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3. Tools of Structured Analysis

Structured Analysis :
 It is a set of techniques and graphical tools that allow the analyst to
develop a new kind of system that is understandable to the user .
 It is a development method that allows the analyst to understand the
system and its activities in a logical way.
 It has following attributes:
1. It is graphic which specifies the presentation of application.
2. It divides the processes so that it gives a clear picture of system flow.
3. It is logical rather than physical i.e., the elements of system do not depend on
vendor or hardware.
4. It is an approach that works from high-level overviews to lower-level details.
Why do we use these tools? :
 Use of graphics whenever possible to help communicate better with the
user.
 Differentiate between logical and physical system .
 Build a logical system model to familiarize the user with system
characteristics and interrelationships before implementation .
Steps in Structured Analysis :
 Studying the current business environment
 Modeling the old logical system
 Modeling a new logical system
 Modeling a new physical environment
 Evaluating alternatives
 Selecting the best design
 Creating structured

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During Structured Analysis, various tools and techniques are used for system
development. They are:
 1. Data Flow Diagrams
 2. Data Dictionary
 3. Decision Trees
 4. Decision Tables
 5. Structured English
 6. Pseudocode

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Data Flow Diagram [DFD] :

 Data flow diagram is graphical representation of flow of data in an
information system.
 It is capable of depicting (to show)incoming data flow, outgoing data
flow and stored data.
 DFD does not mention anything about how data flows through the
system.
 DFDs depict flow of data in the system at various levels
 DFD does not contain any control or branch elements
 Data Flow diagrams are very popular because they help us to visualize
the major steps and data involved in software-system processes.
All data flow diagrams include four main elements :
1. entity
2. Process
3. Data store
4. Data flow
1. External Entity :
- Also known as actors, sources or sinks, and terminators, external
entities produce and consume data that flows between the entity and
the system being diagrammed.
- These data flows are the inputs and outputs of the DFD.
2. Process :
- An activity that changes or transforms data flows.
- they transform incoming data to outgoing data, all processes must
have inputs and outputs on a DFD
3. Data store :
- A data store does not generate any operations but simply holds data for later
access.

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- Input flows to a data store include information or operations that change

the stored data.
- Output flows would be data retrieved from the store.
4. Data Flow:
- Movement of data between external entities, processes and data stores is
represented with an arrow symbol, which indicates the direction of flow .
- Input and output data flows are labeled based on the type of data or its
associated process or data store, and this name is written alongside the
arrow.

Example of DFD :

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Rules for creating DFD :

 The name of the entity should be easy and understandable without any
extra assistance(like comments).
 The processes should be numbered or put in ordered list to be referred
easily.
 The DFD should maintain consistency across all the DFD levels.
 A single DFD can have maximum processes upto 9 and minimum 3
processes.
Levels of DFD
 0-level DFD
 1-level DFD
 2-level DFD
Advantages of DFD
 It helps us to understand the functioning and the limits of a system.
 It is a graphical representation which is very easy to understand as it
helps visualize contents.
 Data Flow Diagram represent detailed and well explained diagram of
system components.
Disadvantages of DFD
 At times DFD can confuse the programmers regarding the system.
 Data Flow Diagram takes long time to be generated, and many times due
to this reasons analysts are denied permission to work on it
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0-level DFD :
 It is also known as a context diagram.
 It is designed to show the system as a single process with its relationship
to external entities.
 It represents the entire system as a single bubble with input and output
data indicated by incoming/outgoing arrows.

1-Level DFD :
 The Level 0 DFD is broken down into more specific, known as Level 1
DFD.
 It shows the basic modules in the system and flow of data among various
modules.
 Level 1 DFD also mentions basic processes and sources of information.

2-level DFD :
 2-Level DFD goes one step deeper into parts of 1-level DFD.

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 It can be used to plan or record the specific/necessary detail about the

system’s functioning.

