight of E-
waste concrete, it will perform efficiently in DSTCs with improved
lateral confinement provided by the double tubes. Many researchers
investigated the use of waste materials in the fabrication of concrete
containing E-waste [2,5–8]. The utilization of E-waste diminishes the
self-weight of concrete, reduces the cost of cement, and upsurges the
ductility of concrete. Therefore, it also increases the distortion of con­
crete before failure [9].
During the last few decades, many investigations have been carried
out on the external confinement of columns, which showed good out­
comes due to the external strengthening of concrete columns by using
fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) [10–16]. Because of their good

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ali.raza@uettaxila.edu.pk (A. Raza), melouni@kku.edu.sa (M. Hechmi El Ouni), dr.qaiser@uettaxila.edu.pk (Q. uz Zaman Khan), nbohlal@kku.
edu.sa (N. Ben Kahla).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2021.115076
Received 19 August 2021; Received in revised form 10 November 2021; Accepted 4 December 2021
Available online 10 December 2021
0263-8223/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

characteristics including a high ratio of strength-to-weight and columns without removing the tubes leading to a low-carbon footprint
magnificent corrosion resistance, FRPs are the most suitably used in [50].
reinforced concrete elements or developments of innovative structural This work has endeavored to propose environmentally friendly
elements [17–22]. The lateral expansion of concrete under axial structural elements by utilizing the E-waste and expanding the practical
strength can be productively limited by the external FRPs, working on applications of reusable E-waste in seismic regions for the sustainability
both deformity and strength execution of the concrete [23,24]. The of the environment. The main aim of the present study is to investigate
combination of FRPs with E-waste will produce a lightweight and the seismic behavior of five FESTCs subjected to quasi-static testing
environmentally friendly structural element. Shamili et al. [25] worked under axial compression and dynamic lateral loads. Three variables
on E-waste concrete and concluded that the rapid growth in the world were considered during the manufacturing of columns including E-waste
population with widespread urbanization has increased the demand for coarse aggregate replacement, axial compression loading ratios, and
sand and gravels for the construction industry. It was observed during reinforcement ratios. The examined parameters of the tested columns
the experiments that the addition of E-waste aggregates to concrete re­ were axial load-carrying capacity, deflection behavior, damaging per­
sults in the production of lightweight concrete. Workability decreases as formance, and dissipation of energy. The good outcomes of the present
E-waste aggregates are added to concrete due to the lightweight of E- study will be helpful for the structural engineers to design sustainable,
waste aggregates and lowered water absorption than virgin aggregates. lightweight, and environmentally friendly concrete columns.
Mechanical properties such as compression and flexural strength were
lowered than the control mix. Iqbal et al. [26] performed tests on the 2. Materials and methods
emerging issue of E-waste. The E-waste recycling sites, the import of E-
waste, the current and future domestic productions of E-waste, and 2.1. Materials
various phases and challenges regarding the management of E-waste
were assessed recommending the use of E-waste in concrete for sus­ 2.1.1. E-waste aggregate concrete
tainable concrete developments. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) having grade 43 and type-II was
The previous investigations have illustrated that the concrete used for developing E-waste concrete according to ASTM C150/C150M
confined by both FRP tubes and steel tubes (ST) portrays an amazing [51]. Various features of OPC are provided in Table 1. The E-waste ag­
ductile performance that is fundamental and appealing excellence in gregates are secured from a scrap of computers, TVs, LCDs, and printers
seismic areas [27–35]. From such composite members, FRP-concrete- (shown in Fig. 1). The E-waste aggregate is produced by processing it
steel DSTC considers the influences from all of their parts including through four different phases. Firstly, clay or dust particles are removed
two tubes and core concrete [36–38]. Therefore, an efficient FRP-E- by washing the plastic waste. In the second phase, the crushing of E-
waste-ST column (FESTC), having an externally applied GFRP tube waste through an electric crusher is carried out in which it is crushed
(GT) and an internally applied ST, consuming an E-waste-filled space into shredded particles and small flakes. In the third phase, a kiln is used
between the two tubes will perform better under the seismic loads. An to melt the E-waste flakes. The melting temperature of E-waste is around
FRP-confined steel tube columns cannot just acquire the benefits of 125 ◦ C; nevertheless, the kiln temperature is set to 200 ◦ C to confirm an
DSTCs of moderating the mediocrity of recycled materials present in appropriate melting process. After the process of melting, plastic is
such members, yet additionally provides an extra lightweight and cooled using water where plastic rocks are fabricated. Lastly, the plastic
enhanced ductility execution of recycled aggregates contrasted with rocks are crumpled to fabricate the E-waste coarse aggregates. The
natural aggregate concrete [39], proposing a splendid future for the production of E-waste aggregates is provided in Fig. 2.
practical applications of this new column structure in seismic regions. The maximum and minimum size of E-waste coarse aggregates was
Besides, the empty center of composite columns decreases the weight of 19 mm and 4.75 mm, respectively. The coarse aggregates and fine ag­
the column and obliges administrations, and internal ST could assist gregates satisfying the requirements of ASTM C33/C33M-18 [52] were
concerning compression strength and enhance the flexural stiffness of employed with a maximum aggregate size of 12.5 mm. Table 2 defines
members to remunerate the shortfall of internally filled concrete [40]. various features of fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, and E-waste
However, the investigation on the seismic execution of FESTCs is coarse aggregates. Fig. 3 illustrates the granulometry of aggregates. Sika
extremely constrained inferable from the difficulty of carrying out quasi- ViscoCrete®-3400 MY [53] was used as a superplasticizer to obtain a
static testing of compressive specimens [41–44]. Because the earth is homogeneous mix of E-waste concrete. The compressive stress–strain
supposedly going through a somewhat dynamic structural period, curves for the normal concrete and E-waste aggregate concrete obtained
seismic activities have happened much of the time in ongoing many by testing of concrete cylinders at 28-days are shown in Fig. 4.
years, causing extraordinary misfortunes through close to injuries, and A mechanical mixer having a revolution speed of 20 per minute and a
structural demolitions in a brief time frame [45,46]. In particular, crit­
ical failure of concrete structures was fundamentally brought about by
the damage of columns occurring because of a deficient transverse re­ Table 1
striction [47]. Consequently, it is basic to consider the seismic behavior Properties of cement.
of FESTCs earlier they are broadly subjected to practical applications. In Feature Quantity/compound Value
addition, as FESTCs are required to have improved ductility, it is ener­ Physical features Consistency [54] 27%
gizing and reasonable to utilize annihilated concrete brought about by Specific surface area [55] 327 m2/kg
earthquakes and reuse it in FESTCs that gives phenomenal dynamic Specific gravity [56] 2.96
execution. The subsequent concern thought about is that no more in­ Soundness [57] No expansion
Fineness (Blaine test) 2824 (cm2/g)
vestigations have been performed using full-scale FRP-confined mem­
Initial setting time [58] 105 min.
bers under seismic loadings. Implementing the outcomes from limited Final setting time [58] 220 min.
scope samples straightforwardly to practical designing may produce Compression strength [59] 42 MPa
issues whereas the size of a sample significantly affects its capacity for Chemical features CaO 61.1%
the dissipation of energy [48]. Under the assembling cycle of glass-FRP, SiO2 20.4%
Al2O3 7.4%
it is accepted to be a failure lower to the ecosystem [49]. Accordingly, MgO 4.0%
this type of FRP appears to have an encouraging prospect for practical Fe2O3 3.3%
use and was picked for the applications in this investigation. Addition­ SO3 2.6%
ally, the pre-assembled FRP tubes were taken in the present investiga­ K2O 0.7%
Na2O 0.5%
tion; hence, two tubes were used as formwork for E-waste concrete

