Transformasi dalam Kartografi

A simplified view

Kartografi adalah Map input

sains, seni,
teknologi, dalam
menggambar peta.
Transformation
Proses kartografis
merupakan proses
transformasi, dari
dunia nyata ke
peta.
Map output
 Waldo Tobler’s Classic Paper, 1979

⚫ “…the entire process of making, and

using a map can be viewed as a
sequence of transformations”.
⚫ Types of Cartographic Transformation
– Geometrical Transformations: to
“manipulate the locative aspects of the
geographical data”
 Map Projections
– Substantive Transformations: to “modify
the substantive geographical data”
 Map Generalization
Examples of Cartographic Substantive Transformations
Transformations
Geometrical
Transformations

ESRI, Understanding Map Projections

John Krygier and Denis Wood, Making Maps:

a visual guide to map design for GIS
Cartographic Transformations

⚫ The base of Computer Cartography

⚫ The core of Analytical Cartography
⚫ Forms of Cartographic Transformation:
– Geometry
– Attribute
– Symbolization
– Scale
– Data Structure and Data Model
– Map Type
– …
A simplified view
Transformation vs Inverse Transformation

Map input

Transformation Inverse
Transformation

Map output
Invertibility

⚫ “…whether or not a Cartographic Transformation can

be undone or reversed to produce the initial starting
conditions” –Clarke, 1995

⚫ Stable Transformation
– Invertible – bisa dibalik
– “controllable and therefore are
effectively programmed and
modeled, especially with respect
to the error introduced”

⚫ Unstable Transformation
– NOT invertible – tidak bisa dibalik
– “the inverse transformation produces chaos”
For example: Map generalization

⚫ Detailed map to coarse: throw away points and detail

⚫ Coarse map to detailed: not possible without new data
→ Not Invertible
Stable Transformation
Transformations to a projection
⚫ Earth to model
⚫ Model to scaled data (representation)
⚫ Data to projection
⚫ Projection to rendering
Transformation from Earth to Ellipsoid
Transformation from Ellipsoid to Globe
Transformation: Map Projections

⚫A transformation of the spherical or ellipsoidal earth

onto a flat map is called a map projection.
⚫ The map projection can be onto a flat surface or a
surface that can be made flat by cutting, such as a
cylinder or a cone.
Forward and Inverse Projection
Techniques
Geographic Coordinate Transformation
For example, in Inkscape
Rotate 60 deg CCW, then scale to 50%
Distortions resulting from
map transformations
▪ Transformation of:

→ angles (shapes)
→ areas
→ distances
→ direction
 Transformation of angles

• On globe: compass rose the same at each point

(directions 90o apart)
• correct angles maintained ?
 Conformal (correct form) map projection
 cannot be equal-area
 Transformation of areas
• Retain area representation:
 all regions shown in correct relative size
• equal area or equivalent projection
 nomap projection can be conformal and
equivalent
 conformal? Similar earth regions with unequal
sizes,
 equivalent? Equal area but deform angles
 Transformation of distances
• Maintain consistency of scale:
→ scale same along line connecting points
• Two options:
→ maintain scale along one or more parallel lines
•standard parallels,

→ maintain scale along one or two points

•equidistant map projections

•standard points
 Transformation of directions
• True direction along a sphere is actually along a Great
Circle & not a line
→ Correct direction on map?
▪ Great Circle shown as a straight line

• several possible representations:

→ great circles as straight lines in limited area
•standard parallels,

→ great circles w/ correct azimuths shown as straight

lines from one point
•azimuthal map projections
 Choosing a map projection
• Visualizing distortion helps you to:
→ select a suitable map projection
→ evaluate information already in map format
• Cartographers need to be familiar with map projections
→ example: never measure area on Mercator
→ cartographers frequently transfer data from one
map projection to another
→ fit characteristics of data to be mapped
 Choosing a map projection
• Factors influencing choice?:
→ geographers, historians, ecologists interested in
mapping areas - relative sizes of regions
→ navigators, meteorologists, engineers concerned with
angles and distances
→ atlas map maker often wants compromise
→no good or bad projection, just poor choices
Map Transformation Algebra

⚫ Matrices have inverses, which reverse effect of multiplication

to yield the identity matrix
⚫ Error creeps in when inversion does not result in identity matrix
Equatorial Mercator Transformation
Planar Geometry vs. Spherical Geometry

⚫ Rule of Sines – Distance between points

Map Generalization

• Cartographic generalization, or map

generalization, is a method for deriving
a smaller-scale map from a larger scale map or
map data.
• The process of reducing the amount of detail
in a map (or database) in a meaningful way
• Generalization related to the map purpose
• Generalisation is scale related
• Generalization is partly subjective
• Generalization is output related
 Generalization from large into small scale

Scale 1:10,000 Scale 1:25,000 Scale 1:50,000

Decrease of detail
Increase of area

1 cm = 100 meters 1 cm = 250 meters 1 cm = 500 meters

Scale 1:100,000 Scale 1:200,000 Scale 1:500,000

1 cm = 1 kilometer 1 cm = 2 kilometer 1 cm = 5 kilometer

Scale reduction without
generalisation
1:25,000 map

1:25,000 map
reduced to 50%
without generalisation
1:25,000 map
reduced to 25%
without generalisation
 Scale reduction with generalisation
Apakah generalisasi peta hanya berlaku untuk peta analog? TIDAK.
Beberapa software sudah menerapkan konsep layer data pyramids (raster atau vektor).
Vector tiles are relatively new on the web and CanvasMap has a high performance version of
vector pyramids.

Sumber: maps.google.com
 Why is generalisation
necessary?
– Increased density of the map contents
due to scale reduction.

– Features become too small to be seen

clearly, or to be represented at true
size (to scale) on a monitor or on
paper.
Generalisation (example)

Generalised map represented

at scale 1:10,000
Generalisation (example)

Result after a Topographic Map

scale reduction 1:50 000
after generalisation

Topographic Map1:10 000

Conceptual generalization activities:

Selection (omission)
of categories

Classification

Symbolization

Enhancement (emphasis)
Graphic generalization activities:

Selection (omission)

Merging (combination or
aggregation)

Simplification

Enlargement (exaggeration)

Displacement
 Generalization activities:

graphic selection

symbolisation
conceptual selection
displacement

classification
merging
simplification

enhancement
Selesai