Data Dictionary :
 A data dictionary is a collection of the names, definitions, and attributes
for data elements and models.
 The data in a data dictionary is the metadata about the database.{
metadata i.e data about the database}
 The data dictionary is very important as it contains information such as
what is in the database,
- who is allowed to access it,
- where is the database physically stored etc.
The users of the database normally don't interact with the data dictionary, it is
only handled by the database administrators.
Data Dictionary contains following :
1. Names of all the database tables and their schemas.
2. Names of all indexes and the columns to which the tables in those
indexes relate.
3. Details about all the tables in the database, such as their owners, their
security constraints, when they were created etc.
4. Physical information about the tables such as where they are stored and
how.

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5. Table constraints such as primary key attributes, foreign key information

etc.
6. Information about the database views that are visible.
Example of Data Dictionary :

Purpose and importance of a data dictionary

i. A data dictionary can help team members learn everything about a data
set.
ii. The data dictionary will define conventions for the project and
consistency throughout the dataset.
iii. The main reason companies use data dictionaries is to document and
share data structures and other information for all involved with a project
or database.
iv. Using a shared dictionary ensures the same quality, meaning, and
relevance for all data elements for all team members.
Types of dictionaries :
Active data dictionary :
1. It is managed automatically by the data management software.
2. It is always consistent with the current structure of the database.
Passive data dictionary :
1. It is mainly used for documentation purposes.
2. It is managed by the user of the system and is modified manually by the
user.
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How to Create a Data Dictionary ?

1. Many businesses rely on database management systems (DBMS), and
these systems most often have built-in active data dictionaries.
2. Documentation can be generated with SQL, Server, Oracle, or MYSQL.
3. To create a passive data dictionary, analysts will need to build one
separately from a DBMS since passive dictionaries aren’t managed by a
management system.
4. SQL, Server, and Oracle can be used to build a dictionary, and there’s
even a template in Excel.
IPO CHARTS :
- An IPO (Input-Process-Output) Diagram is a very high-level diagram .
- It is used to describe business processes with the description of each
component in word.
- It shows a process key inputs and resulting outputs after a set of
operations. IPO diagrams are widely used in software engineering
applications.
Components of IPO :
1. Input
2. Process
3. Output
4. Variation
 Inputs
I.
It Represent everything that enters the system to be processed or
transformed to achieve the desired outcome.
II. Inputs can be raw materials, information, data or even an outputs from
another process.
 Process
I. It Represent the set of operations, calculations and steps required to
transform the given inputs into the desired outcome.
II. Process could involve human labor, machines or a combination of
both.

 Outputs
I. Represent the final result. Outputs can be finished goods, products, data
or new information.

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II. In some occasions, outcomes can be inputs for different processes as

well.
 Variations
- Some academics and professionals use a modified version the simple IPO
Diagram,
- which consists in adding two additional components: controls and
enablers.
- Both components connect to the ‘Process’ box from the original diagram
and help provide more specifications of the process being analyzed.

Calculate average

Input Process Output

List of Add the numbers together

numbers Divide the sum by the total number of Average
numbers.

- An IPO chart or input process output chart describes the system in terms
of its input data, its output data and the processes that are performed
on the inputs to transform them into outputs.

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- IPO chart are used to document the inputs into a process, the general
nature of the processes performed on this input, and outputs produced
for each task.
- The IPO chart is in the form of a table with three columns, one for each
Input, Process and Output.

HIPO Charts :
- HIPO stands for Hierarchical Input Process Output.
- HIPO diagram represents the hierarchy of modules in the software
system.
- Analyst uses HIPO diagram in order to obtain high-level view of system
functions.
- It decomposes functions into sub-functions in a hierarchical manner. It
depicts the functions performed by system.
- HIPO diagrams are good for documentation purpose. Their graphical
representation makes it easier for designers and managers to get the
pictorial idea of the system structure.

Advantages of HIPO :
- Offer more detail than other types of documentation.