2
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

Fig. 1. A scrap of computers, TVs, LCDs, and printers.

Fig. 2. Production of E-waste aggregates.

3
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

Table 2 loads.
Properties of aggregates.
Property Natural fine- Natural coarse- E-waste coarse- 2.1.3. GFRP tube
aggregates aggregates aggregates The GTs having the directions of fibers at ± 80◦ from the longitudinal
Water 0.8 1.82 0 axes of the samples were used in the present study to provide sufficient
absorption lateral confining mechanism to the core concrete and external ST. The
(%)
Dry density (kg/ 1570 1495 540
m3)
40
Fineness 3.1 – –
modulus

Compressive stress (MPa)

Specific gravity 2.5 2.71 1.03
Maximum size 4.75 12.5 19 30
(mm)
Minimum size – 4.75 4.75
(mm) 20

volume capacity of 0.15 m3 was employed for the mixing process of E- 10

Normal concrete
waste aggregate concrete. A ratio of 0.47 was employed as the water to 50% E-waste aggregate concrete
cement ratio. During the mixing process, fine aggregates, coarse ag­ 100% E-waste aggregate concrete
gregates, and E-waste aggregates were mixed along with water and half 0
superplasticizer for the first 5 min. Then, for the other five minutes, 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Compressive strain (mm/mm)
cement along with the remaining quantities of water and super­
plasticizer were mixed to secure a homogeneous mix. The slump test Fig. 4. Compressive stress–strain curves of normal concrete and E-waste
carried out by following ASTM C143 [60] presented a value of 100 mm. aggregate concrete with 50% and 100% replacement.
Three cylinders (with dimensions of 150 mm × 300 mm) were fabri­
cated from each prepared E-waste concrete mix and tested after 28 days.
The compressive strength of the mix with 100% E-waste replacement Table 3
was 32 MPa having a standard deviation of 2.0 MPa. Table 3 illustrates Mix proportions.
the mixed proportions of the E-waste aggregates concrete. E-waste concrete EW- EW- EW
0 50 ¡100

2.1.2. Steel tube Mass in per cubic meter of Water 228 228 228
Various properties of ST including ultimate tensile strength (fu ), concrete (kg/m3) Cement 485 485 485
Fine aggregates 635 635 635
yielding strain (εy ), yielding strength (fy ), elongation, Young’s modulus
Coarse aggregates 1065 532 0
(Es ), diameter (Dst ), and fracture modulus used in the present study are E-waste 0 356 712
presented in Table 4. The particular breadths of the ST were picked aggregates
dependent on the elements that the width of the ST should be enormous Superplasticizer 2.55 2.55 2.55
for having a bigger moment of inertia to oppose the moment whereas Sand ratio 0.36 0.39 0.44
w/c ratio 0.47 0.47 0.47
void proportion ought not to be enough huge to even think about Density (kg/m3) 2415 2238 2062
including sufficient concrete, which assumes a critical part in bearing

100 100

80 80
Passing (%)
Passing (%)

60 60

40 40
Fine aggregates Coarse aggregates
20 ASTM C33 Max 20 ASTM C33 Max
ASTM C33 Min ASTM C33 Min
0 0
10 1 0.1 0.01 100 10 1
Size (mm) Size (mm)
(a) (b)
100

80
Passing (%)

60

40
E-waste aggregate
20 ASTM C33 Max
ASTM C33 Min
0
100 10 1
Size (mm)
(c)
Fig. 3. Granulometric study of aggregates: (a) fine aggregates (b) coarse aggregates, (c) E-waste coarse aggregates.

4
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

Table 4 reinforcement ratio was defined as the ratio of the cross-sectional area of
Material properties of ST. ST to the total area of the column that was modified by changing the
Sr. Dst fy ts fu εy (%) Es φ thickness of ST. The ST reinforcement ratio also influenced the slen­
No. (mm) (MPa) (mm) (MPa) (GPa) (%) derness ratio of samples. Table 5 illustrates the geometric specifications
of the samples where fc is the crushing strength of concrete cylinders and
1 300 320 8 492 0.178 208 26.5
2 300 375 10 471 0.245 216 22.1
fcu is the crushing strength of concrete cubes.

