CrossSectionsCharacteristics Theory Enu

Cross-section characteristics
Theory
Chapter 0
Contacts 4
Introduction 6
Overview of Cross-section Characteristics 7
Axis Systems 7
Cross-Section Characteristics 8
Determination of Section Characteristics 10

Standardized Cross-section properties 10
Overall Procedure 11
Calculation of Standardized Cross-section properties Part I 12
Basic characteristics 12
Circumference and Drying surface 15
Shear Area and Unit Shear Stress 16
Radii of Gyration 17
Elastic Section Moduli 18
Plastic Moments and Section Moduli 19
Mono-Symmetry Constants 22
Simplified Torsional Constant 23
Calculation of Standardized Cross-section properties Part II 23
Introduction 23
1D FE Method for Thin-Walled Sections 24
2D FE Method for Thick-Walled Sections 31
Application of Closed-Form Formulae 36
Doubly-Symmetric I-section 37
Asymmetric I-section 37
Full Circular section 38
Full Rectangular Section 38
Polygon with hole 39
Rectangular Hollow Section 39
Asymmetric Rectangular Hollow Section 40
Circular Hollow Section 40
Corrugated Web SIN1 41
Corrugated Web SIN2 42
-2-
Profile Library Properties 42
References 44
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Chapter 0
Contacts
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Contacts
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Document created: 06 / 05 / 2018

SCIA Engineer 15.3
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Chapter 1
Introduction
In this Theoretical Background in depth information is given regarding the calculation of cross-section properties.
The first chapter gives an overview of the different axis systems as well as a list of all cross-section properties calculated by
SCIA Engineer.
The second chapter details the actual methods for determining cross- section properties. After introducing the stand-
ardization of cross-section properties the overall procedure followed by SCIA Engineer is explained.
The chapter then explains the different numerical methods, both using 1D Finite Elements and 2D Finite Elements, for cal-
culating section characteristics.
The chapter concludes with a listing of all closed-form formulae used for standard section shapes.
-6-
Overview of Cross-section Characteristics

In this chapter the different Axis systems used within SCIA Engineer are outlined.
The second part of this chapter gives an overview of the properties related to these Axis systems.
Axis Systems
Within SCIA Engineer the Cross-section Characteristics are referenced to three distinct Axis systems.
a. The UCS or 'Input' Axis system is defined using an arbitrary origin and uses a horizontal Y-axis and a vertical Z-axis. This
system serves as a reference from which the center of gravity is calculated.
b. The LCS Axis system has its origin in the center of gravity and YLCS and ZLCS axis parallel to the axis of the UCS system.
This system serves as a reference from which the rotation of the principal axis is calculated.
c. The Principal Axis system has its origin in the center of gravity and principal y- and z-axis rotated according to the angle of
rotation between the principal and LCS systems.
The following picture illustrates these different Axis Systems:
-7-
Chapter 2
In case the rotation angle of the Principal Axis system is zero, this system is equal to the
LCS Axis system. In this case, only the Principal Axis system is displayed.
Cross-Section Characteristics
The following table provides an overview of all Cross-section Characteristics calculated by SCIA Engineer:
Property Description
A Area
Ay Shear Area in principal y-direction
Az Shear Area in principal z-direction
AL Circumference per unit length
AD Drying Surface per unit length
cYUCS Centroid coordinate in Y-direction of Input axis system
cZUCS Centroid coordinate in Z-direction of Input axis system
IYLCS Second moment of area about the YLCS axis
IZLCS Second moment of area about the ZLCS axis
IYZLCS Product moment of area in the LCS system
α Rotation Angle of the principal axis system
Iy Second moment of area about the principal y-axis
Iz Second moment of area about the principal z-axis
iy Radius of gyration about the principal y-axis
iz Radius of gyration about the principal z-axis
Wely Elastic section modulus about the principal y-axis
Welz Elastic section modulus about the principal z-axis
Wply Plastic section modulus about the principal y-axis
Wplz Plastic section modulus about the principal z-axis
Mply+ Plastic moment about the principal y-axis for a positive My moment
Mply- Plastic moment about the principal y-axis for a negative My moment
Mplz+ Plastic moment about the principal z-axis for a positive Mz moment
Mplz- Plastic moment about the principal z-axis for a negative Mz moment
dy Shear center coordinate in principal y-axis measured from the centroid
dz Shear center coordinate in principal z-axis measured from the centroid
It Torsional constant
Iw Warping constant
βy Mono-symmetry constant about the principal y-axis
βz Mono-symmetry constant about the principal z-axis
In addition to these properties in each fibre of the cross-section the following unit stress values are calculated:
Fibre stress Description

Shear(Vy) Shear stress in principal y-direction caused by a unit shear force Vy
Shear(Vz) Shear stress in principal z-direction caused by a unit shear force Vz
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Fibre stress Description

Torsion(Mxp) Primary Torsion stress caused by a unit torsion moment Mxp
Torsion(Mxs) Secondary Torsion stress caused by a unit torsion moment Mxs
Unit Warping Standardised unit warping ordinate
Warping(Mw) Normal stress caused by a unit bimoment Mw
In the subsequent chapters the calculation of these different characteristics is detailed.
The Cross-section provides the calculation of the unit stress values for Torsion. The split of
the Torsion moment Mx into Primary Torsion Mxp and Secondary Torsion Mxs is handled
by the respective Checks. See also "Decomposition of arbitrary torsion line".
-9-
Chapter 3
Determination of Section Characteristics