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- Each module's input and output are properly labeled.

- Can be used to quickly determine what modules call the module under
investigation.
Disadvantages of HIPO :
- The biggest downside of HIPO is that the documentation for a
program can become quite large: each module has its page, regardless
of its actual size.
- Structure charts and pseudocode are more extensively utilised than
HIPO charts.
- HIPO does not provide any data flow or control flow information.

Gantt Chart :
- A Gantt chart is a visual illustration of a project’s progress across a
specified timeline. It helps you keep track of the project’s tasks as well
as their dependencies.
- It is one of the most popular and useful ways of showing activities
(tasks or events) displayed against time.
- On the left of the chart is a list of the activities and along the top is a
suitable time scale.
- Each activity is represented by a bar.
- the position and length of the bar reflects the start date, duration and
end date of the activity.
Gantt chart Allows to see :
1. What the various activities are.
2. When each activity begins and ends.
3. How long each activity is scheduled to last.
4. Where activities overlap with other activities, and by how much.
5. The start and end date of the whole project.
Gantt charts used for :
- Monitor project progress
- Adjust project schedule
- Optimize the complete process structure
- Estimate delays
- Keep all project participants on track
- Monitoring progress to ensure completion on schedule.

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Gantt chart example:

Sr.no Task Name 01-Oct 17-Oct 10-Nov 25-Nov 01-Dec

1 Requirement
Gathering

2 Planning

3 Designing

4 Coding

5 Testing and
Deployment

- the chart is displayed as a horizontal bar chart.

- Horizontal bars of different lengths represent the project timeline,
which can include task sequences, duration, and the start and end dates
for each task. The horizontal bar also shows how much of a task
requires completion.
- A Gantt chart helps in scheduling, managing, and monitoring specific
tasks and resources in a project.
- The chart shows the project timeline, which includes scheduled and
completed work over a period. .
Advantages / Benefits of Gantt chart :
- It Provides a High-Level Overview: A Gantt chart provides an overall
perspective of a project and its timeline
- It Improves Efficiency and Helps Manage Resources: A Gantt chart can
help ensure that leaders and workers manage their time and resources
effectively.
- It Allows for Better Tracking: A Gantt chart enables project leaders and
members to closely track tasks, benchmarks, and overall workflow.
- It Illustrates Overlaps and Dependencies: A Gantt chart clearly
communicates how tasks in a project might overlap. It also shows how
the beginning of one task can be dependent on the completion of another
task.

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- It Boosts Productivity: A Gantt chart allows for collaboration among

workers to boost their productivity
- It Motivates Team Members: A Gantt chart enables team members to
visualize their tasks, thereby motivating them to do their work on the
project.
Disadvantages / challenges of Gantt Charts
- Setup Can Be Time Consuming: Setting up a Gantt chart for a
complex project can be convoluted and time consuming. Software can
help.
- They Can Become Complex and Confusing: A Gantt chart for a large
project with many tasks and subtasks can become complicated.
- They Don’t Designate Priorities: Gantt charts focus on presenting the
tasks in a project, the order of those tasks, and the approximate time it
takes to complete them. The charts don’t show the priority of the
particular tasks.
- They Don’t Offer Much Detail Regarding Task Dependencies.
- Task Bars Do Not Show the Amount of Work That Each Task
Requires: The length of a Gantt chart task bar shows the amount of
time it might take to finish a task. But that length doesn’t indicate the
specific resources that such a task requires.
Pseudo Codes :
 It is defined as a method of describing a process or writing programming
code and algorithms using a natural language such as English.
 It is not the code itself, but rather a description of what the code should
do.
 In other words, it is used as a detailed understandable step-by-step plan or
blueprint from which a program can be written.
 It is an algorithm or rough code before it is implemented in a
programming language.
 It can also be referred to as 'false code' or 'representation of code'.
Purpose of Pseudo Codes :
- To provide a clear and concise description of the steps that will be
taken in a process or algorithm without the need for specific syntax or
code.
- Pseudocode is not compiled or executed on computers, it is only
meant to be read and understood by humans.