2.3. Testing preparation

diameter of GTs was 400 mm and their thickness was 4 mm. The tensile
tests of the GFRP ring portrayed Young’s modulus and ultimate strength
Every sample was fabricated using a FESTC wherein the base column
of 60 GPa and 670 MPa, respectively.
of the ST was inserted in a solid RC balance. Initially, 8 steel stiffeners
and 2 steel plates were connected to the base finish of the ST using
2.2. Fabrication of samples welding, and afterward, main reinforcing bars were connected to the
steel plates. Furthermore, conventional concrete was projected in the
In the present study, the samples were fabricated so that a semi- balance in the wake of introducing strain measures close to the column
column was formed whose one end was a cantilever and the other end end of the ST. When the ST is established, the strain gauges should have
was fixed. The cantilevered end of the samples was used for the appli­ been covered with seals to protect them from conductive steel and
cation of quasi-static loading. A footing was connected to the bottom end dampness. A GT was set and restrained to external ST. E-waste concrete
of the column section whereas the application of both cyclic and axial was projected between the tubes. Before the application of load to a
loading was performed using the top end of the column to evaluate the sample, the top surface was evened out with gypsum to guarantee an
seismic effect. A total of five (5) FESTC samples having circular GFRP even-strength appropriation on the sample.
and ST were tested under quasi-static loads. The samples were externally
confined with GTs having 400 mm inner diameter and 4 mm thickness of
2.4. Loading scheme of samples
walls. On the other hand, the ST was applied internally having a
diameter of 300 mm and a wall thickness of 8 mm or 10 mm. The total
Fig. 6 illustrates the testing machine and the set-up of sample testing
height of the samples was 2800 mm having 700 mm for the footing
under quasi-static loading. The base finish of the sample was fixed from
portion and 350 mm for the instrumentation. The height of FESTC col­
the bottom by the RC balance utilizing four steel bolts. In an upward
umns that was effective for the testing i.e. from the point of transverse
direction, a reaction frame with the greatest axial compression strength
load to the top portion of the bottom footing was 1750 mm. The size of
of 5000 kN furnished the compression response. The compression ca­
the footing from the top view was 1800 mm × 1000 mm. The top view
pacity was applied by a jack with the greatest axial load-carrying
and elevation view of the FESTC samples has been illustrated in Fig. 5.
strength of 3500 kN to the top surface of the sample. The jack was
The studies three different parameters of FESTC samples included (1)
organized physically, and a compression sensor underneath the loading
the axial loading ratio (0.2 and 0.4), the percentage of E-waste aggre­
jack was associated with an information logger for continuous checking
gates (r = 0%, 50%, and 100%), and the reinforcement ratio (ρ) of
of the compression. A moving help associated the loading jack and the
composites samples (3.04% and 3.81%). The coarse aggregates were
reaction frame so the head of the sample can move along the side under
replaced by their volumetric quantity. The ratio of axial load to the
the consistent compression strength. Moreover, a column cap was
crushing load defined the axial loading ratio in the present study. The
introduced on the highest point of the sample under the compression
sensor to produce the strength transfer equitably from the loading jack
400 mm to the sample. On a level plane, a huge response divider gave the hori­
1000 mm
300 mm zontal response. Afterward, the compression strength settled at the
anticipated worth, the transverse loading was given by a horizontally
placed actuator of the loading machine with a compression limit of 3000
350 mm

kN and a tensile limit of 2000 kN. The horizontally placed actuator was
associated with the sample head employing a uniquely planned instal­
lation accepting the column. The information logger connected to a
400 mm
1800 mm

Lateral cyclic computer documented the data.

loading point
300 mm In this study, 48 strain gauges and 11 LVDTs were connected to each
of the samples for measuring the strains and the distortions of the sample
2100 mm

as illustrated in Fig. 7. For lucidity of discussions, the pushing and

pulling directions of the transverse actuator are characterized as + ve
Steel tube

Table 5
GFRP tube
Test program.
Top view
8-20 mm Sample n ρ r ts Ds /ts fc fcu εu
Stiffener rib
2-14 mm label (%) (%) (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (%)

EW0-0.2- 0.2 3.04 0 8 37.5 38.6 40.3 0.275

ST8
700 mm

10 mm @ 200 mm 10 mm @ 200 mm EW50- 0.2 3.04 50 8 37.5 35.2 35.2 0.297

0.2-ST8
EW100- 0.2 3.04 100 8 37.5 32.0 36.4 0.326
0.2-ST8
1800 mm EW50- 0.4 3.04 50 8 37.5 36.4 41.5 0.315
0.4-ST8
EW50- 0.2 3.81 50 10 30.0 35.9 39.4 0.272
Elevation view
0.2-
ST10
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of FESTC samples for elevation and plan views.

5
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

Roller support
Hydraulic Load sensor
jack

Cap of
sample

Fixing of Lateral
Sample
sample actuator
Reaction wall
Horizontal
restrain
Reaction system
frame

Floor

(a) (b)

Fig. 6. Testing setup for quasi-static loading (a) experimental setup (b) schematic diagram.

Axial loading jack

LVDT7 LVDT8
D-H
D-V 350 mm

Steel tube LVDT9 400 mm

D-H
D-V Lateral cyclic
A-H A-H B-H B-H loading point
A-V A-V B-V B-V 300 mm
C-H
C-V
Steel tube
2100 mm

GFRP tube
GFRP tube
Side A Side B
C-H
C-V LVDT6
200 mm 200 mm 200 mm

LVDT5
Locations of Strain Gauges

Strain gauge positions LVDT3 LVDT4

100 mm Section 3
100 mm Section 2 LVDT1 LVDT2
LVDT10
100 mm Section 1

LVDT11
700 mm

Footing

1800 mm
Locations of LVDTs
Fig. 7. Arrangement of instrumentation for LVDTs and strain gauges.