The first part of this chapter details the general procedure for calculating standardized cross-section properties as well as
the procedure used in SCIA Engineer.
Subsequent subchapters deal with the actual calculation of properties, as well as the applied closed form formulae.
Standardized Cross-section properties

In general the calculation of cross-section properties is divided into 2 parts:
Cross-section property calculation

Standardized Cross-section properties Part I: Biaxial bending and axial force
l Area
l Center of Gravity
l Angle of the principal axis system
l Principal moments of Inertia
Standardized Cross-section properties Part II: Torsion
l Shear Center
l Torsion Constant
l Warping Constant
l Standardized Warping Ordinate
For a detailed background into the calculation of properties according to the above logic reference is made to Ref.[1].
Applied to SCIA Engineer this gives the following differentiation:
Cross-section property calculation

Standardized Cross-section properties Part I: Biaxial bending and axial force
A, cYUCS, cZUCS, IYLCS, IZLCS, IYZLCS, α, Iy, Iz

Extended with:
l Ay, Az, AL, AD, iy, iz, Wely, Welz

l Wply, Wplz, Mply+, Mply-, Mplz+, Mplz-
l Unit stress Shear(Vy), Unit stress Shear(Vz)
l Initial values for βy, βz
l General solid It
Standardized Cross-section properties Part II: Torsion
dy, dz, It, Iw, Unit warping ω

Extended with:
l Unit stress Shear(Vy), Unit stress Shear(Vz)

l Unit stress Torsion(Mxp), Unit stress Torsion(Mxs)
- 10 -
l Unit stress Warping(Mw)

l Final values for βy, βz
As indicated on the above overview, each part is extended with multiple 'derived' properties i.e. properties which are determ-
ined using the base properties calculated in that part.
Overall Procedure
The previous paragraph showed the general principle of calculating cross-section properties using two distinct parts. In addi-
tion to these parts, SCIA Engineer also takes into account specific overrulings of properties, for example in case the 2D FE
Method is used, or in case a cross-section is taken from the Profile Library etc.
The following diagram shows the complete calculation procedure as used in SCIA Engineer.
By default, for Thick-walled sections the 2D FE Method is activated for Torsional analysis,
however this can be de-activated by the user leading to the Simplified Torsion analysis.
- 11 -
Chapter 3
In the subsequent paragraphs of this chapter each item of the above diagram is described in detail.
Calculation of Standardized Cross-section properties

Part I
The first part of the standardised cross-section properties concerns those related to bending and axial force.
Basic characteristics
The basic cross- section characteristics are calculated using the standard formulas from solid mechanics. For detailed
information, reference is made to Ref.[3] and Ref.[4].
The cross-section is discretized into n elemental areas dA.

First, using the arbitrary origin of the UCS or 'Input' Axis system the following properties are calculated using a horizontal Y-
axis and a vertical Z-axis:
Area:
- 12 -
First Moment of Area:
Using these magnitudes the coordinates of the centroid are determined:
Centroid:
The centroid defines the origin of the LCS Axis system with YLCS and ZLCS axis parallel to the axis of the UCS system.
According to these axis the second moments of area can be determined:
Second Moment of Area:
Product Moment of Area:
Finally, using these magnitudes the Principal Axis system and corresponding characteristics can be determined:
Second Moment of Area:
- 13 -
Chapter 3
Angle of Rotation:
in case
in case
and
otherwise
The above determination of the angle of rotation accounts for minor numerical dis-
crepancies. For background information, reference is made to Ref.[1].
In addition, in case the angle of rotation is calculated according to the above formula and
exceeds a tolerance of 3°, the angle is increased by π/2 in case Iz > Iy.
Extension: Multi-Material (Composite) sections

In case of multi-material cross-sections the basic characteristics are determined using the principles given in this paragraph.
For background information see Ref.[5]
Centroid
First the area Ai and centroid position of each cross-section part/polygon i are calculated.
To determine the location of the centroid (Neutral Axis 'NA') of the whole cross-section the following general equation is
used:
Where n represents the number of polygons and Ei the E-modulus of the material of the respective polygon.
- 14 -
The distances z1, z2, … zn are the distances from the NA to the centroid of each polygon (measured in the UCS Axis sys-
tem). These distances can be written in function of the centroid distance cZUCS so the above equation can be solved this
centroid distance.
The above equation illustrates the principle used for cZUCS, in the same way the equation can be written out for cYUCS.
Area
The Area of the multi-material section is calculated using the following general formula:
Where n represents the number of polygons, Ei the E-modulus of the material of the respective polygon and Ai the area of
the respective polygon.
As indicated by the equation, each polygon of the multi-material cross-section is in fact referenced to the material of the 'first'
polygon.
Within SCIA Engineer this literally means the 'first' inputted polygon. So the material of this
'first' inputted polygon serves as reference material for the multi-material cross-section.
This 'first' material is shown with a cyan background color for easy reference.
Second Moment of Area

