INTERNSHIP TRAINING REPORT

(GRAHAA SPACE, COIMBATORE)

PERIOD OF INTERNSHIP: 12/06/2023 to 12/07/2023

submitted by

KAILASH M
(2041017)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

GOVENRMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING:: SALEM

ANNA UNIVERSITY :: CHENNAI 600 025

JULY 2023
 GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
SALEM – 636 011.
(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
(NAAC ACCREDITED)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that the summer internship report is a Bonafide work of

KAILASH M (2041017) who carried out the internship work during the
period of 12/06/2023 to 12/07/2023 (26 days) at the GRAHAA SPACE,
Coimbatore during the sixth semester as part of UG degree Programme.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr. K. LOGAVANI Dr. V. GEETHA
FACULTY INCHARGE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Assistant Professor (Sr.Gr) Professor
Department of EEE Department of EEE
Government College of Engineering, Government College of Engineering,
Salem-011 Salem-011

Submitted for the Viva-voice examination held on ………….………… at

Government College of Engineering, Salem-11.
CERTIFICATE
ATTENDANCE
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Internship entitled “Design and Prototyping

of SatNOGS Ground Station” submitted to DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING in
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SALEM for the
Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in a reward of original work done by
myself under the guidance of Ms. ATHIRA RAJEEV, SENIOR
ENGINEER, FORGE INNOVATION & VENTURES. This Internship
report is for reference only and no part of the report will be published copied
anywhere without the written permission from the officials of Forge
Innovation & Ventures.

DATE : / /2023 Signature of Student

PLACE: SALEM KAILASH M

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Apart from the efforts of us, the success depends largely on the
encouragement and guidelines of many others. I sincerely Thanks our beloved
Principal Dr. R. MALAYALAMURTHI, ME., Ph.D., Government College of
Engineering, Salem for providing this opportunity.

I respect and Thank Dr. V. GEETHA, M.E., Ph.D., Professor & Head of
Department, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Government
College of Engineering, Salem for giving the permission to do the Internship at the
Forge Innovation & Ventures.

I express my sincere Thanks to FORGE INNOVATION & VENTURES

for providing us with opportunity to carry out the Internship Training.

I also express my sincere Thanks to Mr. LOGANATHAN,

DIRECTOR/GRAHAA SPACE, Mr. RAMESH KUMAR, CEO/GRAHAA
SPACE & Mr. SUJAY SREEDHAR, CEO/GENEX SPACE for providing us
with PROBLEM STATEMENT and the opportunity to carry out the Internship
Training in GRAHAA SPACE.

I respect and Thank our faculty advisor Dr. K. LOGAVANI, Ph.D.,

Professor, Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering for her valuable
guidance and timely suggestion, and kind encouragement to carry out this
internship and helped us to complete the internship successfully.

i
 ABSTRACT

In an era marked by rapid advancements in space technology and satellite

communication, establishing an efficient and well-equipped ground station has
become crucial for reliable data reception and satellite communication. This
abstract presents a comprehensive overview of the key elements involved in
designing an armature ground station for satellite communication and data
reception. The proposed ground station aims to optimize data transmission,
enhance signal reception, and ensure seamless satellite communication. The design
process begins with a thorough analysis of the mission requirements and the
selection of a suitable location with minimal interference from electromagnetic and
atmospheric factors. The armature ground station is designed to be adaptable and
scalable, accommodating future upgrades and expanding satellite constellations.
Additionally, the incorporation of automated tracking systems enables seamless
satellite tracking, reducing the risk of signal disruptions. In conclusion, the
presented abstract highlights the significance of a well-designed armature ground
station in optimizing satellite communication and data reception. By incorporating
advanced technologies and a scalable architecture, this ground station serves as an
indispensable asset in the ever-expanding space exploration and satellite
communication domains.

ii
 INDEX

CH.NO CONTENTS PG.NO

1 Overview
1.1 Overview of this project 1
1.2 About the Company 3
2 Problem Statement
2.1 Validation of the Problem Statement 5
2.2 Value Proposition of the Statement 9
3 Solution
3.1 Solution 12
3.1.1 Why this Solution? 12
4 Design of Prototype
4.1 Components 14
4.2 Antenna 14
4.2.1 Parameters of Antenna 15
4.2.2 Structure of Antenna 22
4.2.3 Operation 24
4.3 Rotator System 26
4.3.1 Structure 27
4.4 Rotor controller 29
4.5 Client Computing 30
4.5.1 CPU 30
4.5.2 SDR 32
4.5.3 SMA Connector 33
5 SATNOGS Software
5.1 Software 34
5.1.1 SatNOGS Network 34
5.1.2 Database 35
5.1.3 SatNOGS API 35
5.1.4 SatNOGS Client 35
5.1.5 SatNOGS Dashboard 36
6 Bill of Material (BOM)
6.1 Project Budget 37

iii
7 Assembly of Ground Station
7.1 Assembling of SatNOGS 38
8 Working of Ground Station
8.1 Operations in Hardware 40
8.2 SatNOGS Network Operations 41
9 Trackable Satellites 44
10 Target Customers
10.1 Customers 45
10.2 AIM of our Team 46
11 Conclusions 47

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

S.NO TABLE NAME PG.NO

4.1 Classification of Antenna 15

6.1 Bill of Material 37

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO FIGURE NAME PG.NO

1.1 Satellite Tracking 2

1.2 Satellite Communication 4
2.1 Data Transmission 7
2.2 Traditional Tracking 8
2.3 CubeSat Projects 11
4.1 Radiation Pattern of Dipole Antenna 18
4.2 3D-Radiation Pattern 19
4.3 Lobe Formation 19
4.4 Antenna Design 22
4.5 Normal Mode of Helix 25
4.6 Axial Mode of Helix 25
4.7 Rotator V3 28
4.8 Raspberry Pi 4 Board 31
4.9 SDR 32
4.1.0 SMA Connector 33
5.1 SatNOGS Network 34
7.1 Schematic of Ground Station 38
8.1 SatNOGS Database 42
8.2 SatNOGS Working 43

vi
 1. OVERVIEW
Few weeks ago, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and
Department of Space (DoS) released the Indian Space Policy 2023 that had been in
the works for some years. The policy has been welcomed as a progression towards
India’s entry in a New Space age. Until last decade, India’s space industry and
space economy were defined by ISRO. Private sector involvement was limited to
building to ISRO designs and specifications. With the release of the space policy,
Government of India and DoS envisions to enable, encourage and develop a
flourishing commercial presence in space that suggests an acceptance that the
private sector is a critical stakeholder in the entire value chain of the space
economy. The Indian Space Policy 2023 unveils the government’s plan to let
private enterprises carry out end-to-end activities - from launching satellites and
rockets into space to operating ground stations.

The space sector is classified into upstream and downstream. All that gets
launched into space are all considered to be upstream and all those assets that
enable on-ground activities are termed as downstream. Ground stations are an
important downstream component that play a vital role in the space sector by
serving as critical communication links between satellites and Earth. They enable
the acquisition of data, control of satellite operations, and facilitate real-time
communication with spacecraft.

Ground stations are essential for satellite tracking, telemetry, and

commanding, supporting various applications such as Earth observation, weather
forecasting, telecommunication, navigation, and scientific research. They ensure
reliable data transmission, enable monitoring and control of satellites, and
contribute to advancements in space technology, research, and exploration. Ground
stations are a foundational infrastructure for space missions, enhancing our
understanding of the universe and enabling societal benefits on Earth.

1.1 Overview of this Project

Setting up ground stations in India holds significant importance in the context

of advancing space technology and promoting national development. By
establishing ground stations in the country, India can ensure efficient and reliable
communication with its own satellites, as well as international satellites. This
enables seamless transmission of critical data, images, and information, supporting
various sectors such as telecommunications, weather forecasting, disaster
management, agriculture, and navigation. Ground stations facilitate the acquisition
of scientific data from satellites, enabling extensive research and analysis.