6
A. Raza et al.
and -ve, correspondingly. Through pushing the sample, the compression
and tension sides of the samples are defined as both sides (A and B),
correspondingly. Side D was defined as the side situated between both
sides (A and B). The length of LVDTs was 200 mm. LVDT1 was con­
nected to side A and the LVDT2 was connected to side B of the sample
(illustrated in Fig. 7). Likewise, LVDTs 3, 4, 5, and 6 were connected to
the sample above the locations of LVDT1 and LVDT2 at the breaks of
200 mm. Whereas the LVDT7 and LVDT8 were subjected to the top end
of the sample to measuring the compression length of the sample. LVDT9
was mounted in the horizontal direction located on side A where lateral
loading was applied. Finally, the remaining two LVDTs were connected
to the base footing of the sample in the horizontal and vertical direction
to measure the horizontal and vertical movements of the footing,
respectively.
Concerning the placement of strain gauges on GT, a total of 4 groups
were made for 24 strain gauges having a length of 20 mm. The
remaining 24 strain gauges were connected to the ST. Whereas con­
necting the strain gauges to GT, three different locations were defined
having heights of 300 mm, 200 mm, and 100 mm from the top surface of
the bottom footing. Similarly, connecting the strain gauges to ST, the
corresponding location, as were taken in the GFRP rube, were consid­
ered for placing the strain gauges on the ST at heights of 300 mm, 200
mm, and 100 mm from the top surface of the bottom footing.
In the present study, the compression loading was applied using the
load-controlled technique at 1.0 kN/sec. This loading rate was increased
until the required axial compression capacity is secured, afterward
which the loading was kept constant during the testing. The application
of lateral cyclic loading to the sample was performed using the
displacement control steps illustrated in Fig. 8. Afterward, the yielding
of ST (indicated by the nonlinear curve), the displacement increment of
cyclic loading was kept equal to yielding displacement. This cycling
process was repeated three times. This cyclic loading technique
continued until the load decreased to 85% of the peak capacity of the
sample. At this phase, the apparent cracks were visualized and the de­
flections of the sample became too large for resisting the applied loads.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Hysteretic cycles
The horizontal loading-transverse deflection curves for all tested
samples are illustrated in Fig. 9. The results of hysteretic cycles in the -ve
and + ve directions depicted that these were not stringently symmetrical
that may be credited to a non-vertical sample establishment, no homo­
geneity of E-waste concrete constituents and tubes constituents on two-
After yielding has been started
2 y
y
Transverse
deflection
2 y
Before start
of yielding
Time
Fig. 8. The cyclic loading technique.
7
Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076
column portions, and the transverse application of load patterns. In the
present study, the testing samples were first subjected to the axial
compression loading and then the lateral cyclic loading was imple­
mented. If bending of the sample occurs towards one portion, a dimin­
ished parallel load limit is gotten when the bending of the specimen
occurs towards the other portion. This is transcendent due to the reason
that constituents in the sample observe total failure in the past loading
stages. By advancing the transverse loads, the miniature breaks of the
sample were collected at a specific spot because of the non-homogeneity
of constituents and the deviated local buckling phenomenon of the ST
that along these lines prompted uneven damage improvements for side
A and B [61,62]. Thusly, strains of the sample likewise grew unevenly in
these different sides. Completely adjusted hysteretic cycles showed un­
rivaled plastic distortion execution and dissipation of energy limit.
Throughout the application of the axial and transverse cyclic loading,
before the ST was started to yield, the samples had next to no remaining
distortion, and the hysteretic cycles portrayed the smaller spaces. In this
phase, the sample deflection can be depicted as the elastic correlation.
The dissipation of energy of the samples was neither the self-evident nor
a weakening of their strength and axial load-carrying strength. When the
ST was yielded, expanding the compression brought about expansions to
residual strains and spaces of the hysteretic cycles, whereas the inclines
of the load again or the dumping curves diminished. 3 hysteretic cycles
for every one of the fix cycles of the loading was largely covered at the
early loading phase (before the horizontal deflection had approached
7δy). Axial load-carrying strength arrived at a top for transverse de­
flections somewhere in the range of 4δy and 6δy, afterward which the
axial load-carrying strength and stiffness diminished whereas the hori­
zontal deflection and dissipation of energy keep on expanding. Samples
by and large broken at transverse deflections of around 8–10δy because
of the ST yielding or failure by the buckling. The three test variables
affected the hysteretic performance. With an expansion in the E-waste
substitution rate, a maximum transverse deflection of the samples
diminished somewhat, whereas the horizontal load-carrying strength
diminished even more leisurely after arriving at the maximum esteem
with no unexpected decay. The maximum compression of the samples
with larger E-waste substitution rates was larger that might be an
aftereffect of the strength of E-waste itself. By enhancing axial loading
proportion, the P-Δ impact of the sample remained clearer with a bigger
compression load prompted to an expanded parallel distortion, therefore
an expanded bending moment. The samples failed due to the combined
action of bending moment and axial compression. When the axial
compression is enhanced, the capacity of samples to resist bending is
diminished. A maximum parallel deflection accordingly diminished
with the expansion of the compression load proportion [44]. The ratio of
3 y
3 y
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

300 300

200 200

Cyclic load (kN)

Cyclic load (kN) 100
100
0
0 -150 -50 50 150
-150 -50 50 150 -100
-100
-200
-200 -300
-300 -400
Lateral deflection (mm) Lateral deflection (mm)

(a) (b)
300 300

200 200
Cyclic load (kN)

Cyclic load (kN)

100 100

0 0
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 -100 -50 0 50 100
-100 -100

-200 -200

-300 -300
Lateral deflection (mm) Lateral deflection (mm)

(c) (d)
300

200
Cyclic load (kN)

100

0
-150 -50 50 150
-100

-200

-300
Lateral deflection (mm)

(e)
Fig. 9. Lateral load–deflection curves of samples: (a) EW0-0.2-ST8 (b) EW50-0.2-ST8 (c) EW100-0.2-ST8 (d) EW50-0.4-ST8 (e) EW50-0.2-ST10.

ST depicted a smaller impact on the maximum transverse deflection of
the samples. Notwithstanding, the expansion in the ratio of ST added to
the parallel axial load-carrying strength, leveling the diminishing col­
umn of the hysteretic performance and enhancing hysteretic execution.
3.2. Failure of samples
All samples depicted commonly comparable failure and cracking
modes, comprising of the presence of circumferential breaks of the GT,
clasping or crack of the ST, and squashed E-waste. The damage behav­
iors for every sample are illustrated in Fig. 10. The damage interaction
can be generally partitioned into 3 phases: the elastic phase, the crack
advancement phase, and the damage phase.
Initially, after the application of loads, the transverse deflection of
every sample was small, similar to the strains of both tubes (GT and ST).
With the increase in lateral load, the strains of both tubes (GT and ST)
expanded steadily, alongside infrequent small breaking sounds. Before
long that, the horizontal avoidance of the sample was as of now not
elastic, and had steady increments showing the sample had changed to
the break improvement phase. Minor circumferential breaks showed up
on the outside of the GT joined by somewhat boisterous breaking
sounds. The main clear breaks in the GT aggregated when the transverse
diversion came to roughly 2δy. The noticed points of the large breaks in
the GT agreed with the bending point of the strands that demonstrates
that the tar framework in the GT cracked sooner than the filaments. As
the lateral loading kept on expanding, the breaks amassed at the base
locale of the column, and a few significant breaks having a total width of
3 to 5 mm located in an area starting from a height of 150 mm and
ending at a height of 350 mm from sample termination shaped on both
sides (A and B). The filaments mislaying the inclusion of resin at this
point do not cooperate and break without any problem. Strangely,
before the strands snapped, the point of some breaks around them