The Second Moment of Area of the multi-material section is calculated using the following general formula:
Where n represents the number of polygons, Ei the E-modulus of the material of the respective polygon and Ai the area of
the respective polygon.
As indicated by the equation, each polygon of the multi-material cross-section is in fact referenced to the material of the 'first'
polygon.
The above equation is used to determine IYLCS, IZLCS and IYZLCS.
Circumference and Drying surface

The Circumference per unit length or 'Exterior Surface' AL is calculated as the outer circumference of the cross-section.
This calculation accounts for the fact that parts are connected/touching.
For those parts which are not connected the circumference AL is calculated as the summation of the outer circumference of
the different unconnected parts:
- 15 -
Chapter 3
The drying surface per unit length AD is calculated as the outer circumference AL increased by the circumference of any
openings within the cross-section. In case there are no openings AD will thus be equal to AL.
An 'opening' in this case concerns any closed in empty area within the cross-section. This calculation method thus accounts
for 'constructed' openings for example when creating an RHS from four separate rectangles.
Shear Area and Unit Shear Stress

The Shear Area Ay and Az in principal directions are determined as follows:
with:
The width of the cross-section at position z from the principal y-axis

b(z)
The width of the cross-section at position y from the principal z-axis

b(y)
The First moment or Area of the 'cut-off' area A', determined according to the
S y principal y-axis
(z)
S z The First moment or Area of the 'cut-off' area A', determined according to the
(y) principal z-axis
- 16 -
Second moment of area about the principal y-axis

Iy
Iz Second moment of area about the principal z-axis
On the following picture the 'cut-off' area A' is illustrated for the Shear Area Az.
The Unit Shear stresses in the fibres are calculated as follows:

Unit stress Shear y in fibre i:
Unit stress Shear z in fibre i:
With Vy and Vz taken as unity and yi and zi the coordinates of fibre i in the principal axis system.
In case the width b at a given fibre position is zero the Unit Shear stress is taken as zero for
that fibre.
For thin-walled (Centerline) sections, reference is made to the "1D FE Method for Thin-Walled Sections" on page 24.
For multi-material (Composite) sections reference is made to the "2D FE Method for Thick-Walled Sections" on page 31.
Radii of Gyration
The Radii of Gyration iy and iz about the principal axis are determined as follows:
- 17 -
Chapter 3
Elastic Section Moduli

The Elastic Section Moduli Wely and Welz about the principal axis are determined as follows:
The distances z and y according to the principal axis are determined for each fibre of the cross-section. In essence each
fibre thus has a different Elastic Section Modulus. The Moduli shown in the cross-section properties are the minimal values
taken over all fibres. These minimal values are thus obtained by using the maximal fibre distances as shown in the above for-
mulas.
The following picture illustrates the maximal distances for an arbitrary cross-section:
During stress calculations in the fibres (for example in the Steel checks), the stresses are
calculated in each fibre separately. These stress calculations thus use the actual Elastic Sec-
tion Moduli in each fibre and not the minima over the entire cross-section.
- 18 -
Plastic Moments and Section Moduli
Basic principle
In this paragraph the basic principle of the plastic property calculation is explained.
The principle is illustrated for a general cross-section made out of one material which has equal characteristics in both ten-
sion and compression (like for example Steel).
As shown on the following picture, this cross-section is loaded by a bending moment M which causes part of the cross-sec-
tion to be in compression (C) and part of the cross-section to be in tension (T).
All the fibres in this cross-section have yielded as shown by the stress blocks.
The Plastic Neutral Axis (PNA) is defined by the axis located between the fibres yielding in compression and those yielding in
tension. This axis is off course parallel to the principal axis about which the moment was applied.
For a single material cross-section with homogeneous material characteristics the PNA is easily determined as the axis
which splits the cross section into two equal areas: the area AC in compression and AT in tension.
The Plastic Section Modulus Wpl is calculated as the sum of the First Moments of Area of the part in tension (ST ) and the
part in compression (SC ):
with:
A C The areas of the section in compression and tension respectively for a bending
and moment about the given principal axis.
AT
d C The distances from the centroid of the areas of the section in compression and
and tension respectively to the Plastic Neutral Axis, measured perpendicular to the
dT given principal axis.
Using the material strength f of the homogeneous material the Plastic Moment Mpl is calculated as follows:
General formulation
The basic principle explained in the previous paragraph holds true for a homogeneous uni-strength material. In general
however there are several complexities which need to be accounted for:
- 19 -
Chapter 3
l The material of the cross-section can have different characteristics in compression and in tension.
l The cross-section can be composed out of multiple materials.
l The material characteristics depend on the sign of the moment.
Consider the following composite section as an example:
For a positive My bending moment about the principal axis, the concrete will be in compression while the steel will be in ten-
sion.
In case of a negative My bending moment about the principal axis, the concrete will be in tension while the steel will be in com-
pression.
Depending on the position of the Plastic Neutral Axis one of the materials can even be partially in compression and partially
in tension.
The calculation of the Plastic Moment is therefore split according to axis and according to sign which leads to Mply+, Mply-,
Mplz+ and Mplz-. For each of these plastic magnitudes a separate calculation is done.
The determination of the Plastic Neutral Axis needs to take into account the material characteristic of each part. In general
the following equation is solved which specifies an equilibrium of tensile and compressive forces:
with:
n The number of cross-section parts