1
 It also helps scientists and researchers to study diverse phenomena, enhance
understanding of our planet, and develop innovative solutions for sustainable
development. The fig 1.1 shows Satellite tracking.

As per Ernest & Young report, the global space economy is poised to reach
US$600 billion by 2025. Out of this, the Satellite Ground Station Market is
projected to grow from USD 61.5 Billion in 2023 to USD 115.4 Billion by 2028, at
a CAGR of 13.4% during the forecast period. As per Invest India report, Indian
Space Sector was valued at USD 9.6 Bn in 2020 and contributes about 2%-3% of
the global space economy.

The size of the sector is expected to reach USD 13 Bn by 2025, and by 2030
India further aims to capture a larger share of close to 10% of the global economy.
In 2022, the market size of space ground station equipment in India was 3.5 billion
U.S. dollars. It is estimated that by 2024 it would reach four billion dollars. The
growing demand for space-based services and the continuous development of new
technologies that make Satellite Ground Stations more competent and affordable -
are projected to propel the Satellite Ground Station market in the upcoming years.

Fig 1.1 Satellite Tracking

Indian universities have slowly started launching programs/ initiatives toward

space research by training students on various aspects of the industry. The
universities are introducing courses on multiple facets in the space technology
industry focusing on both upstream and downstream by providing training to
students by former ISRO scientists.

2
 Skills development is crucial for the space economy to thrive in India.
Satellite-based ground station education and training is an essential component in
the rapidly growing space industry. As the demand for satellite services increases,
so does the need for skilled professionals who can design, build, and operate
ground stations.

To begin with, it is important to understand the skills and knowledge required

for a successful career in satellite-based ground station operations. Professionals in
this field need to have a strong foundation in engineering, particularly in
electronics, communications, and computer systems. Additionally, they should
possess a deep understanding of satellite communication principles, radio
frequency (RF) engineering, and signal processing. Furthermore, knowledge of
satellite orbits, tracking systems, and antenna design is crucial for ensuring the
proper functioning of ground stations.

Pursuing a career in satellite-based ground station operations offers numerous

benefits, including the opportunity to work in a cutting-edge industry that is
shaping the future of global communications. Professionals in this field are in high
demand, as satellite services continue to expand and play an increasingly important
role in areas such as telecommunications, remote sensing, and navigation. This
demand translates into competitive salaries and excellent job prospects for those
with the right skills and qualifications. In this regard, we are pleased to submit a
pilot project proposal for the setup of a ground station at the Forge incubator
located at Government Engineering College, Salem, Tamil Nadu. Grahaa Space is
committed to supporting the incubator by providing the necessary expertise,
training, and resources to establish a fully functional ground station.

1.2 About the Company

Grahaa Space is a Defense and Space technology company, that is located

in Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu. They provide near real-time earth observation data
using their own clusters of nano and cube Satellites. This company is collaborating
with ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization).

Grahaa Space’s primary objectives are Satellite deployment, space

research, and also contributing to India’s space exploration projects.

3
 They also involved in designing, building, and launching their own
nanosatellites for various purposes, such as Earth observation, telecommunication,
scientific research, and navigation. This company is also collaborating with
international space agencies, companies, and research institutions for joint projects
and missions.

The fig 1.2 shows the satellite communication.

Fig 1.2 Satellite Communication

This company’s presence could enhance the Tamil Nadu’s standing in

space industry by contributing to the state’s technological advancements and
creating job opportunities.

4
 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

“The cost of traditional ground stations is prohibitive for

many educational and research institutions.”

2.1 Validation of the Problem Statement

Many people rush to find solutions without fully understanding the

problem or its root causes. This can result in superficial solutions that don't address
the underlying issues effectively. Clearly defining the problem and its scope would
effectively approach to solve problem.

Current ground stations face several challenges that can impact the
efficiency and effectiveness of satellite communication and data collection. Some
of the common problems faced by current ground stations included below.

a. Cost and Maintenance b. Limited Coverage

c. Remote Access and Automation d. Limited Data Sharing & Collaboration
e. Latency f. Antenna Scheduling and Tracking

a. Cost and Maintenance

Ground stations are expensive to build and maintain. This is especially true
for large, high-power ground stations that are needed to communicate with large
satellites. Traditional ground station infrastructure can be expensive to establish
and maintain. Building of a traditional ground station would be cost around
100,000 USD. Regular maintenance involves checking and calibrating equipment,
performing software updates, and addressing any technical issues that may arise.
These maintenance activities can require skilled technicians and add to the overall
operational costs. Operating and maintaining a traditional ground station requires
specialized knowledge and expertise in satellite communication, electronics, radio
frequency (RF) engineering, and antenna tracking systems.
 5

b. Limited Coverage

Ground stations have specific geographic locations, which may result in

limited coverage areas. That they can only communicate with satellites that are in
their line of sight. This can limit the coverage area of a satellite constellation.
Ground station locations are fixed, which may not align with the optimal
geographic positions for tracking certain satellites or observing specific regions of
interest. This can lead to reduced communication opportunities with satellites,
especially for low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites with fast orbital speeds. Establishing
and maintaining multiple ground stations in different locations to enhance
coverage can be costly and resource-intensive.

c. Remote Access and Automation

Tracking satellites with a directional antenna requires precise scheduling

and real-time tracking calculations. Maintaining accurate tracking for multiple
satellites can be challenging, leading to missed communication opportunities.
Remote access introduces potential security vulnerabilities. Dependence on remote
access and automation means relying heavily on network connectivity and internet
infrastructure. Remote access can introduce latency, particularly when controlling
real-time tracking systems. High latency could impact the accuracy of tracking and
communication with fast-moving satellites.

d. Limited Data Sharing and Collaboration

Handling large volumes of satellite data requires efficient data processing

and storage systems to manage and analyze the received data effectively. Some
traditional ground stations operate as closed systems, limiting collaboration
opportunities and data sharing with the wider satellite community. This approach
can hinder the progress of space research and exploration, as data sharing and
collaborative efforts are vital for advancing scientific knowledge. Closed systems
can inhibit learning opportunities for individuals interested in satellite
communication and data reception. Open data sharing fosters learning and
understanding of satellite operations and space technology. By not sharing data
with the wider community, traditional ground stations miss out on opportunities for
joint research and knowledge exchange.
 6

e. Latency

Latency in traditional ground stations can be a significant disadvantage

when it comes to satellite communication and data reception. Latency refers to the
delay between the transmission of a signal from a satellite and its reception at the
ground station. Satellite-based remote-control systems or teleoperation, high
latency can cause noticeable delays in commands and responses. Latency can
affect the timeliness of data transmission from satellites to ground stations. This
delay may lead to outdated or delayed information being received, which can be
problematic for time-sensitive applications. In some cases, high latency can affect
the ability to precisely track and predict the movement of satellites, potentially
leading to inaccuracies in tracking and data acquisition. High latency can impact
closed-loop control systems, where control actions are based on real-time

feedback. In satellite stabilization and attitude control systems, latency can

introduce instability and hinder accurate control. The fig 2.1 shows data
transmission.

Fig 2.1 Data Transmission

f. Antenna Scheduling and Tracking

Tracking satellites with a directional antenna requires precise scheduling

and real-time tracking calculations. Maintaining accurate tracking for multiple
satellites can be challenging, leading to missed communication opportunities.
Traditional ground stations often have limited tracking capacity, meaning they
 can only track and communicate with a few satellites at a time.