8
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

EW0-0.2-ST8 EW50-0.2-ST8 EW100-0.2-ST8

EW50-0.4-ST8 EW50-0.2-ST10
Fig. 10. Failure modes of samples at the joining section of column head to the footing.

adjusted to the level course that suggested that the rigidity of the strands
was completely used. The breaks on the elastic side grew somewhat
quickly, and some significant breaks at similar stature on the two sides
(A and B) of the sample combined to speed up damage advancement.
The squashed E-waste inside was uncovered. The application of loading
had a consistent improvement before arriving at the maximum. As an
impact of the amassed breaks on the GT and the E-waste, the parallel
axial load-carrying strength of the sample started to diminish bit by bit
and the sample arrived at the damage phase. During this phase, the fi­
bers of GT were more fractured and the crushing of core concrete was
more visible.
3.3. Skeleton curves
In these curves, every sample for the most part displayed a first rising
region and a second larger decreasing region, as displayed in Fig. 11.
Concerning the impact of the E-waste substitution rate, 3 skeleton curves
essentially concurred earlier the sample yielding, demonstrating the E-
waste substitution rate has a small impact on sample stiffness. The
curves started to digress afterward the yielding of the sample. On side A
400
EW0-0.2-ST8
300
EW50-0.2-ST8
EW100-0.2-ST8 200
EW50-0.4-ST8
Cyclic load (kN)
of the samples, the axial load-carrying strength expanded with an
increment in the E-waste substitution rate. The sample EW100-0.2-ST8
had a maximum axial load-carrying strength that addresses increments
of 14% and 17% contrasted with those of samples EW50-0.2-ST8 and
EW0-0.2-ST8, individually. The transverse axial load-carrying strength
diminished progressively after arriving at the top on side A, whereas no
clear region of decay was observed on the -ve side. A maximum hori­
zontal deflection of sample EW50-0.2-ST8 was like that of sample EW0-
0.2-ST8, and both were larger than that of Sample EW100-0.2-ST8.
Analyzing the impact of the compression load proportions, it was
observed that the elastic stiffness of the samples was more prominent at
the larger compression loading proportion. The skeleton curve of sample
EW50-0.2-ST8 was generally beneath that of sample EW50-0.4-ST8 on
side A (+ve side), and the maximum axial load-carrying strength of
sample EW50-0.4-ST8 was 31% more prominent than that of sample
EW50-0.2-ST8. The skeleton curve of sample EW50-0.4-ST8 had
diminished columns on both sides either -ve or + ve, yet, especially in
the + ve direction. A maximum parallel deflection of sample EW50-0.4-
ST8 was considerably lower than that of sample EW50-0.2-ST8, showing
the ductility of samples diminishing with an expansion in compression
proportion. The elastic stiffness of samples was lower influenced by the
ratio of ST, yet the skeleton curves depicted slow deviance afterward the
samples were reached the plasticity phase. The axial load-carrying
strength of sample EW50-0.2-ST10 was 8% more noteworthy than that
of sample EW50-0.2-ST8. Besides, the deterioration of the axial load-
carrying strength with regards to samples with larger steel ratios was
slower than the samples with a small ratio of ST. The two samples EW50-

100
EW50-0.2-ST10 0.2-ST8 and EW50-0.2-ST10 had superb ductility and a comparative
0 extreme horizontal deflection of 105 mm.
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
-100
For the most part, the compression load proportion influenced the
axial load-carrying strength and the distortion characteristics of the
-200 samples. The steel reinforcing proportion in these tests had some impact
on the axial load-carrying strength yet lower on the deflection execu­
-300
tion. The main impact of the E-waste substitution rate was observed on
-400 the material behavior of the -ve side compared with the + ve side.
Lateral deflection (mm)

Fig. 11. Skeleton curves.

9
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

0.009 0.007
A1-H A1-H
0.008 0.006
B1-H B1-H
0.007

Hoop strain (μ )
C1-H 0.005 C1-H
0.006
Hoop strain (μ ) 0.005 D1-H 0.004 D1-H
0.004 0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.001 0.001
0.000 0.000
-200 -100 0 100 200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Lateral deflection (mm) Lateral deflection (mm)
(a) (b)
0.008 0.009
A1-H A1-H
0.007 0.008
A2-H 0.007 B1-H
0.006

Hoop strain (μ )
Hoop strain (μ )

0.005 A3-H 0.006 C1-H

C1-H 0.005 D1-H
0.004
C2-H 0.004
0.003
0.003
0.002 C3-H
0.002
0.001 0.001
0.000 0.000
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Lateral deflection (mm) Lateral deflection (mm)
(c) (d)
Fig. 12. Hoop strains of GT: (a) EW100-0.2-ST8 for same height; (b) EW50-0.2-ST8 for same height; (c) EW50-0.2-ST10 for different heights; (d) EW50-0.4-ST8 for
the same height.

3.4. Strain circulation in GT
The GFRP hoop strain-horizontal deflection curves for the samples
have been displayed in Fig. 12. For a similar cross-column of the sample,
the cycle strains of GFRP on all of the samples expanded with expanding
deflection, except for a few estimated strains from cracked strain mea­
sures during the loading phase. It was observed that during the appli­
cation of compression of both sides (A and B), their strain expanded with
a high speed while during the application of tensile loading on both sides
(A and B), their strains expanded slowly. The values of the strain in GT

0.000 0.000
-100 -50 0 50 100 -200 -100 -0.001 0 100 200
-0.001
Axial strain (μ )

-0.002
Axial strain (μ )

-0.002
-0.003
-0.003
A1-V A1-V -0.004
-0.004
B1-V B1-V -0.005
-0.005 C1-V -0.006
C1-V
D1-V -0.006 D1-V -0.007
-0.007 -0.008
Lateral deflection (mm) Lateral deflection (mm)
(a) (b)
0.000 0.000
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
-0.001 -0.001
Axial strain (μ )
Axial strain (μ )

-0.002 -0.002
A1-V
A2-V -0.003 -0.003
A3-V -0.004 A1-V -0.004
B1-V B1-V
-0.005 -0.005
B2-V C1-V
-0.006 -0.006
B3-V D1-V
-0.007 -0.007
Lateral strain (mm) Lateral deflection (mm)
(c) (d)
Fig. 13. Axial strains of GT: (a) EW50-0.4-ST8 for same height; (b) EW0-0.2-ST8 for same height; (c) EW100-0.2-ST8 for different heights; (d) EW50-0.2-ST10 for the
same height.