AC,i The area in compression of part i
fC,i The compressive strength of part i
- 20 -
AT,i The area in tension of part i

fT,i The tensile strength of part i
With the position of the PNA known, the Plastic Moment can be determined as follows:
In which di signifies the distance from the centroid of the area of part i of the section to the plastic neutral axis, measured per-
pendicular to the given principal axis.
The above Plastic Moment calculation assumes a 'full bond' between the different mater-
ials. The actual Composite checks take into account the effects of partial bond and recal-
culate the Plastic Moments accordingly.
Since for each part the material strength can be different there is no more straightforward way to obtain the Plastic Section
Modulus Wpl. Within SCIA Engineer, this value is referenced to the material of the 'first' inputted polygon, see also the para-
graph on "Extension: Multi-Material (Composite) sections" on page 14.
In addition, since there is both a positive and a negative Plastic Moment for the given axis, the final Plastic Section Modulus is
determined using the minimum of both.
With f 1 the material strength of the 'first' polygon. This can either be the compressive or tensile strength of this material
depending on which stress dominates in this part.
These values for the Plastic Section Moduli are merely used for display in the Cross-Sec-
tion Manager. The actual Composite checks directly use the Plastic Moments which are
thus not referenced to the 'first' material but take into account all material characteristics.
Material Characteristics
As indicated in the above paragraphs the plastic calculation requires the compressive and tensile strength of the respective
material. These values are defined as follows for materials with code dependent data:
Material Compressive strength fC Tensile strength fT

Steel fy fy
Aluminium fy fy
Concrete fck Taken as zero
Masonry fck Taken as zero
Timber fc,0,k ft,0,k
Other 240 N/mm^2 240 N/mm^2
Any material which does not have code dependent data is taken as 'Other'.
- 21 -
Chapter 3
Mono-Symmetry Constants
The Mono-Symmetry Constants βy and βz about the principal axis are determined as follows:
with:
Second moment of area about the principal y-axis

Iy
Second moment of area about the principal z-axis

Iz
Coordinates in the principal axis system

y&z
Distance between centroid and shear centre, taken as dy

y0
z0 Distance between centroid and shear centre, taken as dz
When these parameters are initially calculated the shear centre coordinates dy and dz are not yet determined. The Mono-
Symmetry Constants βy and βz are thus initially calculated taking dy and dz equal to zero. After the "Calculation of Stand-
ardized Cross-section properties Part II" on the facing page the actual shear centre coordinates dy and dz are determined
after which the Mono-Symmetry Constants βy and βz are modified accordingly.
For more background information regarding these parameters reference is made to Ref.[2]
- 22 -
Simplified Torsional Constant

To finalize the calculation of Part I of the Standardised Cross-section properties the Torsional constant It is calculated using
the following simplified formula for a general solid Cross-section:
with
In normal cases this It value will be overwritten by the exact It calculation done in Part II. In
case however the Part II calculation is not done the above calculation ensures there is at
least an approximate value for It. This approach avoids numerical instabilities during the
analysis.
Calculation of Standardized Cross-section properties

Part II
The second part of the standardised cross-section properties concerns those related to torsion.
Introduction
For calculating properties related to torsion the general theory makes a distinction between the following types of cross-sec-
tions, see Ref.[1]:
a) Thin-walled, open cross-sections
b) Thin-walled, closed cross-sections
- 23 -
Chapter 3
c) Arbitrary, thick-walled cross-sections
A cross-section is defined as thin-walled if, through a reduction to the profile centreline and the application of simplified the-
ories, sufficiently exact calculation results are obtained. Ref.[1].
Within Scia-Engineer a thin-walled section is thus a section for which a centreline is available. To simplify the identification,
the Shape Type (thin-walled or thick-walled) is shown in the properties of each cross-section.
In literature, for thin-walled, open sections analytical solutions are widely available. For thin-walled, closed (hollow) sections
with a single opening analytical solutions are also available Ref.[6] however in case of multiple openings a statically inde-
terminate problem emerges which requires a large effort to solve analytically.
Therefore, within SCIA Engineer, a numerical 1D Finite Element Method is used to calculate the torsional properties of any
thin-walled section. The main advantages of this method are that it applies to both open and closed sections and can be
used for closed sections with any amount of openings.
In literature, for thick-walled sections analytical solutions only exist for a few basic shapes such as rectangles, triangles and
ellipses. Within SCIA Engineer, for thick-walled sections a numerical 2D Finite Element Method is used to provide an exact
solution for any shape.
In addition, the 2D Finite Element Method can even be applied optionally to thin-walled sections.
The following table summarizes this approach:
Shape Type Method for Torsional Analysis

Thin-walled open section 1D FEM (Optionally 2D FEM)
Thin-walled closed section 1D FEM (Optionally 2D FEM)
Thick-walled section 2D FEM
The following chapters give an overview of both the 1D and 2D Finite Element Methods.
1D FE Method for Thin-Walled Sections