This limitation restricts the number of satellites that can be observed and
communicated with, leading to missed opportunities for data collection and
communication. In many traditional ground stations, antenna tracking is done
manually or requires significant human intervention. This can be time-consuming

and labor-intensive, especially when tracking multiple satellites or dealing with

rapid-moving LEO satellites. Automation is crucial for efficient and continuous
satellite tracking and communication. The fig 2.2 shows Traditional Tracking.
Fig 2.2 Traditional Tracking

Traditional ground stations may lack sophisticated automation features,

leading to less optimized tracking and potential communication gaps. Keeping
manual tracking systems well-maintained and calibrated can be challenging,
especially in remote or harsh environments. Any inaccuracies in tracking can lead
to lost communication opportunities.
 8

2.2 Value Proposition of the Statement

Solving the problem of the prohibitive cost of traditional ground stations

for educational and research institutions aligns with the goals of democratizing
space exploration and making space accessible to a broader audience.

a. Inclusivity in Space Research b. Enhanced Learning Opportunities

c. Scientific Research and Collaboration d. Space Education and Outreach
e. Small Satellite and CubeSat Projects f. Rapid Technological
Advancement
g. Public Access to Space Data

a. Inclusivity in Space Research

Solving this problem would ensure that educational and research

institutions of varying sizes and resource levels can participate in space research on
an equal footing. It promotes fairness and inclusivity, allowing institutions with
limited budgets to have the same opportunities as larger, better-funded
organizations. Making ground stations more affordable and accessible would
attract a more diverse pool of talent to space research. It would encourage
participation from students and researchers from different backgrounds and
regions, fostering a broader range of perspectives and fresh ideas. Inclusivity in
space research enables institutions from developing nations to actively participate.
This empowers these countries to contribute to the global space community and
engage in cutting-edge research.

b. Enhanced Learning Opportunities

Access to affordable ground stations would provide students with valuable

hands-on experience in satellite communication and space technology. By actively
engaging in ground station operations, students can deepen their understanding of
theoretical concepts and gain practical skills that are crucial in the field of space
research. round station operations involve various disciplines, including
engineering, physics, computer science, and data analysis. Creating affordable
ground station opportunities encourages interdisciplinary learning, where students
from different fields collaborate on satellite communication projects, enriching
their educational experience.

c. Scientific Research and Collaboration

Affordable ground stations would provide educational and research

institutions with the means to access real-time space data from satellites. This data
is essential for various scientific research endeavors, including climate studies,
environmental monitoring, Earth observation, and space exploration. Reducing the
cost barrier for ground stations can encourage educational institutions to invest
more resources in space research programs. This investment can lead to a wider
range of space-related research projects, driving advancements in various scientific
fields. Affordable ground stations can foster global collaboration among
educational and research institutions from different countries. This collaboration
can lead to international research partnerships and the exchange of knowledge and
expertise.

d. Space Education and Outreach

Affordable ground stations can foster global collaboration among

educational and research institutions from different countries. This collaboration
can lead to international research partnerships and the exchange of knowledge and
expertise. Affordable ground stations enable educational institutions to engage in
space-related projects, providing students with hands-on learning experiences.
These experiences can inspire the next generation of scientists, engineers, and
space enthusiasts, fostering interest and passion for space exploration and research.
Ground station projects can attract local communities and media attention, raising
the profile of educational institutions and showcasing their contributions to space
research and exploration.

e. Small Satellite and CubeSat Projects

Ground stations are essential for communicating with and receiving data
from small satellites and CubeSats. Lowering the cost barrier ensures that these
projects can fully utilize their satellites' potential and achieve their mission
objectives. Many small satellite and CubeSat projects involve students, providing
them with valuable practical experience and exposure to space-related disciplines.
Affordable ground stations ensure that these students can actively engage in
mission operations without financial barriers. Affordable ground stations facilitate
rapid prototyping and testing of small satellite missions.

10

f. Rapid Technological Advancements

As ground station technology becomes more affordable, the potential for

integrating automation and artificial intelligence (AI) increases. Automated
tracking, scheduling, and data processing can streamline operations and maximize
efficiency. Affordability can drive the development of compact and portable
ground station solutions. This allows for easier deployment and o Many
educational institutions are involved in CubeSat and small satellite projects.
Affordable ground stations make it easier for these projects to establish reliable
communication links and gather data, thereby increasing the impact and potential
success of these missions. Operation, making it feasible to set up ground stations in
remote or challenging locations.

g. Public Access to Space Data

Making space data more accessible encourages public interest and

engagement in space exploration. Accessible data can fuel citizen science

initiatives, where the public can actively participate in space research and data
analysis. When space data is made available to the public, it opens up opportunities
for entrepreneurs, startups, and businesses to develop new applications and
services based on space-related information. This it can lead to increased interest
and support for space programs and exploration. The fig 2.3 shows CubeSats
Projects.
Fig 2.3 CubeSats Project
11

3. SOLUTION

“SatNOGS ground stations are open source and affordable,

making them accessible to a wider range of users.”

3.1 Why This Solution?

Deploying a SatNOGS ground station offers a viable solution to the

challenges mentioned above. SatNOGS is an open-source project that facilitates
the creation of a global network of ground stations, improving satellite
communication and data collection. SatNOGS ground station’s key features
include:

a. Affordability & Accessibility

b. Global coverage & Collaborative Networks
c. Open Data Access & Sharing
d. Remote Access & Automation

a. Affordability and Accessibility

Traditional ground stations can be costly to set up and maintain. Traditional

ground stations can be expensive to set up and maintain. They often require
specialized and proprietary hardware, which can be costly. Additionally, the cost of
real estate and infrastructure at specific locations can add to the expenses.
SatNOGS ground stations are designed to be more affordable and use off-the-shelf
components, making them accessible to a broader range of users, including
individual enthusiasts, educational institutions, and smaller organizations.

SatNOGS promotes accessibility by encouraging a global network of

community-built ground stations. It allows individuals and organizations from
around the world to contribute to the network, enabling broader coverage and more
opportunities for satellite communication and data reception.

12

b. Global Coverage & Collaborative Networks

SatNOGS addresses the problem of limited coverage by establishing a

global network of ground stations. This distributed network of ground stations is
strategically located in various regions worldwide, providing overlapping coverage
across different satellite orbits. By collaborating and sharing data, the SatNOGS
network effectively extends the tracking capabilities, ensuring continuous
communication and data reception for a more extensive range of satellites.
SatNOGS promotes collaboration and open data access through its open-source
platform. The project encourages enthusiasts, educational institutions,
organizations, and space agencies to participate in the network and contribute to its
growth. Ground station operators can share their received satellite data with the
SatNOGS network and the broader global community.

c. Open Data Access & Sharing

SatNOGS is an open-source project. The hardware and software used in the

ground stations are openly documented and freely available. This transparency
enables others to replicate the ground station design and contribute improvements,
further enhancing the data sharing ecosystem. SatNOGS operates a public database
where data received from various satellites is stored and made accessible to
everyone. This database acts as a valuable resource for researchers, educators, and
satellite enthusiasts interested in exploring satellite communication data.

d. Remote Access & Automation

SatNOGS ground stations can be operated remotely, meaning that users

can access and control the ground station's functionalities from anywhere with an
internet connection. This eliminates the need for physical presence at the ground
station location for routine operations. SatNOGS employs a scheduling system that
allows users to predefine observation times for specific satellites. The system
automatically schedules observations based on the user's preferences, optimizing
satellite tracking and data reception. This automation reduces manual intervention
and improves the efficiency of the ground station. SatNOGS ground stations are
equipped with a rotator system that automatically tracks the movement of the
satellite across the sky during an observation.

13

4. DESIGN OF PROTOTYPE

A prototype is a simple experimental model of a proposed solution used to

test or validate ideas, design assumptions and other aspects of its conceptualization
quickly and cheaply, so that the designer/s involved can make appropriate
refinements or possible changes in direction.