10
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

for the sides C and D remained among them. These illustrate that the GT
applied effective imprisonment during the expansion of E-waste inside
the tubes. The strain produced on side C was similar to that on side D.
The curves remained symmetric on the vertical axis for both sides (A and
B) for the elastic stage after which the cracks were produced in the
samples making the strain curves unsymmetrical. In any case, the strain
curves on both sides (A and B) of sample EW50-0.2-ST8 were irregular at
the beginning phase of loading that might be an aftereffect of lopsided
concrete filling on Side B because of which the FRP repression can’t
completely play its role. Of sample EW100-0.2-ST8, the maximum hoop
strains in specimens on each of the 4 sides were bigger than for the
samples with other E-waste substitution rates that might be demon­
strative of its greater strength and superior distortion behavior. Samples
having greater compression proportions, the hoop strains consisted of a
straight pattern from yielding deflection to 6δy, demonstrating that the
axial strength can forestall the advancement of breaks in E-waste
partially, permitting the core concrete to stay in a condition of direct
versatility. For various samples, the strains produced on side A and side
C diminished clearly with expanding the height of samples.
Fig. 13 illustrates the axial strains of GT against the lateral de­
flections of the specimens. The axial strains of GTs for different sides of a
sample reported a changing increment with the improvement of parallel
deflection in the sample. The compression strains grew all the quickly
for the sample throughout strength at both sides (A and B) compared
with that of different sides. When the transverse cyclic loading was
applied, the axial strains of GT for certain samples reduced suddenly or
though seemed elastic, showing the presence of significant breaks in the
GT. Such changes concurred with varieties in the hoop endure similar
situations. After building the axial loading proportion, the deflections of
sample EW50-0.4-ST8 at both sides (A and B) diminished for maximum
compression strain, elucidating GT withstood higher compression
strength of samples having a bigger compression load proportion, and
the breaks in GFRP grew quickly. These results inferred that GTs gave
keeping loads to concrete, yet additionally withstood a specific measure
of compression loading. For the sample having the bigger proportion of
steel, the compression strain on side A of sample EW50-0.2-ST10 had
increments though afterward FRP breaking illustrates up on side B,
3.5. Ductility
Table 6 illustrates the computations of rotations (θ) and ductility (u)
of the samples. Py , Pk , and Pu are the parallel compressions of yielding, at
the peak and the damage point, separately. Δy , Δk , and Δu are the
transverse deflections comparing to Py , Pk , and Pu , individually. The
rotation and ductility have portrayed a + ve relationship among them.
The range of ductility index was located between 6.8 and 10 illustrating
two to three times more noteworthy than the necessary worth of 3 for
dynamic elastic individuals. A maximum rotations range from 0.038 to
0.065 is likewise a lot more noteworthy than the needed value of 0.020.
These results demonstrate that FESTCs have prevalent plastic distortion
execution.
For the samples having to shift E-waste substitution rates, ductility
marginally diminishes with expanding E-waste substitution rates that
might be brought about by the material characteristics of the E-waste.
The ductility of the samples for the most part diminishes with an
increment in E-waste strength and Young’s modulus. Ductility likewise
advances with an increment in the ratio of ST, mirroring the + ve
commitment of the ST. The compression proportion portrayed a pro­
foundly critical impact on the ductility of the sample. The sample EW50-
0.4-ST8 depicted 26% less ductility than sample EW50-0.2-ST8. Because
the compressive region of samples is larger due to a larger compression
ratio, the deflection execution of the sample diminishes to point that the
sample faces abrupt damage because of E-waste smashing in the strength
region or GFRP rupturing.
3.6. Dissipation of energy capacity
The dynamic performance and the dissipation of energy capacity of
samples can be assessed by comparing the total energy dissipation. The
following relationship is used for measuring the total energy dissipation
in the present study:
∑
n
Es = SABCDA (1)
i=1

mirroring a dependable compression opposition of the ST. The

where i alludes to the ith hysteresis cycle of the sample, and SABCDA de­
compression strains in the GT stayed tiny in strength on both sides (A
scribes the total area covered by that hysteresis cycle. The area of every
and B) that demonstrates that the ST gave the fundamental tensile
is determined utilizing The PC programming is utilized for determining
commitment, instead of the FRP tube. Conversely, the compression side
the area of all hysteresis cycles. The absolute dissipation of energy of all
of the GT produced a comparative commitment to the direction of
5 samples is displayed in Fig. 14. The dissipation of the energy limit
compression strength; whereas its tension side took part a little bit. The
increases with an expansion in the E-waste substitution rate. Of the
neutral axis shifted to another location with expanding redirection of the
sample, contrasted with the sample comprising just natural aggregate
sample throughout the advanced phase of loading. At the various
concrete, the absolute energy dispersal of sample EW50-0.2-ST8 and
heights of the 3 locations, the GFRP compressive strains were compar­
sample EW100-0.2-ST8 is 22% and 25% more noteworthy, individually.
ative throughout the improvement of deflection at the early load phase,
By enhancing the compression loading ratio, the all energy dispersal of
whereas the compression strains differed during the late load phase
the sample diminishes. The dissipation of energy of sample EW50-0.4-
because of the development of the GFRP tube breaks. The compression
ST8 is 7% lower than sample EW50-0.2-ST8. The dissipation of energy
strains expanded somewhat at the cross-sectional area of height di­
capacity might be enhanced somewhat by expanding the ratio of ST. The
minishes, mirroring that the GT withstood fractional compressive
accumulative dissipation of energy of sample EW50-0.2-ST10 is 9.01 ×
strength.
105 J that is 10% bigger compared with the dissipation of energy of