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- Pseudocode is often used as a tool to create, design, or plan algorithms

and prototypes.
Pseudocode Examples :
 Example 1: Calculate the Average of Five Numbers
1. START
2. INPUT five numbers and store them in variables num1, num2, num3,
num4, and num5
3. CALCULATE the sum of the five inputted numbers and store them in
variable sum
4. CALCULATE the average of the five inputted numbers and store
them in variable avg.
5. PRINT the value of the variable avg.
6. END
Example 2 : Compute Area of a Triangle
1. START
2. Enter the base length, B
3. Enter height, H
4. Calculate the area = 1/2 * B * H
5. Display area
6. END
Advantages of Pseudocode:
1. Pseudocode is a simple way to represent an algorithm or program.
2. It is written easily in a word processing application and easily
modified.
3. Pseudocode is easy to understand and can be written by anyone.
4. Pseudocode can be used with various structured programming
languages.
Disadvantages of Pseudocode:
1. Pseudocode is not a programming language, so it cannot be executed
by a computer.
2. Pseudocode can be ambiguous and sometimes open to interpretation.
3. Pseudocode can be difficult to read if not written in a clear and
consistent manner.
How to Write a Pseudocode? : simple steps to performed
1. Use a plain-text editor - pseudocode needs as little formatting as
possible to keep it simple.
2. Start by writing down the purpose of the process
3. Write only one statement per line - Each statement in your pseudocode
should express just one action for the compute.

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4. Use white space and indentation effectively - Using white spaces

between "blocks" of text will help keep different components of your
pseudocode isolated
5. Capitalize key commands if necessary - e.g., "IF input number THEN
output result".
6. Keep your pseudocode in the proper order.
7. Leave nothing to the imagination. Everything that is happening in the
process must be described completely.
8. Use standard programming structures.
9. Double-check your pseudocode for readability and clarity.
10. Write using simple terminology.
Pseudocode standard syntax:
- INPUT – indicates a user will be inputting something
- OUTPUT – indicates that an output will appear on the screen
- WHILE – a loop (iteration that has a condition at the beginning)
- FOR – a counting loop (iteration)
- REPEAT – UNTIL – a loop (iteration) that has a condition at the
end
- IF – THEN – ELSE – a decision (selection) in which a choice is
made

Flowchart:
- It is a pictorial representation of Algorithm for planning the procedure
to solve a program/problem.
- A flowchart is a picture of the separate steps of a process in sequential
order.
- It is a generic tool that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes,
- It can be used to describe various processes, such as a manufacturing
process, an administrative or service process, or a project plan.
These are some points to keep in mind while developing a flowchart −
1. Flowchart can have only one start and one stop symbol
2. On-page connectors are referenced using numbers
3. Off-page connectors are referenced using alphabets
4. General flow of processes is top to bottom or left to right
5. Arrows should not cross each other

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These are some points to keep in mind while developing a flowchart −

1. Flowchart can have only one start and one stop symbol
2. On-page connectors are referenced using numbers
3. Off-page connectors are referenced using alphabets
4. General flow of processes is top to bottom or left to right
5. Arrows should not cross each other
Types of Flowchart :
1. A decision flowchart helps to explain steps that are taken to justify a
decision. This type of flowchart can be helpful in anticipating the
consequences of different decisions.
2. A logic flowchart is applied to uncover loopholes, bottlenecks,
or constraints in the process which could cause disruptions or issues.
3. A system flowchart represents how data flows in a system. They’re
often used in the accounting world.
4. A product flowchart visualizes the product creation process and
order of sequences. This type of flowchart can be a helpful piece of
documentation when you’re launching a new product or improving the
production process.
5. A process flowchart displays how a process will achieve a certain
outcome. You will likely create a process flowchart to improve an
existing process or establish a new one. An example for a process
flowchart is a swimlane diagram.