4.1 Components

Designing a SatNOGS ground station prototype involves selecting the

necessary components, assembling the hardware, configuring the software, and
setting up the station to receive and track satellite signals.

a. Antenna b. Rotator System

c. Rotator Controller d. Client Computing

4.2 Antenna

A transmitting antenna is one, which converts electrical signals into

electromagnetic waves and radiates them. A receiving antenna is one, which
converts electromagnetic waves from the received beam into electrical signal. An
antenna can perform both transmitting and receiving operation. Antennas are
classified into three types according to its application,

a. Physical Structure
b. Frequency Range
c. Radiation Pattern

For our prototype, we’ve chosen the Helix Antenna. Helical antennas are
relatively simple to design and build, making them a cost-effective option for
many applications. Helical antennas can operate over a wide range of frequencies,
making them suitable for broadband applications. Helical antennas can be designed
to produce circular polarization, which is useful for applications where the
polarization of the signal is important, such as satellite communications.

14

Helical antennas have a high directivity, which means that they can focus
the transmitted signal in a particular direction. This makes them well-suited for
applications where it is important to transmit the signal over a long distance or to a
specific location. Helical antennas are typically made from durable materials,
making them resistant to damage from the elements.

Table 4.1 Classifications of Antennas

Classification Types Example Applications

Antennas

Wire Antenna Dipole, Ships,

Physical Structure Helix Antenna Automobiles, etc.,
Aperture Antenna Waveguide, Air crafts,
Horn Antenna Space crafts
Reflector Antenna Parabolic, Satellite tracking,
Corner Antennas Radio
Microwave Plasma, Radar,
Frequency Range Antenna Micro Strip Patch Communications
Antenna
Dynamic, Military
VHF Antenna Valley-Span communications,
Antenna telegraphy
Directional Dish, Cellular networks,
Radiation Pattern Yagi Antenna GPS System
Omnidirectional Quad, FM Radio,
Billboard Antenna Walkie-Talkies

4.2.1 Parameters of Antenna

 The parameters of an antenna define its characteristics, performance, and
capabilities. When designing or selecting an antenna, various parameters should be
considered to ensure it meets the requirements of the intended application. The
antenna measurements ensure that the antenna under test meets all specifications.
The parameters of an antenna are also affected by the environment in which it is
used.
15

Some important Parameters of Antennas are,

a. Impedance Matching b. Directivity

c. Radiation Pattern d. Aperture Efficiency

a. Impedance Matching

According to the standard definition, “The approximate value of

impedance of a transmitter, when equals the approximate value of the impedance
of a receiver, or vice versa, it is termed as Impedance matching.”

Impedance matching is necessary between the antenna and the circuitry. The
impedance of the antenna, the transmission line, and the circuitry should match so
that maximum power transfer takes place between the antenna and the receiver or
the transmitter.

Necessity of Matching:

A resonant device is one, which gives better output at certain narrow band
of frequencies. Antennas are such resonant devices whose impedance if matched,
delivers a better output.

● The power radiated by an antenna, will be effectively radiated, if

the antenna impedance matches the free space impedance.

● For a receiver antenna, antenna’s output impedance should match with the
input impedance of the receiver amplifier circuit.

● For a transmitter antenna, antenna’s input impedance should match with

transmitter amplifier’s output impedance, along with the transmission line
impedance.

b. Directivity
 The ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the subject antenna to the
radiation intensity of an isotropic or reference antenna, radiating the same total

power is called the directivity.” An Antenna radiates power, but the direction in
which it radiates matters much. The antenna, whose performance is being
observed, is termed as subject antenna.

16

where, ∅(θ,φ)max – Power per Unit Solid angle,

∅av – Average radiation Intensity

Radiation intensity of an antenna is focused in a particular direction, while

it is transmitting or receiving. Hence, the antenna is said to have its directivity in
that particular direction.

● The ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction from an antenna to the

radiation intensity averaged over all directions, is termed as directivity.

● If that particular direction is not specified, then the direction in which

maximum intensity is observed, can be taken as the directivity of that
antenna.

● The directivity of a non-isotropic antenna is equal to the ratio of the

radiation intensity in a given direction to the radiation intensity of the
isotropic source.

The directivity of a helical antenna is typically expressed in decibels (dB).

For example, a helical antenna with 10 turns and a circumference of 1 wavelength
has a directivity of approximately is up to 12 (dB). The directivity of a helical
antenna can be increased by using a larger number of turns, a smaller pitch angle,
or a smaller diameter. However, it is important to note that increasing the
directivity of a helical antenna also reduces its bandwidth.

Helical antennas with high directivity are often used in applications where it
is important to focus the transmitted signal in a particular direction. For example,
they are used in satellite communications, radar, and radio direction finding.
c. Radiation Pattern

The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the Radiation

pattern of the antenna. Radiation Patterns are diagrammatical representations of
the distribution of radiated energy into space, as a function of direction.

17
 Fig 4.1 Radiation Pattern of Dipole Antenna

The fig 4.1 given above shows radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The energy
being radiated is represented by the patterns drawn in a particular direction. The
arrows represent directions of radiation.
The radiation patterns can be field patterns or power patterns.
● The field patterns are plotted as a function of electric and magnetic fields.
They are plotted on logarithmic scale.

● The power patterns are plotted as a function of square of the magnitude of

electric and magnetic fields. They are plotted on logarithmic or commonly
on dB scale.

The radiation pattern is a three-dimensional figure and represented in

spherical coordinates (r, θ, Φ) assuming its origin at the center of spherical
coordinate system. It looks like the following fig 4.1. The given figure is a
three-dimensional radiation pattern for an Omni directional pattern. This clearly
indicates the three co-ordinates (x, y, z).

18
 Fig 4.1 3D-Radiation Pattern

Lobe Formation:
In the representation of radiation pattern, we often come across different
shapes, which indicate the major and minor radiation areas, by which the radiation
efficiency of the antenna is known. To have a better understanding, consider the
following figure, which represents the radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The fig
4.2 shows the lobe formations.

Fig 4.2 Lobe Formation

19
Here, the radiation pattern has main lobe, side lobes and back lobe:
● The major part of the radiated field, which covers a larger area, is the main
lobe or major lobe. This is the portion where maximum radiated energy
exists. The direction of this lobe indicates the directivity of the antenna.

● The other parts of the pattern where the radiation is distributed side wards
are known as side lobes or minor lobes. These are the areas where the
power is wasted.

● There is other lobe, which is exactly opposite to the direction of main lobe.
It is known as back lobe, which is also a minor lobe. A considerable
amount of energy is wasted even here.

While an antenna radiates energy, it will form some common types of Radiation
Patterns are,
● Omni-directional pattern (also called non-directional pattern): The
pattern usually has a doughnut shape in three-dimensional view. However,
in two-dimensional view, it forms a figure-of-eight pattern.

● Pencil-beam pattern − The beam has a sharp directional pencil shaped

pattern.

● Fan-beam pattern − The beam has a fan-shaped pattern.

● Shaped beam pattern − The beam, which is non-uniform and pattern less
is known as shaped beam.

If the antennas used in radar systems produce side lobes, target tracing
becomes very difficult. This is because, false targets are indicated by these side
lobes. It is messy to trace out the real ones and to identify the fake ones.
Hence, elimination of these side lobes is must, in order to improve the
performance and save the energy.

Remedy:

The radiated energy, which is being wasted in such forms needs to be

utilized. If these minor lobes are eliminated and this energy is diverted into one
direction (that is towards the major lobe), then the directivity of the antenna gets
increased which leads to antenna’s better performance.

20
d. Aperture Efficiency

According to the standard definition, “Aperture efficiency of an antenna, is

the ratio of the effective radiating area (or effective area) to the physical area of the
aperture.”
An antenna has an aperture through which the power is radiated. This
radiation should be effective with minimum losses. The physical area of the
aperture should also be taken into consideration, as the effectiveness of the
radiation depends upon the area of the aperture, physically on the antenna.
εA = Aeff
Ap
Where, εA – Aperture Efficiency
Aeff – Effective area
Ap – Physical area

The aperture efficiency of a helical antenna is typically between 50% and

70%. This means that for every 100 watts of electrical power that is supplied to the
antenna, only 50 to 70 watts are radiated as radio waves. The remaining power is
lost in the antenna as heat or other forms of non-radiative losses.