Table 6
Calculation of ductility and rotations.
Specimen Py (kN) Δy (mm) Pk (kN) Δk (mm) Pu (kN) Δu (mm) u =Δu /Δy θ = Δu /H

EW0-0.2-ST8 155.3 9.8 235.1 40.9 205.4 92.8 9.5 9.6 0.056 0.061
− 149.7 − 11.0 − 259.3 − 94.5 − 256.0 − 107.2 9.7 0.065
EW50-0.2-ST8 163.6 9.0 241.7 36.5 205.6 77.8 8.6 8.7 0.047 0.056
− 188.6 − 12.0 − 312.0 − 105.3 − 312.0 − 105.3 8.8 0.064
EW100-0.2-ST8 179.1 10.8 274.7 41.5 245.0 81.4 7.5 8.5 0.049 0.049
− 139.0 − 8.5 − 226.3 − 65.2 − 224.1 − 81.1 9.5 0.049
EW50-0.4-ST8 257.1 9.1 316.4 20.8 269.0 62.1 6.8 6.9 0.038 0.041
− 211.3 − 10.1 − 290.0 − 51.8 − 263.7 − 71.4 7.1 0.043
EW50-0.2-ST10 174.5 9.6 273.6 76.0 259.3 95.7 10.0 9.3 0.058 0.058
− 176.6 − 11.1 − 306.5 − 85.0 − 304.3 − 95.4 8.6 0.058

11
A. Raza et al. Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076

950,000 0.37
908,377.0
0.36
900,000 0.36
846,168.2
Energy dissipation (J)

0.35

Damping coefficient
850,000 825,308.4 0.35
800,000 774,317.7
0.34 0.34
0.34
750,000 0.33
0.33
700,000 676,582.5
0.32
650,000
0.31
600,000

EW50-0.2-ST8

EW50-0.4-ST8

EW50-0.2-ST10
EW0-0.2-ST8

EW100-0.2-ST8
EW0-0.2-ST8

EW50-0.2-ST8

EW100-0.2-ST8

EW50-0.4-ST8

EW50-0.2-ST10
Fig. 14. Total dissipation of energy of samples. Fig. 16. Viscous damping coefficients of samples.

sample EW50-0.2-ST8. of energy can be enhanced by expanding the E-waste substitution rate
Two different parameters are utilized for assessing the dynamic and the steel ratio, and by diminishing the compression loading pro­
resistance performance of the samples including the equivalent viscous portion. The results indicate that the damping coefficients for every one
damping coefficient (he ) and dissipation of energy coefficient (E) as re­ of the samples range between 0.23 and 0.35 being good values as for the
ported in the following equations [63]: normal strength concrete columns, these parameters should have a value
E = SA /(SB + SC ) (2) between 0.1 and 0.2. These results portray that the FESTCs samples have
greater dissipation of energy capacity and greater dynamic resistance
he = E/2π (3) performance under quasi-static loading.

where SA is the total region of a hysteresis cycle; SB is the three-sided

region limited by the interconnections of the + ve maximum loading 3.7. Stiffness and axial Load-Carrying strength
on the hysteresis cycle, the + ve maximum deflection on the deflection
compression, and the beginning of directions. Similarly, SC is the three- In the present study, the stiffness performance of the samples was
sided region limited by the interconnections of the -ve maximum loading assessed by using secant stiffness as reported by the following equation:
on the hysteresis cycle, the -ve maximum deflection on the deflection Kgi = (| + Pki | + | − Pki | )/(| + Δki | + | − Δki |) (4)
compression, and beginning of directions as illustrated in Fig. 15.
The coefficients of viscous damping for the tested samples have been where +Pki and − Pki show the maximum loads in the + ve and -ve ways,
displayed in Fig. 16. This parameter has a value of 0.23 before starting individually, through the main pattern of the ith phase of loading; and
the yielding of the samples having no specific correlation with 3 testing +Δki and − Δki are the maximum deflections in the + ve and -ve ways,
variables. When the samples start yielding, this parameter enhances separately, during the principal pattern of the ith phase of load appli­
with an increment in deflection of every sample, demonstrating an up­ cation. After the adjustment of secant stiffness alongside the deflection
grade in dissipation of energy. The impact of the E-waste substitution of the samples, displayed in Fig. 17, deterioration of stiffness for every
rate on the coefficient of damping is extremely restricted when the sample could be elaborated. The stiffness of the sample expanded
deflection of the sample is generally small, whereas its impact raises marginally with an expansion in the E-waste substitution rate, yet the E-
when the deflection is bigger, especially close to the damage deflection. waste substitution rate had a small impact during the deflection was
The damping coefficients of sample EW50-0.2-ST8 and sample EW50- huge. Contrasted with the sample having a more modest compression
0.2-ST10 at the damage deflection are 6% and 8% more noteworthy load proportion, the elastic stiffness of the sample with the bigger
than the sample consisting of natural aggregate concrete, individually. compression load proportion was more noteworthy, however, the decay
The sample EW50-0.2-ST8 represented a greater coefficient (5% bigger of its stiffness was likewise more self-evident through the later loading
than the coefficient of sample EW50-0.4-ST8). Generally, the dissipation phase. Fig. 17 illustrates that the stiffness-deflection performance of
samples having various ratios of ST was near one another, demon­
strating that the ratios of ST utilized in these analyses had a small effect
Cyclic loading

A
30
EW0-0.2-ST8
25
EW50-0.2-ST8

SB EW100-0.2-ST8
Stiffness (kN/mm)

20
EW50-0.4-ST8
E D O B
15 EW50-0.2-ST10
C Lateral deflection
SC 10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
F Lateral deflection (mm)

Fig. 15. Damping coefficient calculations. Fig. 17. Degradation of stiffness of samples.