For thin-walled sections (open or closed or a combination of both) a general One-Dimensional Finite Element approach is
applied. For a detailed background regarding this method including calculation examples reference is made to Ref.[1].
Centerline
The centerline representation of a cross-section concerns an idealized 'skeleton' profile which shows the general element
geometry and connectivity Ref.[13].
This representation suggests that all the 'linkages' in the section will traverse along the line of mid-thickness of each com-
ponent regardless of their thickness.
Generation
The centerline is generated in two steps. In the first step, the centerline of each separate thin-walled part is generated at the
line of mid-thickness:
- 24 -
In the second step, when two thin-walled parts are touching, the centerlines are extended until they intersect. These exten-
sions form additional centerline elements.
The centerline extensions have a thickness equal to the thickness of the centerline element from which they were extended.
The maximal length of the extension between two centerline elements 1 and 2 is 0,5 * (t1 + t2) with t1 the thickness of center-
line element 1 and t2 the thickness of centerline element 2. When the distance of the extension would exceed this limit, no
intersection is made i.e. the thin-walled parts are seen as not connecting.
Thickness
Each centerline element has a constant thickness. The centerline is thus split into multiple parts in case there is a difference
in thickness.
Fictive elements
In case parallel thin-walled parts are touching in an asymmetric way i.e. not directly through their mid-line, a "fictive" element
is added to ensure connectivity between the different parts.
- 25 -
Chapter 3
This fictive element is used purely for 'linkage' purposes and is given a thickness which is negligible compared to other 'nor-
mal' centerline elements (1e-10 mm).
In very special cases the generation of fictive elements can lead to unrealistic results. A typ-
ical example concerns a closed pair section formed out of two cold-formed C-sections. In
this case, the fictive elements are located on the outer centerline of the closed shape. Due
to their negligible thickness this will lead to an unrealistic torsional constant. For such cases
the 2D FE Method should be applied instead.
Fused elements
Parallel thin-walled parts which are joined by for example welds are replaced by a single centerline element with a thickness
equal to the resulting thickness sum. This simulates that these parts have been 'fused' together into one idealized combined
part.
The following example illustrates this in case of an I-section which is welded to the web of a larger I-section:
At the position where the flange of the small section and the web of the large section are connected together, a single
"Fused" centerline element is generated with thickness equal to the sum of both element thicknesses. In order to connect
this element to the rest of the web of the larger I-section, "Fictive" elements are used.
In this example, the "Fused" element in turn is split in two due to the intersection with the extended web centerline of the
smaller I-section.
Curved elements
In case a general thin-walled cross-section is inputted it is possible to define curved elements. For the centerline generation
curved elements are not accounted for and replaced by straight elements as follows:
- In case the angle between straight parts (connected to a curved part) is <= 135° then the intersection is made between the
extension of the centerlines of the straight parts.
- 26 -
- In case the angle between straight parts (connected to a curved part)is >135° then a simplification is used since no inter-
section can be found or the intersection is far away from the rounding position. In this case the straight parts are directly con-
nected.
Calculation Procedure
Based on the centerline the cross-section is discretised into nodes and elements as schematised on the following picture:
Each element is defined with a begin node a, an end node b and a constant thickness t.
- 27 -
Chapter 3
The Finite Element analysis is carried out using the following steps:
Step 1: Calculation of the warping ordinate
Equation system (boundary condition: ):
Element matrices:
,
with:
for D = S
Step 2: Position of the shear centre and standardisation of the warping ordinate:
Step 3: Calculation of the cross-section properties Iw and It
- 28 -
Step 4: Calculation of shear deformations due to shear forces and secondary torsion:
Equation system (boundary condition: ui = 0 ):

Element load vector:
with:
Step 5: Calculation of shear stresses:

Shear stresses due to primary torsion:
linearly via t with:
constantly via t:
The unit (primary) torsion stress per fibre is then calculated as the superposition of the absolute values of and
.
Shear stresses due to shear forces and secondary torsion:
The above procedure is given here for informative reasons. For a full description of all abbreviations used in this procedure
as well as background information and worked out examples, reference is made to Ref.[1].
The main advantage of this method is that it can be used for both open and closed thin-walled sections or combinations of
both (sections with openings and outstands). The method is however only valid for sections with a continuous centerline i.e.
where all parts are connected by one continuous line.
Additional Step: Calculation of unit warping stress

The above calculation procedure is extended with the calculation of the unit warping stress per fibre:
in which Mw is taken as a unit bimoment.
- 29 -
Chapter 3
In case of multiple unconnected parts (like a pair section composed out of two thin-walled
sections which do not touch each other) the 1D FE Method cannot be applied since there is
no continuous centerline. In such cases the 2D FE Method should be applied.
Fibre Mapping
The results calculated using the 1D FE Method as outlined in the previous paragraph are determined on the centerline.
These results need to be 'mapped' to the fibres of the cross-section which will then be used in the stress checks etc.
Standard case
The fibre mapping is done in two steps. In the first step, for a given fibre, the normal projection of the fibre to each centerline
in the cross-section is made. Only centerlines for which this length of the normal line is smaller than the thickness of the
centerline element are kept.
This principle is illustrated on the picture below:
For fibre 1 the normal line to centerlines 1 and 2 is made.