Here are some additional factors that can affect the aperture efficiency of a helical
antenna:

● The polarization of the antenna.

● The presence of nearby objects.
● The frequency of operation.

It is important to consider all of these factors when calculating the aperture

efficiency of a helical antenna.

21
4.2.2 Structure of Antenna

The structure of an antenna refers to its physical design and construction.

Antennas are devices used to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves, and they
come in various shapes and sizes depending on their intended applications. The
structure of an antenna is designed to optimize its performance in terms of
radiation pattern, gain, directivity, and other parameters.

Our helical antenna is a three-dimensional coil antenna that resembles a

helix. It is often used for circular polarization and can be designed for broadband
or narrowband applications. The fig 4.4 Shows the design of Helical antenna.

Fig 4.4 Antenna Design

 22

The structure of a helical antenna consists of several key components:

● Radiating Element: The main component of the helical antenna is the

radiating element, which is the actual spiral-shaped wire or conductor
responsible for transmitting and receiving radio frequency signals. The
radiating element is formed into a helix, typically wound in the shape of a
cylinder or cone.

● Ground Plane: Some helical antennas require a ground plane to function

properly. The ground plane is a conducting surface or a metallic plate
located below the helical element. It serves to reflect and enhance the
antenna's radiation in the desired direction.

● Feed Point: The feed point is the point at which the helical antenna is
connected to the transmission line or the RF source. The feed point is
typically located at the base of the helix, where the first turn of the spiral
begins.

● Spacing between Turns: The spacing between each turn of the helix is an
essential parameter that determines the antenna's performance. Proper
spacing ensures proper impedance matching and radiation pattern
characteristics.

● Helix Diameter: The diameter of the helical antenna refers to the size of the
circular or spiral pattern formed by the radiating element. The diameter
affects the antenna's radiation pattern and impedance.

● Pitch: The pitch of the helix is the distance between consecutive turns of the
spiral. It also influences the antenna's performance, including the axial ratio
and directivity.

● Coil Length: The length of the helical antenna refers to the overall length of
the helix from the base to the tip. The length is determined by the desired
operating frequency and the number of turns.

● Axial Ratio: The axial ratio is a measure of the polarization purity of the
antenna. A lower axial ratio indicates better circular polarization
performance. Helical antennas can be designed in various configurations,
such as monofilar (single wire) or bifilar (two wires wound together)
 helixes.

23

Additionally, they can have different numbers of turns, coil lengths, and
spacings between turns, allowing for optimization to specific frequency bands and
applications.

The helical antenna's unique structure and circular polarization capability

make it a valuable choice in applications where polarization diversity, low-profile
design, and efficient gain are desired.

Specifications:
Frequency- 434 MHz
No. of turns – 8 turns
Weight – 2.2 Kg
Wavelength (λ) – 691 mm
Gain (dB) – 18.711 dBic

4.2.3 Operation

Once a conductive wire in an antenna is excited through a coaxial cable

otherwise two-wire transmission line then-current supplies throughout the
conducting wire. So, this causes the field lines generation & emission of radiations.
It is important to know that a helical antenna may emit in different modes, so
modes of operation of the helical antenna are normal mode and axial mode which
are discussed below.

Normal Mode:
In this type mode, both the pitch & the diameter of the helix antenna are tiny
as compared to the wavelength. So, its operation is analogous to an electrical short
dipole or monopole. In radiation of normal mode, the field of radiation is normal to
the helix axis so, radiated signals are polarized circularly.

This mode has low efficiency & narrow bandwidth, so used mainly for
compact antennas for portable, two-way mobile radios & UHF TV broadcasting
antennas. The helical antenna’s radiation pattern is a combination of both the loop
& short dipole antennas. The radiation pattern of the helical antenna in the normal
mode of radiation mainly depends on the diameter values and its turn spacing. The
main disadvantages of normal mode operation are, narrow bandwidth, low
radiation efficiency thus, it is not frequently used.
 24

Axial Mode:
In this mode, both the pitch and diameter of the helix antenna are similar to
the wavelength, so it works like a directional antenna. Not like the normal mode,
there is no simple solution available to decide the radiation properties in this axial
mode. Thus, for this mode, experimentally determined analytical & numerical
methods are used to conclude these factors. This mode is frequently used through
earth-based stations within satellite communications systems. The fig 4.5 shows

normal mode of Helix.

Fig 4.5 Normal Mode of Helix

This Axial mode of operation is used more practically. The fig 4.6 shows the
axial mode radiation pattern.
Fig 4.6 Axial Mode of Helix
 25

4.3 Rotator System

A rotator is an essential component of a SatNOGS ground station, as it

allows the antenna to accurately track the movement of satellites across the sky
during an observation pass. The rotator system ensures that the antenna maintains
its alignment with the satellite as it moves through the sky, maximizing signal
reception and data collection. There are several types of rotator systems that can be
used for SatNOGS ground stations:

I. Azimuth-Elevation Rotator (AZ/EL): This type of rotator system uses two

motors—one for azimuth (horizontal rotation) and one for elevation (vertical
rotation). Az/El rotators provide precise control over the antenna's position,
allowing it to track satellites with high accuracy. The azimuth motor rotates
the antenna left or right, while the elevation motor adjusts the antenna up or
down.

II. Manual Rotators: Some SatNOGS ground stations use manual rotators,
which require operators to manually adjust the antenna position during
satellite passes. While less automated, manual rotators can still be effective
for beginners or in situations with budget constraints.

III. Computer-Controlled Rotators: Many rotator systems are designed to be

controlled by a computer, allowing for automated tracking and remote
operation. The computer interfaces with the rotator controller to calculate
the correct antenna position for each satellite pass, based on orbital data.

When selecting a rotor system for your SatNOGS ground station, consider
factors such as:
● Accuracy and Precision: Ensure the rotor can accurately track satellites
for reliable data collection.
● Load Capacity: Check if the rotator can handle the weight of your
antenna setup.
● Interface and control options: Choose a rotator that can be easily
integrated with the SatNOGS software and controlled by a computer or
automation system.
● Budget: Consider the cost of the rotator system and any additional
accessories required.
 26

4.3.1 Structure

SatNOGS has three versions of rotator. From the three versions of rotor,
Our rotor is version 3. This version three is an Azimuth – Elevation rotor type. The
SatNOGS V3 rotator is designed to be affordable, accessible, and easy to construct
using readily available materials and components. Below is a general outline of the
structure and components of the SatNOGS V3 rotator:
● Frame: The rotator's frame forms the main structure and provides
support for the moving parts. It is usually constructed using aluminum
or steel brackets and pipes. The frame holds the azimuth and elevation
bearing.

● Azimuth Bearing Assembly: The azimuth bearing assembly allows

the antenna to rotate horizontally (azimuth axis). It typically consists
of a rotating platform mounted on ball bearings, allowing smooth
rotation.

● Elevation Bearing Assembly: The elevation bearing assembly allows

the antenna to tilt up and down (elevation axis). Like the azimuth
assembly, it also includes a rotating platform with ball bearings for
smooth movement.

● Motors: The V3 rotator uses stepper motors to control the azimuth

and elevation movements. Stepper motors provide precise positioning
and are commonly used in DIY rotator projects.

● Motor Drivers: Stepper motor drivers are used to control the rotation
of the stepper motors. They are usually connected to a controller (e.g.,
Arduino) and receive commands for motor movements.

● Controller: The V3 rotator is typically controlled by a

microcontroller (e.g., Arduino or Raspberry Pi) that runs the software
responsible for calculating satellite positions and sending commands
to the motor drivers for tracking.

● Sensor: To provide feedback on the actual antenna position, the V3

rotator may incorporate an encoder or a potentiometer as a sensor.
 This feedback is used to ensure accurate tracking of the satellites.

27

● Power Supply: The rotator requires a power supply to drive the

motors, motor drivers, and the controller. It may use a separate power
supply or draw power from the main ground station power source.

● Mounting Hardware: The V3 rotator is designed to be mounted on a

stable platform, such as a tripod or a fixed structure, to ensure steady
and reliable tracking of satellites.

The SatNOGS community provides detailed documentation, assembly

instructions, and open-source designs, allowing users to build their version of the
V3 rotator and contribute to the SatNOGS ground station network. The fig 4.7
shows Rotator version 3.

Fig 4.7 Rotator V3

Specifications:
Type – AZ/EL
Motors – NEMA 17 Stepper Motor
Speed – 7 (deg/ sec)
Weight – 5 Kg
 28

4.4 Rotator Controllers

It is responsible for controlling the movements of the ground station's

azimuth and elevation rotators, enabling the antenna to accurately track satellites as
they pass overhead. The Rotator Controller plays a crucial role in automating the
tracking process and ensuring optimal data reception from satellites. Key features
and functionalities of the SatNOGS Rotator Controller include:

● Microcontroller Compatibility: The Rotator Controller is typically

designed to work with microcontrollers such as Arduino or Raspberry Pi.
These microcontrollers are widely used for their versatility, ease of
programming, and availability of open-source libraries.

● Sensor Integration: To provide accurate position feedback, the Rotator

Controller can be designed to incorporate sensors such as encoders or
potentiometers. These sensors provide real-time feedback on the actual
position of the antenna, enabling closed-loop control and precise tracking.

● Automation & Scheduling: The Rotator Controller can be programmed to

automate the tracking process based on scheduled satellite passes. It receives
tracking commands from the SatNOGS system and executes the required
movements during the pass.

● Satellite Tracking Algorithms: The Controller runs tracking algorithms

based on satellite orbital data to calculate the precise azimuth and elevation
angles required for satellite tracking.

● Remote Access: The Controller can be configured to enable remote access

and control, allowing operators to monitor and adjust ground station
operations from a remote location.

The SatNOGS Rotator Controller is a critical component that enables the

functionality and automation of the SatNOGS ground station network. It plays a
central role in tracking satellites, collecting data, and contributing to the
collaborative satellite observation efforts facilitated by SatNOGS.
 29

4.5 Client Computing

Client computing, also known as client-side computing, refers to the model

of computing where most of the processing and data storage occurs on the user's
device, known as the client, rather than on a remote server or the cloud. In this
model, the client device takes on a more active role in executing software and
processing data, while the server mainly provides data and services. Key
characteristics of client computing include:

● Client Devices: Client devices are the end-user devices that run applications
and perform tasks locally. Common client devices include personal
computers (PCs), laptops, smartphones, tablets, and other IoT (Internet of
Things) devices.
● User Interface: The user interface (UI) and user experience (UX) are
typically delivered and executed on the client device, providing a responsive
and interactive interface for the user.

4.5.1 CPU

The central Processing Unit of the client computing device is a device,

where the data reception, transmission, and its processing are done. The processor
for this device is Raspberry Pi 4. The Raspberry Pi 4 is a single-board computer
developed by the Raspberry Pi Foundation. It is the fourth generation of the
Raspberry Pi line of computers, and was released in June 2019. The Raspberry Pi 4
is based on the Broadcom BCM2711 SoC, which is a 64-bit quad-core ARM
Cortex-A72 processor.

It has 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, or 8GB of LPDDR4-3200 SDRAM, and can be

equipped with up to 2TB of microSD or eMMC storage. The Raspberry Pi 4 has
two USB 3.0 ports, two USB 2.0 ports, a Gigabit Ethernet port, a HDMI port, a
3.5mm audio jack, and a CSI camera connector. The fig 4.8 shows Raspberry Pi 4
Board.
 30

Fig 4.8 Raspberry Pi 4 Board

The Raspberry Pi 4 is a powerful and versatile computer that can be used for a
variety of purposes, including:

● IoT device: The Raspberry Pi 4 can be used to create IoT devices. This
means that you can use it to collect data from sensors and control devices
remotely.

● Development board: The Raspberry Pi 4 can be used as a development

board. This means that you can use it to program and test your own
software.

● Media center: The Raspberry Pi 4 can be used to run a media center software
such as Kodi or Plex. This allows you to watch movies, TV shows, and
music on your TV.

● Web server: The Raspberry Pi 4 can be used to run a web server. This allows
you to host your own website or blog.

● Retro gaming: The Raspberry Pi 4 can be used to play retro games. This is
because it is compatible with a wide range of emulators.
 31

The Raspberry Pi 4 is a great choice for anyone who wants a powerful and
versatile single-board computer. It is affordable, easy to use, and has a large
community of users and developers.

4.5.2 SDR

SOFTWARE-DEFINED RADIO (SDR) is a radio communication

system where components that have traditionally been implemented in hardware
(e.g., mixers, filters, amplifiers, modulators/demodulators, detectors, etc.) are
instead implemented by means of software on a personal computer or embedded
system.
SDR is a versatile technology that can be used for a variety of applications,
including:
● Radio Astronomy: SDR can be used to study radio waves from
astronomical objects.

● Ham Radio: SDR can be used to receive and transmit radio signals on
amateur radio frequencies.

● SDR Hacking: SDR can be used to listen to and analyze radio signals
from a variety of sources, including cellular networks, Wi-Fi networks, and
satellite communications.
Fig 4.7 SDR
 ● SDR Education: SDR can be used as an educational tool to teach students
about radio communication and electronics.

32

SDR is a relatively new technology, but it has become increase popular in

recent years due to its affordability and flexibility. Overall, SDR is a powerful and
versatile technology that can be used for a variety of applications. It is becoming
increasingly popular due to its affordability and flexibility. However, it is
important to be aware of the challenges of using SDR before you start using it. The
fig 4.9 shows SDR.

4.5.3 SMA Connector

Subminiature Version A (SMA) connectors are semi-precision coaxial

RF connectors developed in the 1960s as a minimal connector interface for coaxial
cable with a screw-type coupling mechanism. The connector has a 50 Ω
impedance. SMA was originally designed for use from DC (0 Hz) to 12 GHz,
however this has been extended over time and variants are available to 18 GHz and
26.5 GHz. There are also mechanically compatible connectors such as the
K-connector which operate up to 40 GHz. SMA connectors are one of the most
popular RF connectors in use today. They are used in a wide range of applications,
including:
● Antennas: SMA connectors are commonly used to connect antennas to
Radio Frequency equipment.

Fig 4.1.0 SMA Connector

● Test Equipment: They are used to connect test equipment to RF devices.

 ● Cables: SMA connectors are used to connect coaxial cables to RF devices.
● Data Centers: SMA connectors are used to connect fiber optic cables to RF
devices in data centers. SMA connectors are a reliable and versatile type of
RF connector. They are easy to use and maintain, and they are available in a
wide range of prices. The fig 4.1.0 shows SMA Connector.

33

5. SatNOGS Software

SatNOGS (Satellite Networked Open Ground Station) is an open-source

project that aims to create a global network of ground stations for tracking,
receiving, and decoding data from satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO). The project
is developed and maintained by a community of satellite enthusiasts, radio
amateurs, and developers around the world. SatNOGS seeks to democratize
satellite communications and data reception by providing an accessible and
collaborative platform for space enthusiasts, researchers, and educational
institutions.

5.1.1 Software Network

The SatNOGS Network is the overarching framework that connects all the
individual SatNOGS ground stations worldwide. It allows ground station operators
to share their data and telemetry observations with the broader community. The
SatNOGS software network is a collaborative, open-source project that forms the
backbone of the SatNOGS ground station network. The fig 5.1 shows SatNOGS
Network.
 Fig 5.1 SatNOGS Network

34

It provides the software infrastructure necessary for the operation and

coordination of ground stations worldwide, facilitating the reception of satellite
data and contributing to the global satellite observation efforts.