12
A. Raza et al.
on stiffness weakening. In particular, the stiffness of the five samples
diminished more clearly through the initial loading phase than through
the late loading phase when it decayed consistently deprived of unex­
pected smoothness.
In the meantime, the decay of the axial load-carrying strength con­
cerning every sample during cyclic dumping/reloading can be described
by the axial load-carrying strength debasement coefficient characterized
as the proportion of the maximum compression of the last to main cycle
of loads. The connection between the axial load-carrying strength
reduction coefficient and the deflection of the samples has been dis­
played in Fig. 18. The results portrayed that the reduction coefficient has
a small value in the initial loading phase, and reduced drastically
through the last phase of loading because of the yielding and failure of
the ST. The degrading patterns of the axial load-carrying strength were
comparative of samples with fluctuating E-waste substitution rates. It
very well may be noticed that sample EW100-0.2-ST8 with complete E-
waste substitution had an exceptionally restricted axial load-carrying
strength debasement, whereas it supported a larger strength and
bigger maximum strain of the E-waste. The axial load-carrying strength
reduction was somewhat diminished for the sample with the greater
steel ratio. Contrasted with the impact of different variables, high
compression strength made the load-carrying strength reduce most
quickly that sped up the damage of the E-waste and the ST.
3.8. Cumulative damage of samples
The cumulative damage of samples was assessed by employing a two-
parameter model [64,65] depending on the dissipation of energy and the
damage accumulations of the distortion represented by the following
equation:
( ) (∫ )
δk dE
D= +β (5)
δu Py δu
where D is the aggregate failure index; δk and δu are the most extreme
deformity of the sample under dynamic activity and uniaxial loading,
∫
individually; δk can be considered as 0.62 δu [66]. Furthermore, dE is
the total plastic dissipation of energy of sample; Py is the axial load-
carrying strength of the sample at yielding, and β is the impact cyclic
transverse load coefficient that can be identified with the E-waste sub­
stitution rate. The combined failure deflection curves of every sample
present a propensity of nonlinear turn of events, as displayed in Fig. 19.
When the applied loading was in the early phase, the total failure re­
cords of the samples are somewhat slight and increment at a lesser speed
with an expansion in the deflection. When the applied loading was in a
later phase, the combined failure of the samples increments essentially
as the aggregate failure files are bigger than one which illustrates that
the samples were failed incredibly.
Concerning the impact of the three test variables, the combined
1.1
1
Strength reduction coefficient
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
-15 -10 -5 0 5
Lateral deflection in multiples of
Fig. 18. Reduction of load-carrying strength of samples.
Composite Structures 282 (2022) 115076
3
EW0-0.2-ST8
2.5 EW50-0.2-ST8
Accumulative damage index
EW100-0.2-ST8
2
EW50-0.4-ST8
1.5 EW50-0.2-ST10
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Lateral deflection in multiples of
Fig. 19. Accumulative damage index.
failure of every sample marginally diminishes with an increment in the
E-waste substitution rate. The aggregate damage index of sample
EW100-0.2-ST8 is 17% improved than that of sample EW0-0.2-ST8 in
the loading phase of 8δy. The impact of axial loading proportions is
obvious to such an extent that the aggregate failure index of the sample
with a larger compression load proportion (sample EW50-0.4-ST8) is for
the most part bigger than that of the sample with a lower compression
load proportion (sample EW50-0.2-ST8). Contrasted with the sample
having a lesser steel ratio (sample EW50-0.2-ST8), the combined failure
of the sample with a larger steel ratio (sample EW50-0.2-ST10) is lower
which develops its total failure record deflection curve almost corre­
spond with that of sample EW100-0.2-ST8.
4. Conclusions
The present study aimed to examine the dynamic response of five
FESTCs under the combined effect of cyclic loading and axial
compression loading. The combined effect of internal ST and external
GT portrayed smaller disintegration in dynamic execution of fabricated
samples contrasted with DSTCs having natural aggregates. Furthermore,
the FRPs along with E-waste aggregate in the constructed samples direct
towards sustainable construction. The following main conclusions could
be derived from the present work:
1. The FESTCs presented the rounded hysteretic cycles and their skel­
eton curves had a comprehensive advancement in horizontal de­
flections before the samples coming to maximum parallel loadings.
The ductility records of the FESTCs went from 6.8 to 10 and
maximum rotations went from 0.038 to 0.065 that were two to three
times more prominent than the necessary incentive for dynamic
structural elements (0.020). The above discoveries demonstrate a
prevalent dynamic presentation of FESTCs, possessing the control
from the external GT and the inward ST.
2. The horizontal load capacity of the FESTCs was 17% larger than that
of the natural aggregate counterparts. The dissipation of energy of
the FESTCs was 25% more prominent than that of the natural
aggregate counterparts. These qualities show that FESTCs have
greater axial load-carrying strength and greater dissipation of energy
capacity. The accumulative failure for FESTCs might be 17% lesser
than that of the natural aggregate counterparts.
EW0-0.2-ST8 3. With an increment in the curvature, the E-waste substitution pro­
EW50-0.2-ST8 portion, the accumulative failure, and the ductility of FESTCs
EW100-0.2-ST8 diminished marginally, whereas the dissipation of energy and the
EW50-0.4-ST8 elastic stiffness were enhanced. The E-waste substitution rate was
EW50-0.2-ST10
roughly free of the axial load-carrying strength of the samples.
Expanding the compression load proportion commonly affected the
10 15
ductility, the curvature, the accumulative failure, and the dissipation
of energy. The steel ratio assumed a more critical part in expanding
13
A. Raza et al.
the transverse deflection of the FESTCs than the axial load-carrying
strength.
4. On the compression regions of the samples, the hoop and axial strains
of FRP expanded most quickly and diminished clearly by expanding
the height of the sample. Before starting the cracking process of FRP,
the hoop and axial strains versus transverse redirection curves at
similar column tallness on the compression side and tension side
would in general be symmetric on the upward compression. The
compression side of the GT in a FESTC made an incomplete
commitment in bearing the axial strength, whereas its tension side
portrayed a small involvement; subsequently, the main involvement
of ST in a FESTC was to bear the tensile loads. This study proposes a
lightweight and sustainable double-skin tube column to be employed
in the seismic regions.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ali Raza: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Software,
Writing – original draft. Mohamed Hechmi El Ouni: Conceptualiza­
tion, Methodology, Resources, Software, Writing – review & editing.
Qaiser uz Zaman Khan: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review
& editing. Nabil Ben Kahla: Methodology, Resources, Writing – review
& editing. Haytham F. Isleem: Data curation, Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific
Research at King Khalid University for funding this work through
research groups under grant number RGP. 1/100/42.
Data Availability Statement
All data have been presented in the work.
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