Mathematical Methods

PST 22215
Vectors

Introduction to vectors
The important characteristic of a vector quantity is that it has both a magnitude (or size) and a
direction. Both of these properties must be given in order to specify a vector completely.
An example of a vector quantity is a displacement. This tell us how far away we are from a
fixed point, and it also tells us our direction relative to that point.

Another example of a vector quantity is velocity. This is speed, in a particular direction. An

example of velocity might be 60 mph due north. A quantity with magnitude alone, but no
direction, is not a vector. It is called a scalar instead.
One example of a scalar is distance. This tells us how far we are from a fixed point, but
does not give us any information about the direction. Another example of a scalar quantity is the
mass of an object

Representing vector quantities

We can represent a vector by a line segment. This diagram shows two vectors.

We have used a small arrow to indicate that the first vector is pointing from A to B. A vector
pointing from B to A would be going in the opposite direction. Sometimes we represent a vector
with a small letter such as a, in a bold typeface. This is common in textbooks, but it is inconvenient
in handwriting. In writing, we normally put a bar underneath, or sometimes on top of, the letter:

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
Position vectors
Sometimes vectors are referred to a fixed point, an origin. Such a vector is called a position
vector. So we might refer to the position vector of a point P with respect to an origin O. In
̅̅̅̅ for this vector.
writing, might put 𝑂𝑃

Note:

The length of a vector ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 is written as
̅̅̅̅|,
AB or |𝐴𝐵

and the length of a vector 𝒂 or 𝒂

̅ is written as a (in ordinary type, or without the bar) or as
|𝒂
̅|.

If two vectors a and b are parallel, we write a//b

Adding two vectors

In order to add two vectors, we think of them as displacements. We carry out the first
displacement, and then the second. So the second displacement must start where the first
one finishes.

The sum of the vectors, 𝒂 + 𝒃 is what we get when we join up the triangle. This is called the
triangle law for adding vectors

Subtracting two vectors

What is 𝒂 − 𝒃? We think of this as a + (−b), and then we ask what −b might mean. This will
be a vector equal in magnitude to b, but in the reverse direction.

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
Now we can subtract two vectors. Subtracting b from a will be the same as adding -b to a.

That is

Adding a vector to itself

What happens when you add a vector to itself, perhaps several times? We write, for example,
a + a + a = 3a.

In the same way, we would write

Vectors of unit length

There is one more piece of notation we shall use when writing vectors. If a is any vector, we shall
write 𝒂̂ to represent a unit vector in the direction of a. A unt vector is a vector whose length is
1, so that

̂, so that
Note: A unit vector in the direction of the vector a is written as 𝒂

𝒂
̂ = |𝒂| or 𝒂 = |𝒂|𝒂
𝒂 ̂

Using vectors in geometry

Example 1
There is a useful theorem in geometry called the mid-point theorem. In this theorem, we take
two points A and B, defined with respect to an origin O. Let us write a for the position vector of A,
and b for the position vector of B. We can join A and B with a line, to give a triangle.

Now take the mid-point M of the line OA, and the mid-point N of the line OB, and join M to N
with a line. Can we say anything about the relationship between the line MN and the line AB?

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
We can write the vector for the line segment 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ + 𝑂𝐵
as 𝐴𝑂 ̅̅̅̅. Now 𝐴𝑂
̅̅̅̅ is the reverse of the vector a, so it is -a. And 𝑂𝐵
̅̅̅̅ is the same as the
vector b. Therefore

̅̅̅̅̅?
What about 𝑀𝑁

Example 2
We can apply the mid-point theorem to a quadrilateral, or indeed to any four points in space, to
give an interesting geometrical result. We shall call the four points A, B, C and D. We shall also
give labels to the mid-points of the four sides: we shall call the mid-points P, Q, R and S.
Now let us join the four mid-points, to make a new shape PQRS. What kind of shape is
this?

We can identify the shape by joining the points A and C.

If we apply the mid-point theorem to triangle ABC, we see that

1
̅̅̅̅ =
𝑃𝑄 ̅̅̅̅ .
𝐴𝐶
2
But if we apply the mid-point theorem to the triangle ADC, we also see that

1
̅̅̅̅ =
𝑅𝑆 ̅̅̅̅ .
𝐴𝐶
2

If we combine these two equations, we then obtain

̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑅𝑆.
Now this is a vector equation, and so it tells us two things. First, it tells us that the length of
PQ is the same as the length of RS. And secondly, it tells us that the direction of PQ is the

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
same as the direction of RS, so that PQ and RS are parallel. But having two parallel sides of
equal length is a property which defines a parallelogram, and so the shape PQRS must be a
parallelogram.

Example
Take two points A and B, having position vectors a, b with respect to an origin O. Draw the
line AB, and take a point P on that line which divides it in the ratio of m to n. What is the
position vector of P with respect to O?.

We can use the same method that we used before. We know that

̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐴 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑃, …………………………………………………….(1)

̅̅̅̅ = 𝒂. But what is 𝐴𝑃

and we also know that 𝑂𝐴 ̅̅̅̅ ?

Now ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑃 is in the same direction as AB, and their lengths are in the ratio of m to m + n. So
𝑚
̅̅̅̅ =
𝐴𝑃 ̅̅̅̅ ………………………(2)
𝐴𝐵
𝑚+𝑛

We also know that

̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ = 𝒃 − 𝒂.
𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝐵

Now we can put these three statements together, we get

𝑚
̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃 = 𝒂 + (𝒃 − 𝒂)
𝑚+𝑛

Putting all this over a common denominator then gives,

𝑚+𝑛 𝑚
̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑚+𝑛 𝒂 + 𝑚+𝑛 (𝒃 − 𝒂)

Then we have

𝑛 𝒂 + 𝑚𝒃
̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃 =
𝑚+𝑛
This formula gives us a way of calculating the position vector of the point P

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
Cartesian components of vectors
Any vector may be expressed in Cartesian components, by using unit vectors in the directions of
the coordinate axes. In this unit we describe these unit vectors in two dimensions and in three
dimensions, and show how they can be used in calculations.