5.1.2 Database

The SatNOGS Database (SatNOGS DB) is a central repository for storing

and managing satellite observation data collected by the SatNOGS ground stations.
It serves as a valuable resource for researchers, satellite operators, and enthusiasts,
providing a comprehensive dataset of satellite observations from around the world.
The data in the SatNOGS DB is accessible through various interfaces, allowing
users to search, visualize, and analyze satellite observations.

5.1.3 SatNOGS API

The SatNOGS Database (SatNOGS DB) is a central repository for storing

and managing satellite observation data collected by the SatNOGS ground stations.
It serves as a valuable resource for researchers, satellite operators, and enthusiasts,
providing a comprehensive dataset of satellite observations from around the world.
The data in the SatNOGS DB is accessible through various interfaces, allowing
users to search, visualize, and analyze satellite observations.

5.1.4 SatNOGS Client

The SatNOGS Client is the software that runs on individual ground

stations. It controls the ground station's rotator, radio receiver, and other hardware
components, allowing the station to track and receive signals from satellites as they
pass overhead. The SatNOGS Client collects the received satellite data and sends it
to the SatNOGS Network for further processing and analysis.

The SatNOGS Client Configuration Tool is a web-based application that

assists users in configuring and setting up their SatNOGS ground station. It
simplifies the process of specifying the station's location, hardware details, and
other parameters needed to operate the ground station effectively.
 35

The SatNOGS software network is an integral part of the broader

SatNOGS project, which aims to democratize access to satellite data and promote
collaboration in the field of satellite observation and space research. By providing
an open and accessible platform for ground station operation and data sharing,
SatNOGS empowers a diverse community of satellite enthusiasts, researchers, and
educational institutions to participate in the exploration and study of space.

5.1.5 SatNOGS Dashboard

The SatNOGS Dashboard is a web-based interface that provides a real-time

view of the status and performance of the SatNOGS ground station network. It
allows users to monitor the activities of individual ground stations, check the
upcoming satellite passes, and view data from completed observations. The
SatNOGS Client Configuration Tool is a web-based application that assists users in
configuring and setting up their SatNOGS ground station. It simplifies the process
of specifying the station's location, hardware details, and other parameters needed
to operate the ground station effectively.
 36

6. Bill of Material (BOM)

6.1 Project Budget

The project budget for the ground station setup, training, and curriculum
development is estimated at Rs. 41,134.05. The detailed breakdown of expenses
is provided in the attached budget sheet. The table 6.1 shows Bill of Material.

Table 6.1 Bill of Material

S.NO. COMPONENTS PRICE (in Rs.)

1 Antenna assembly 3,462.65

2 Rotator assembly 12,376.40

3 Tripod 952.00

4 Raspberry pi-4 16,343.00

5 SDR 8,000

GRAND TOTAL 41,134.05

37

7. Assembly of Ground Station

 Assembling a ground station involves putting together all the necessary
hardware components and configuring the software to create a functional setup for
receiving satellite signals and participating in the SatNOGS network. The fig 7.1
shows Schematic of Ground Station.

Fig 7.1 Schematic of Ground Station

7.1 Assembling of SatNOGS

Below is a general guide to help you with the assembly of a SatNOGS

ground station:
1. Gather Hardware Components: Collect all the necessary hardware
components for your ground station, including:

● Antenna (e.g., UHF Yagi or VHF Turnstile)

● Radio receiver (e.g., RTL-SDR dongle)
● Rotator system (e.g., Azimuth-Elevation rotator)
● Stepper motors and motor drivers
● Microcontroller (e.g., Arduino or Raspberry Pi)
● Sensors (e.g., encoders or potentiometers for feedback)
● Power supply and cables
● Mounting hardware (e.g., tripod or fixed structure)

38

2. Build the Rotator: Assemble the rotator system following the design and
instructions of the chosen rotator (e.g., SatNOGS V3 rotator). Mount the
 azimuth and elevation bearing assemblies, attach the stepper motors, and
connect them to the motor drivers.

3. Construct the Antenna: Assemble the chosen antenna (e.g., UHF Yagi or
VHF Turnstile) and mount it securely to the rotator system. Ensure the
antenna is oriented correctly for the desired polarization (horizontal or
vertical) and optimized for the frequency range of the satellites you intend
to track.

4. Install Radio Receiver: Connect the radio receiver (e.g., RTL-SDR

dongle) to the SBC (e.g., Raspberry Pi) using the appropriate cables. Install
the necessary drivers and software to enable communication between the
SBC and the radio receiver.

5. Interface the Hardware: Set up the interface between the SBC and the
rotator system. Connect the motor drivers to the SBC, and ensure the
communication and control between the SBC and the rotator system are
established.

6. Install SatNOGS Software: Install the SatNOGS software on the SBC.

This includes the SatNOGS Client, which controls the ground station, and
other related software components, such as the SatNOGS API and the
SatNOGS Dashboard.

7. Configure SatNOGS Client: Use the SatNOGS Client Configuration Tool

to configure your ground station. Provide details such as your station's
location, hardware specifications, and other settings required for operation.

8. Test and Calibrate: Test the ground station by scheduling test observations
for known satellite passes. Calibrate the rotator system to ensure accurate
tracking of satellites.

9. Join SatNOGS Network: Register your ground station on the SatNOGS

network to become part of the global ground station community. Share your
received data with the network to contribute to collaborative satellite
observation efforts.

10.Monitor and Maintain: Monitor your ground station's performance using

the SatNOGS Dashboard and address any issues that may arise. Regularly
maintain and update the software to ensure smooth and reliable operation.
Please note that the specifics of ground station assembly can vary based on the
rotator design, antenna type, and chosen hardware components.

39

8. Working of Ground Station

 The SatNOGS ground station is designed to receive signals from satellites
as they pass overhead, track their movement across the sky, and collect data during
the satellite's visibility window. It operates as part of the SatNOGS network, a
collaborative and open-source project that aims to democratize access to satellite
data and promote space research.

8.1 Operations in Hardware

The hardware working of a SatNOGS ground station involves the operation

and coordination of various hardware components to receive satellite signals and
track satellites as they pass overhead. Here's an overview of how the hardware
components work together in a SatNOGS ground station:

1. Antenna: The antenna is the primary hardware component responsible for

receiving satellite signals. The specific type of antenna used depends on the
frequency range and polarization of the satellites being tracked. Commonly
used antennas in SatNOGS ground stations include UHF Yagi and VHF
Turnstile antennas. The antenna is mounted on the rotator system, allowing
it to be pointed and tracked in the direction of the passing satellites.

2. Radio Receiver: The radio receiver is typically a software-defined radio

(SDR) that tunes to the frequency of the satellite signals. The SDR captures
the electromagnetic signals received by the antenna and converts them into
digital data that can be processed by the ground station's computer.

3. Rotator System: The rotator system allows the ground station to track the
movement of satellites as they pass overhead. It typically consists of
azimuth and elevation bearing assemblies and uses stepper motors to control
the antenna's horizontal and vertical movements. The rotator system is
connected to the ground station's computer, which calculates the precise
azimuth and elevation angles required for satellite tracking.

4. Microcontroller: (Raspberry Pi) The ground station's microcontroller acts

as the brain of the system. It runs the SatNOGS software, including the
SatNOGS Client, which controls the ground station's operation. The
microcontroller receives tracking data from the SatNOGS Network or
scheduling software, calculates the required antenna movements, and sends
control signals to the rotator system to track the satellites.

40

5. Sensor: Some rotator systems incorporate sensors such as encoders or

 potentiometers to provide feedback on the actual position of the antenna.
This feedback allows the microcontroller to ensure accurate tracking and
make adjustments as needed during satellite passes.

6. Power Supply: The ground station requires a stable power supply to power
all its hardware components, including the microcontroller, radio receiver,
and rotator system.

7. Network Connectivity: The ground station needs internet connectivity to

access satellite tracking data and scheduling information from the SatNOGS
Network. It also allows the ground station to send received data back to the
SatNOGS Network for sharing and analysis.

8. Data Processing & Storage: The data received by the radio receiver is
processed and stored by the ground station's computer. The SatNOGS
software handles data processing tasks such as demodulation, decoding, and
error correction to convert the raw signal data into meaningful satellite
telemetry or image data.

9. SatNOGS Dashboard: The ground station operator can monitor the ground
station's status and performance using the SatNOGS Dashboard, a
web-based interface that provides real-time information on scheduled
observations, completed passes, and other operational details.

By coordinating the operation of these hardware components, a SatNOGS

ground station can efficiently receive satellite signals, track satellites during their
passes, and contribute valuable data to the SatNOGS Network for collaborative
satellite observation and research.

8.2 SatNOGS Network Operations

The SatNOGS software is a set of open-source tools and applications that

work together to facilitate the operation of ground stations in the SatNOGS
network. The software components provide the necessary functionality for tracking
satellites, receiving satellite data, and sharing observations with the global
community. Below is an overview of how the SatNOGS software works:

1. SatNOGS Client: The core component of the SatNOGS software is the

SatNOGS Client. It runs on the ground station's computer, typically a
microcontroller like Arduino or a single-board computer like Raspberry Pi.
The SatNOGS Client is responsible for controlling the ground station's
rotator system, radio receiver (e.g., RTL-SDR dongle), and any other
hardware components.
41

2. Rotator Control: The SatNOGS Client calculates the azimuth and elevation
 angles required to track satellites as they pass over the ground station's
location. It sends commands to the rotator system to adjust the antenna's
orientation, ensuring that it remains pointed at the satellite during the
observation pass.

3. Radio Receiver Integration: The SatNOGS Client interfaces with the radio
receiver (e.g., RTL-SDR dongle) to receive signals from the satellites. It
tunes the receiver to the appropriate frequency for each satellite pass and
demodulates the received signals.

4. Data Reception: During a scheduled satellite pass, the SatNOGS Client

receives and records the data transmitted by the satellite. This data includes
telemetry, images, or other payloads carried by the satellite.

5. Data Processing: Once the data is received, the SatNOGS Client processes
and packages it into a standardized format, ready for transmission to the
SatNOGS Network.

6. SatNOGS DB: The processed data is sent to the SatNOGS Database

(SatNOGS DB). The SatNOGS DB is a central repository that stores all the
satellite observation data collected by the ground stations in the SatNOGS
network. The fig 8.1 shows SatNOGS Database.

Fig 8.1 SatNOGS Database

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 7. SatNOGS Networks: The SatNOGS Network is a distributed network of
ground stations operated by individuals and organizations worldwide. It
coordinates the scheduling of satellite passes and ensures that each ground
station receives appropriate observation tasks based on their location and
capabilities.

8. Scheduling and Coordination: The SatNOGS Network schedules

observation tasks for each ground station to track specific satellites during
their passes. These scheduled tasks are sent to the respective ground stations
through the SatNOGS Client, which then carries out the observations.

The SatNOGS Network schedules observation tasks for each ground station
to track specific satellites during their passes. These scheduled tasks are sent to the
respective ground stations through the SatNOGS Client, which then carries out the
observations.

Both Software and Hardware working of whole SatNOGS Ground Station

in fig 8.2 shown.

Fig 8.2 SatNOGS Working

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 9. Trackable Satellites
SatNOGS ground stations are capable of tracking a wide range of satellites
in various orbits, including Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO),
and Geostationary Orbit (GEO). The satellites that can be tracked by SatNOGS
ground stations are typically those that transmit their telemetry data or have
amateur radio beacons that can be received by the ground station's radio receiver.
Here are some examples of the types of satellites that can be tracked using
SatNOGS:
● CubeSats: CubeSats are small, standardized satellites often deployed in
constellations for various purposes, such as scientific research, Earth
observation, and technology demonstration. Many CubeSats transmit their
telemetry on amateur radio frequencies, making them trackable by
SatNOGS ground stations.

● Amateur Radio Satellites: CubeSats are small, standardized satellites often

deployed in constellations for various purposes, such as scientific research,
Earth observation, and technology demonstration. Many CubeSats transmit
their telemetry on amateur radio frequencies, making them trackable by
SatNOGS ground stations.

● Weather Satellites: Some weather satellites, such as NOAA and Meteor-M

satellites, transmit weather imagery and data in various frequency bands,
including those that can be received by SatNOGS ground stations.

● Satellite Beacons: Certain satellites and spacecraft transmit beacon signals

on specific frequencies, making them detectable and trackable by ground
stations.

● Educational Satellites: Universities, research institutions, and educational

organizations launch satellites for educational purposes and scientific
experiments. Many of these satellites are trackable using SatNOGS ground
stations.

● International Space Station (ISS): While the ISS is not a satellite,

SatNOGS ground stations can also track the ISS during its passes when it
transmits amateur radio signals.

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 10. Target Customers
SatNOGS can be used to teach students about satellites, space, and ground
stations. It is a great way to get young people interested in STEM subjects.
SatNOGS can be used to collect data from satellites for research purposes. This
data can be used to study the Earth's atmosphere, climate, and other aspects of our
planet. SatNOGS can be used to monitor satellites and their health. This data can
be used to ensure that satellites are operating as expected and to identify any
problems that may need to be addressed. SatNOGS can be used to engage the
public with satellites and space exploration. This can be done by providing live
feeds of satellite passes, hosting educational events, and sharing data and images
with the public.

10.1 Customers

The SatNOGS ground station is a versatile and accessible platform for

receiving satellite data and participating in the global satellite observation network.
The target customers for SatNOGS ground stations can vary widely, as the system
caters to a diverse set of users and organizations with different interests and
objectives. Some of the potential target customers for SatNOGS ground stations
include:
1. Amateur Radio Enthusiasts: Amateur radio operators and enthusiasts
interested in satellite communication and tracking can use SatNOGS ground
stations to receive signals from amateur radio satellites and other spacecraft
with radio beacons.

2. Scientific Researchers: Scientists and researchers can use SatNOGS ground

stations to collect telemetry and data from various satellites for their
research and analysis.

3. Weather Monitoring & Earth Observations: Organizations interested in

weather monitoring and Earth observation data can utilize SatNOGS ground
stations to receive satellite imagery and environmental data.

4. Disaster Management & Emergency Response: SatNOGS ground stations

can be employed in disaster management and emergency response scenarios
to receive satellite data for real-time situational awareness.
SatNOGS ground stations cater to a wide range of customers due to their
open-source nature, affordability, and ease of assembly.
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10.1 AIM of our Team

The aim of SatNOGS is to democratize access to satellite data and promote

global collaboration in the field of satellite observation and space research.
SatNOGS is an open-source and community-driven project that provides a
platform for individuals, organizations, and educational institutions to build,
operate, and share data from ground stations capable of tracking satellites.
SatNOGS promotes citizen science, allowing ordinary citizens to actively
contribute to scientific research and space missions by collecting satellite data. The
project fosters collaboration between space enthusiasts, researchers, and amateur
radio operators, encouraging them to share knowledge, data, and resources to
advance space research and exploration.
Through continuous development and community contributions, SatNOGS
aims to improve ground station technology and expand its capabilities,
contributing to advancements in the field of satellite communication and
observation.
Overall, SatNOGS seeks to empower individuals and organizations with the
tools and knowledge to participate actively in the exploration of space, contribute
to scientific research, and create a global network for satellite observation and
communication. By providing an open and collaborative environment, SatNOGS
aims to make satellite data accessible and valuable to the broader community,
fostering a spirit of exploration and discovery in the world of space science.

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 11. Conclusion

For an Electrical engineering student, a learning combination of theory and

practical experience is a valuable asset which helps in understanding the core
principles of manufacturing by the way of first-hand experience. This industrial
training in Grahaa Space has given me such a great experience, which is going on
in the company. It also helped me to understand the exact mechanism of working
of the various departments. This internship training gives me a clear knowledge
about steel making.
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