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How to create Flowchart

1. Define the purpose and scope
2. Put your tasks in chronological order.
3. Organize your tasks by type and flowchart symbol
4. Draw your flowchart.
5. Confirm and refine your flowchart.
Example 1

Example 2

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Decision Table :
- A decision table is a brief visual representation for specifying which
actions to perform depending on given conditions.
- The information represented in decision tables can also be represented
as decision trees or in a programming language using if-then-else and
switch-case statements.
Decision tables are a method of describing the complex logical relationship in a
precise manner which is easily understandable.
- It is useful in situations where the resulting actions depend on the
occurrence of one or several combinations of independent conditions.
- It is a matrix containing row or columns for defining a problem and
the actions.
Decision Table components :
1. Action entry :
 It indicates the actions to be taken.
2. Condition entry :
 It indicates conditions which are being met or answers the questions in
the condition stub.
3. Action stub :
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 It lists statements described all actions that can be taken.

4. Condition stub :
 It lists all conditions to be tested for factors necessary for taking a
decision.
Example :

CONDITIONS Rule 1 Rule 2

Advance payment made Y N

Purchase amount = Rs - Y
10,000/-

Regular Customer - Y

ACTIONS

Give 5% discount X X

Give no discount - -

- The entries in decision table are given by Decision Rules which define
the relationships between combinations of conditions and courses of
action. In rules section,
- Y shows the existence of a condition.
- N represents the condition, which is not satisfied.
- A blank - against action states it is to be ignored.
- X (or a check mark will do) against action states it is to be carried out.
Advantage of Decision Table:
1. Any complex business flow can be easily converted into test scenarios
& test cases using this technique.
2. Simple to understand and everyone can use this method to design the
test scenarios & test cases.
3. It provides complete coverage of test cases which helps to reduce the
rework on writing test scenarios & test cases.
4. These tables guarantee that we consider every possible combination of
condition values. This is known as its completeness property.

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Steps to create decision tables:

Step 1 – Analyze the requirement and create the first column
Step 2: Add Columns
Step 3: Determine actions
Step 4: Write test cases
Decision Trees :
- Decision tree is a tree like structure that represents the various
conditions and the subsequent possible actions.
- It also shows the priority in which the conditions are to be tested or
addressed.
- Each of its branches stands for any one of the logical alternatives and
because of the branch structure, it is known as a tree.
- Decision trees are a method for defining complex relationships by
describing decisions and avoiding the problems in communication.
- A decision tree is a diagram that shows alternative actions and
conditions within horizontal tree framework. Thus, it depicts which
conditions to consider first, second, and so on.
- Decision trees depict the relationship of each condition and their
permissible actions.
- A square node indicates an action and a circle indicates a condition.
- It forces analysts to consider the sequence of decisions and identifies
the actual decision that must be made.

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Example

Steps to make decision trees:

1. Identify all conditions and actions and their order and timing (if they are
critical).
2. Begin building the tree from left to right, making sure you list all possible
alternatives before moving to the right.
 Use decision trees when
1) The sequence of conditions and actions is critical, OR
2) When not every condition is relevant to every action (the branches
are different).

Advantages:
- Simple to understand and to interpret. Trees can be visualize
- Requires little data preparation.
- Able to handle both numerical and categorical data.
- Able to handle multi-output problems.
Disadvantages:
- Decision trees can be unstable because small variations in the data
might result in a completely different tree being generated.
- Decision tree learners create biased trees if some classes dominate.
Assignment :3
Q1: what is data flow diagram?
Q2. what is meant by structured analysis?

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Q3. explain data dictionary.

Q4. Explain IPO &HIPO in brief & diff. b/w them.
Q5. explain pseudocode and steps to create it.
Q6. explain flowchart.
Q7. explain decision tables& tree.
Q8. give 5 differences between flowchart & DFD.

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