The length n1 of the normal line to centerline 1 exceeds the thickness t1 of this centerline. Therefore this centerline is not
kept.
The length n2 of the normal line to centerline 2 is smaller than the thickness t2 of this centerline. Therefore this centerline is
kept. In other words, the fibre is found to be more closely positioned to centerline 2 than to centerline 1 and thus the fibre will
receive results from centerline 2.
In the second step, for the centerlines which are kept, the result values are determined at the points of projection of the fibre.
Of those results, the maximal value is stored as the result value for the fibre.
Centerline extension
In case for a given fibre no centerline is found, a special procedure is executed. This is a typical result in case of the corner
point of an L-section:
- 30 -
In the above picture, fibre 1 is outside of any centerline so no normal line can be determined. In this case, all centerlines are
extended at the begin and at the end with 20% of their length.
The centerline results on the extension at the begin are taken equal to the result at the begin point, the centerline results on
the extension at the end are taken equal to the result at the end point of the centerline.
After this extension again the normal lines and final fibre results are being determined as in the previous procedure.
In case, even after this extension, a fibre is still located outside of any centerline, it does not receive any result mapping.
2D FE Method for Thick-Walled Sections

For arbitrary thick-walled sections a general Two-Dimensional Finite Element approach is applied.
This is the method used automatically in case of multi-material (composite) sections.
Beside thick-walled sections this method can also be applied to thin-walled sections.
As the name indicates, the 2D FE Method discretises the cross-section using two-dimensional elements.
The analysis is split into two separate parts: a Torsion Analysis and a Shear Analysis.
The following paragraphs give more information regarding the determination of the default mesh size and both analysis
types.
Default Mesh Size

In case no mesh size is inputted the default mesh size is determined as follows:
1. The cross-section is divided into approximately 250 elements:
- 31 -
Chapter 3
With A the area of the cross-section
2. In case the area of the circumscribed rectangle around the cross-section exceeds 10 times the area A the mesh size of
the previous step is halved:
This correction accounts for thin-walled sections.
3. The mesh size of the previous step is then rounded using a .5 accuracy. This is the mesh size used for the Torsion Ana-
lysis.
4. For the Shear Analysis the mesh of the previous step is further refined as follows:
This final step is applied always, also in case a manual input of the mesh size is made.
As with any Finite Element approach, to obtain accurate results the mesh needs to be suf-
ficiently refined.
Torsion Analysis: Prandtl

The Torsion Analysis determines the Torsional constant It, the Warping Constant Iw and the unit torsion stresses.
The analysis is executed according to the Prandtl theory. Within this paragraph the basic principles of the theory are
explained.
The Prandtl theory (often referred to as the Membrane or Soap-Film Analogy) is based on the similarity of the torsion stress
function equation and the equilibrium equation of a membrane subjected to lateral pressure.
- 32 -
l Consider an opening in an x-y plane which has the same shape as the cross-section to be investigated.
l Cover the opening with a homogeneous membrane.
l The pressure against the membrane causes the membrane to bulge out of plane.
l The lateral displacement z(x,y) of the membrane and the Prandtl torsion stress function φ(x,y) satisfy the same equation
in (x,y)
Prandtl Torsion function:
Elastic Membrane function:
Where z denotes the lateral displacement due to a pressure p and an initial tension S.
The theory concludes with the following:
l Stress components are proportional to the derivatives of the membrane displacement.

l Stresses are proportional to the slope of the membrane.
l The twisting moment is proportional to the volume enclosed by the membrane and x-y plane
- 33 -
Chapter 3
Further elaboration and background information regarding the Prandtl theory and 2D FEM analysis can be found in Ref.[1],
[7],[8],[9].
The 2D FE Method determines the primary torsion stresses Torsion(Mxp). The values for
Torsion(Mxs) will remain zero.
Shear Analysis: Grashof-Jouravski

The Shear Analysis determines the Shear areas Ay & Az and the unit Shear stresses.
The analysis is executed according to the Grashof-Jouravski theory. For background information reference is made to Ref.
[10].
The following paragraphs describe the theory for the shear Area Az. The same logic can be written out for Ay.
The theory is generally valid in case the following requirements are met:
l The cross-section symmetrical about the z-axis

l The cross-section is massive, without large holes
l Overall the obtained results are better in case the height is bigger than the width
- 34 -
The Shear stresses lead off from the cross-section into one point K.
The area takes on the shear force Q z .