Vectors in two dimensions

The natural way to describe the position of any point is to use Cartesian coordinates. In two
dimensions, we have a diagram like this, with an x-axis and a y-axis, and an origin O. To include
vectors in this diagram, we have a vector 𝑖̂ associated with the x-axis and a vector 𝑗̂ associated
with the y-axis

If we take any point in this diagram, for instance the point P with coordinates (3, 4), then we
can write ̅̅̅̅𝑂𝑃 = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂.
It is important to appreciate the difference between these two expressions. The numbers
(3, 4) represent a set of coordinates, referring to the point P. But the expression 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ is a
vector, the position vector ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃. An alternative way of writing this is as a “column vector”:

3
( ) means the same as 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂.
4

Sometimes one notation is used, and sometimes the other.

Vectors in three dimensions

In three dimensions we have three axes, traditionally labelled x, y and z, all at right angles to
each other. Any point P can now be described by three numbers, the coordinates with respect
to the three axes.

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
A right-handed system is a set of three axes, labelled so that rotating a screw from the positive
𝑥 −axis towards the positive 𝑦 −axis will tighten the screw in the direction of the
positive 𝑧 −axis.

Now let’s take a point P in three-dimensional space, with coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). The position
vector of the point will be the line segment ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃.

We can now write

̅̅̅̅ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
𝑂𝑃

where 𝑘̂ is a unit vector in the direction of the z-axis. Again it is important to appreciate the
difference. The numbers (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) represent a set of coordinates, referring to the point P. But
the expression 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ is a vector, the position vector 𝑂𝑃 ̅̅̅̅. We sometimes write this is as a
column vector:

𝑥
𝑂𝑃 = (𝑦) means the same as 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ .
̅̅̅̅
𝑧

The length of a position vector

What is the length of the position vector ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃 ?

If P is the point with coordinates (x, y, z) then the length, or magnitude, of the position vector

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
̅̅̅̅̅is given by the formula
𝑂𝑃
̅̅̅̅| = 𝑂𝑃 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 .
|𝑂𝑃

The angle between a position vector and an axis

The direction cosines of the point P describe the angles between the position vector OP and
the three axes. If P has coordinates (x, y, z) then the direction cosines are given by

• The angle that the position vector ̅̅̅̅

𝑂𝑃 makes with the 𝑥-axis

• ̅̅̅̅ makes with the 𝑦-axis

The angle that the position vector 𝑂𝑃

• ̅̅̅̅ makes with the 𝑧-axis

The angle that the position vector 𝑂𝑃

Now we can find an interesting formula

A Unit Vector in the same direction as the position vector is be given by expression

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
An example
Suppose we have a point A with coordinates (1, 0, 2) and another point B with coordinates
(2, −1, 4). We can then form the vector ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 . Now what is the magnitude of this vector, and
what are its direction cosines?

We can answer these questions by writing the two position vectors OA and OB in terms of the
unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂. We obtain

Now when we subtract expressions involving the unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂we just subtract the
corresponding components separately. So

With this expression for the vector ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 , we can calculate its magnitude. It is

We can also calculate the three direction cosines of AB. They are

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
The scalar product
Introduction
One of the ways in which two vectors can be combined is known as the scalar product. When
we calculate the scalar product of two vectors the result, as the name suggests is a scalar, rather
than a vector.

Definition of the scalar product

Study the two vectors a and b drawn in Figure 1. Note that we have drawn the two vectors so
that their tails are at the same point. The angle between the two vectors has been labelled θ.

Figure 1. Two vectors, a and b, drawn so that the angle between them is θ.
We define the scalar product of a and b as follows:

Example
Consider the two vectors a and b shown in Figure 2. Suppose a has modulus 4 units, b has
modulus 5 units, and the angle between them is 60◦, as shown.

Figure 2. a and b have lengths 4 and 5 units respectively; the angle between them is 60◦.
We can use the definition given above to find the scalar product of 𝒂 and 𝒃.

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215

Some properties of the scalar product

Commutativity and distributivity

Suppose for the two vectors in the previous example we calculate the product in a different
order. That is, suppose we want to find b · a. The definition of b · a is

Performing the calculation using the numbers in the Example we find

That is 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒃. 𝒂

Note:

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors
Example
Consider the two vectors a and b shown in Figure 3. The angle between them is 90◦, as shown.

We can use the definition to find the scalar product of a and b.

That is the scalar product of two vectors which are at right-angles is always 0. We say that such
vectors are perpendicular or orthogonal
The scalar product of two vectors given in cartesian form
We now consider how to find the scalar product of two vectors when these vectors are given in
cartesian form, for example as

Consider

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215
Since 𝑖̂, ̂𝑗 and 𝑘̂ are unit vectors in the directions of the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes, then

Accordingly, We have

That is

Example
Find the scaler product of the following

a)

b)

Some applications of the scalar product

a) Using the scalar product to test whether two vectors are perpendicular

b) Using the scalar product to find the angle between two vectors.

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215

c) Finding the component of a vector in the direction of another vector

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL
 Mathematical Methods
PST 22215

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Dr. Chaminda H Baduraliya
Department of Physical Sciences and Technology
SUSL