The value βz is calculated from the shear stresses in one of the following ways:
1. Only from the vertical components (without influence of )
- 35 -
Chapter 3
2. From both components and
In case the cross-section does not meet the requirements of the Grashof-Jouravski theory,
the βz values calculated with the influence of τx are absolutely incorrect and often unreal.
They should not be used in this case.
Depending on the rate of unrealized conditions, the βz values which were calculated only
from the vertical τx component (without influence of τx ) are real and can be used in this
case.
The user should in all cases evaluate if the values determined by the theory are acceptable
or not.
In case of multi-material (heterogeneous) cross-sections the calculated shear areas Ay and Az can be used under the fol-
lowing conditions:
l The heterogeneities are symmetrical.

l The heterogeneities do not disturb the Grashof-Jouravski stress theory.
l The heterogeneity is diffused.
l A local heterogeneity consists of less than 10% of the cross-section area.
Openings
As specified, the above theory for shear areas is not valid in case of large openings like for example openings which divide a
cross-section into different unconnected parts. A typical example are web openings in steel members.
Specifically for such a case a modified procedure is applied:
In case:
l The cross-section consists of multiple unconnected parts i

l The rotation angle α of the cross-section is 0°
Then the Shear Analysis of the 2D FE Method is used separately for each part i and the shear area Av,i of each part is
stored. The final shear area Av of the cross-section is then calculated as the sum of the shear areas of the different parts:
Application of Closed-Form Formulae

For many standard cross-section shapes (I-sections, RHS sections, CHS sections …) closed-form formulae exist for the
cross-section properties.
After the calculation of properties, depending on the shape specific properties are overruled by fixed formulae as indicated
in the following paragraphs.
- 36 -
Doubly-Symmetric I-section
For Doubly-Symmetric I-sections (Formcode 1) the Torsional constant It is overruled as follows:
This formula was taken from Ref.[11]

In addition the unit torsion stress per fiber is overruled as follows:
Torsion_stress = Torsion_stress * (It,old / It,new )
With:
It,old a The original It value

It,new The new It value calculated by the above formula
These modifications are only done in case the rounding r≠0 i.e. when it concerns a true rolled section shape.
Asymmetric I-section
For Asymmetric I-sections (Formcode 101) the Warping constant Iw is overruled as follows:
- 37 -
Chapter 3
Full Circular section
For a Full circular section (Formcode 11 or geometric 'Circle') with diameter D the Area A is overruled as:
The Second Moments of Area Iy and Iz are overruled as:
The Elastic Section moduli Wely and Welz are overruled as:
The Plastic Section moduli Wply and Wplz are overruled as:
The Torsional constant It is overruled as:
The Shear areas Ay and Az are overruled as:
These formulas were taken from Ref.[4].
Full Rectangular Section
For a Full Rectangular section (Formcode 7 or geometric 'Rectangle' or 'RECT') with width b and height h the Tor-
sional constant It is overruled as follows:
with:

This formula was taken from Ref.[4].
- 38 -
Polygon with hole
For a polygon with hole (geometric 'Polygon with hole') the Torsional constant It is overruled using the second for-
mula of Bredt:
With A' the closed in area, taken as:
With S the circumference of the closed in area, taken as:
With r the radius of the polygon, n the number of corners and t the thickness.
Rectangular Hollow Section
For a symmetrical RHS (Formcode 2) the Torsional constant It is overruled using the second formula of Bredt:

A' = (H - t) * (B - t)
S = 2 * [(H - t) + (B - t)]
Where B is the width of the cross-section, H the height and t the thickness.
The Warping constant Iw is overruled as follows:
Ay = A * [ B / (B + H)]
Az = A * [H / (B + H)]
- 39 -
Chapter 3
Asymmetric Rectangular Hollow Section
For an asymmetrical RHS (geometric 'O' or geometric 'O asymmetric') the Torsional constant It is overruled using
the second formula of Bredt:

class="indent"A' = Hc * Bc
= 2 * (Hc/tha) + (Bc/thb1) + (Bc/thb2)

With Hc and Bc the centerline dimensions:
Hc = H - (thb1 / 2) - (thb2 / 2)
Bc = B - tha
Where B is the width of the cross-section, H the height, tha the web thickness and thb1 & thb2 the flange thicknesses.
Torsional stresses are calculated using an average thickness.
Ay = A * [B / (B + H)]
Az = A * [H / (B + H)]
Circular Hollow Section
For a CHS (Formcode 3 or geometric 'Tube') the Area A is overruled as:
The Moments of inertia Iy and Iz are overruled as:
The Section moduli Wely and Welz are overruled as:
The Plastic section moduli Wply and Wplz are overruled as:
The Torsional constant It is overruled using the second formula of Bredt:
- 40 -
With Dc the centerline dimension, taken as:

Dc = D - t
With Di the inner diameter taken as:
Di = D - (2 * t)
Where D is the diameter of the cross-section and t the thickness.
Corrugated Web SIN1
For a corrugated web section SIN1 the Area A is overruled as:

A=2*B*t
The inertia Iy is overruled as:
In which the distance z1 is determined as follows:
z1 = ( H - t ) / 2
The section modulus Wely is overruled as:
The plastic modulus Wply is calculated by multiplying this Wely value with the ratio of the original Wely and Wply of the (full)
section
The shear area Az is calculated as:
- 41 -
Chapter 3
In these formulas B indicates the width of the cross-section, H the height, Hw the height of the web, t the flange thickness
and s the web thickness. The parameters w and sw describe the geometry of the corrugation.
These formulas were provided by the company Zeman, Austria.
Corrugated Web SIN2
For a corrugated web section SIN2 the Area A is overruled as:

A = Bt * tt + Bb * tb
The inertia Iy is overruled as:
In which the distances z1 and z2 are determined as follows:
z1= h - (tb / 2)
z2 = H - h - (tt / 2)
The distance h is determined as:

h = Sy / A
With the modulus Sy calculated as:
The section modulus Wely is overruled as:
The plastic modulus Wply is calculated by multiplying this Wely value with the ratio of the original Wely and Wply of the (full)
section
The shear area Az is calculated as:
In these formulas Bt and Bb indicate the width of the top and bottom flange, tt and tb the thicknesses of the flanges, H the
height of the cross-section, Hw the height of the web and s the web thickness. The parameters w and sw describe the geo-
metry of the corrugation.
These formulas were provided by the company Zeman, Austria.
Profile Library Properties

For those cross-section defined in the Profile Library the properties defined in the Library are used to overrule the calculated
properties.
- 42 -
As can be seen on the "Overall Procedure" on page 11, the properties from the Profile Library are applied after all prop-
erties have been calculated. The logic behind this is that the Profile Library might not define all properties but only a few or
even none at all.
In addition the overruling is done only in case the difference between the calculated property and the property inputted in the
Profile Library differs less than 10%.
This "10% rule" serves as a safety margin to avoid the application of incorrectly inputted properties in the Profile Library.
- 43 -
Chapter 4
References
Steel Structures: Design using FEM
[1] Kindmann R., Kraus M.
Ernst & Sohn, 2011
The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures to EC3
Fourth edition
[2]
Trahair N.S., Bradford M.A., Nethercot D.A., Gardner L.
Taylor & Francis, 2008
Moments of Area: Introductory Engineering Mechanics
[3] Alexander N.A.
University of Bristol, 2004
Formulas in Solid Mechanics
[4] Dahlberg T.
Linköping University Sweden, 2003
eCourse mechanics
Ch 6. Advanced Beams, Composite Beams
[5]
Gramoll K.
http://www.ecourses.ou.edu/
Torsion and Shear Stresses in Ships
[6] Shama M.
Springer-Verlag, 2010
Handbook of engineering mechanics
First edition
[7]
W.Flügge
McGraw-Hill, 1962
Berekening van constructies: bouwkunde en civiele techniek
Vandepitte D.
[8]
Story-Scientia, 1979
www.berekeningvanconstructies.be
Membrane Analogy for Torsion
[9] Lagace P.A.
MIT, 2001
[10] Grasshof-Žuravského teorie
- 44 -
References
FEM Consulting
Brno
Sections and Merchant Bars
[11] Sales Programme
Arcelor Mittal, Edition 2011-1
Torsional Section Properties of Steel Shapes
[12]
Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, 2002
Warping Constant of Open Sections with Arbitrary Profile Geometry
[13] Structural Design Corporation
Libertyville, 2010.
- 45 -

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Cross-section characteristics

Determination of Section Characteristics 10

Calculation of Standardized Cross-section properties Part I 12

Circumference and Drying surface 15

Shear Area and Unit Shear Stress 16

Elastic Section Moduli 18

Plastic Moments and Section Moduli 19

Simplified Torsional Constant 23

Calculation of Standardized Cross-section properties Part II 23

1D FE Method for Thin-Walled Sections 24

2D FE Method for Thick-Walled Sections 31

Application of Closed-Form Formulae 36

Full Circular section 38

Full Rectangular Section 38

Polygon with hole 39

Rectangular Hollow Section 39

Asymmetric Rectangular Hollow Section 40

Circular Hollow Section 40

Corrugated Web SIN1 41

Corrugated Web SIN2 42

Czech Republic Slovakia

SCIA CZ s.r.o. Brno

Document created: 06 / 05 / 2018

Overview of Cross-section Characteristics

The following picture illustrates these different Axis Systems:

Fibre stress Description

Fibre stress Description

In the subsequent chapters the calculation of these different characteristics is detailed.

Determination of Section Characteristics

Standardized Cross-section properties

Cross-section property calculation

Standardized Cross-section properties Part II: Torsion

Cross-section property calculation

A, cYUCS, cZUCS, IYLCS, IZLCS, IYZLCS, α, Iy, Iz

l Ay, Az, AL, AD, iy, iz, Wely, Welz

Standardized Cross-section properties Part II: Torsion

dy, dz, It, Iw, Unit warping ω

l Unit stress Shear(Vy), Unit stress Shear(Vz)

l Unit stress Warping(Mw)

Calculation of Standardized Cross-section properties

The cross-section is discretized into n elemental areas dA.

First Moment of Area:

Using these magnitudes the coordinates of the centroid are determined:

Second Moment of Area:

Product Moment of Area:

Extension: Multi-Material (Composite) sections

Second Moment of Area

Circumference and Drying surface

Shear Area and Unit Shear Stress

The width of the cross-section at position z from the principal y-axis

The width of the cross-section at position y from the principal z-axis

Second moment of area about the principal y-axis

Iz Second moment of area about the principal z-axis

The Unit Shear stresses in the fibres are calculated as follows:

Unit stress Shear z in fibre i:

Elastic Section Moduli

Plastic Moments and Section Moduli

Consider the following composite section as an example: