Page 1 of 43

Ecosystem

The ecosystem is defined as a community of

organisms, together with their living environment. It
is the functional unit of nature where living organisms
interact among themselves, and also with the Fhtrth
surrounding physical environment. An ecosystem
generally consists of biotic components such as
animals, plants, bacteria, etc. and abiotic components, Prodcer
including minerals, climate, soil, water, sunlight, etc.,
linked through major forces of the flow of energy and
geochemical cycles within the ecosystem.
An ecosystem may vary greatly in size, ranging
from a small pond to a large forest or a sea.
The ecosystems have a scale dimension, i.e. it varies Deoepr
in spatial coverage. It may be as small as a cow
shed, a tree or even a part of a tree having certain
Structural Components an Ecasystem
of

microorganisms. The largest unit is the whole

biosphere. Abiotic Components: These include water, air,
The ecosystem is convenient scale for soil, nutrients, salinity and acidity levels, energy,
considering plants and animals and their sunlight, temperature, wind, rainfall and climate.
interaction because it is more localized and thus The abiotic conditions, both support and limit the
more specific than biosphere in its entirety. It biotic community.
includes a sufficiently wide range of individual OF ANECOSYSTEM
organisms to make regional generalizations FUNCTIONS
feasible and valuable. Ecosystems are complex dynamic systems with
The biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems the following functions:
are considered to be linked through nutrient cycles 219tttto3
Energy flow through the food chain.
and energy flows. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles).v
Ecological succession or ecosystem development.
STRUCTURAL
9r The ecosystem is studied as a 'black box model'
COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
ii ssfho by concentrating on the input variables and related
Biotic Components: These include the plants, output variables, while the internal variables may be
animals and microorganisms.sieni e79n ignored to reduce the complexity.
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Environ

animals are callcd

Animals that cat other
CHAIN
THROUGH FOOD carnivores.
plants and other
animals
ENERGY FLOW energy for doing any Animals that cat both
Allliving
organisnms need reproducing are called omnivores.
as growing, moving, comes from Productlvity of Ecosystem
biological work such That energy
themselves.
and maintaining received from the sun flow
among accumulated encrgy stored
Based on Thetotal amount of area
the sun. The
cnergY
througlh the food chain. classified producers per unit
different organisnns organisnms are by the autotrophicprimary The productivity
their roles in the food chain,
Consumers and per unit time is called productivity.factors:
groups: Iroducers, ecosystem depends on two
into three of the
amount of solar radiation.
Decomposers. The availability of the
convert solar energy
2 keai/m lyr The efficiency of plants to green plants to
into chemical energy used by
20 ol /m/yr up tissues.
build their
200 keal /m/yr
Methods to Measure Primary Production:
2,000 keal/mtyr Gross Primary Production (GPP): It is
the total
amount of energy produced by the autotrophic
primary producers at the stage of production.
20,000 oal /ye
bqtored Net Prinary Production (NPP): It represents the
or
Energy Flo thrvugh Food Cain amount of energy or organic matter, fixed
stored at a trophic level i.e. stage of production.
Producers Thus, NPP excludes the amount of energy which
Primary Producers are those which produce their is lost through respiration by autotrophic primary
own food, also known as autotrophs.
producers (plants).
They fall into two categories, i.e., phototrophs and NPP =GPP- Energy lost through respiration
chemotrophs.
• Phototrophs are those primary producers NPP represents the usable amount of energy at
(green plants) which trap solar energy and trophic level one, which is made available to
produce their own food. higher trophic levels. The ecosystem productivity,
The chemotrophic producers are primary swhether, gross or net, is generally measured in
bacteria which produce their food energy i dry gram/m²/day or year.
ori
through chemical processes wherein simple Decomposers
organic compounds are oxidised to obtain food E These are also
energy. known as detritivores, i.e. they break
The primary producers include chlorophyll down dead plant, animal material and wastes,
release it again as energy and nutrients and
containing green plants, greenpurple bacteria, blue into the
green algae and phytoplanktons. ecosystem for recycling.
In this way, it is
the energy from the sun that usually powers Decomposers, such as bacteria
base of the food chain. ino
the and fungi
(mushrooms) feed on waste
converting it into inorganic and dead matter,
Consumers chemicals that can be
These are called heterotrophs, i.e.
recycled as mineral
the species nutrients for plants to use
cannot manufacture their own that again.
on primary producers or food, and survive
other organisms. Food Chain
These are classified as herbivores,
t Omnivores. carnivores and In an ecosystem
snte organisms are
Animals that eat primary
other throughthefeeding
mechanism or
related to each
plants) are called herbivores. producers (like i.e., an organism consumes trophiclevels,
energy. For instance another
an insect is eaten for food and
by the frog,
DRISHTIPUBLICAT
the
 Page 3 of 43

frog becomes food for the

snake, and
snake, and it goes on. This is called the hawk eats
which is just a sequence of organisms,
the food chain, Detritus Food Chain
organism is the food for the next. All in which each
notential sources of food for organisms are eaten by eaten by
other organisms.
Some common food chains can
be illustrated as
follows: Dead leaves WoodlouUse Blackbird
Grass goat man
Seed rat cat hawk
Algae zooplankton
- man
Detritus Food Chain
The major difference between the two food chains
is their energy source for the primary consumer. In
E
fish e

Algae insect grazing food chain energy source is green plants,

fro8 snake peacock
Types of Food Chain whereas in detritus food chain energy source is dead
organic matter.
Mainly there are two types of food
chain:
Grazing Food Chain: The food chain Food Web
which starts
with the consunmption of plants or part
of Food web refers to a complex network of
constitute the grazing food chain. This foodplants
chain
starts with the green plants at
interconnected food chains. A food chain denotes
the base and the only one part of the food and energy flow,however
primary consumer is herbivore. Ecosystem with such isolated relationship rarely occurs in an
such typeof food chain are directly dependent on ecosystem. The food web provides all possible
an influx of solar radiation.
transfers of energy and nutrients among the
For example, the grass is eaten up by rabbit, organisms in an ecosystem.
which
iseaten by the fox. Trophic Cascade
Trophic cascades occur when predators in a food
web suppress the abundance, or alter the behaviour
Roce Grazing Food (consumen)
of their prey,thereby releasing the next lower trophic

ift Chaines Teg level from predation.

For example, if the abundance of large fish is
increased in a lake, the abundance of their prey,
smaller fish that eat zooplankton, would decrease.
The resulting increase in zooplankton would, in
Flower turn, cause the biomass of its prey, phytoplankton,
(roducer)
CaterpillaFrog Snake to decrease.
(consumer) (consumer) (consumer)

Uon
Grazing Food Chain JackolV
Detritus Food Chain: This food chain starts with
Geat
the consumption of dead organic matter by
microorganisms, which are then consumed by the Wid Cat

detritus feeding organisms, also known as

Rabbl
detritivores.
For example, such type of food chain operates in
the decomposing accumulated litter in a temperate
forest. Food Web
ina ForestE NHKS
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Environmeh

a single
which provides for more
Unlike food chain provides for C,
C,
source of food, the food web
Top Carnivore
choices in an
one alternative for food survival is
than therefore the chance of
ecosystem and grass may Secondary
For example, the
better in the food web. or goat. Similarly a
source for rabbit
be a food source for many different
Primary
a
herbivore may be food
Carnivore
C
P

carnivorous. Herbivores/
P
Producers
Trophic Level
position an a grassland (B) In a Pond
Trophic levels represent the chains start Upriglt Pyramids of Numbers (A) In
a
organism occupies in food
chain. Food Pyramid of Numbers: The pyramid of numbers
at trophic level 1 with primary
producers such as depicts the relationship in terms of the number
of
predators at their
plants, move to herbivores at level and producers, herbivores and carnivores
2
or a
at level3and typically finish with carnivores successive trophic levels. There is decrease in the
apex predators at level 4 or 5.Ecological communities number of individuals from the lower to the higher
with higher biodiversity form more complex trophic trophic levels. The number pyramnid varies from
paths. ecosystem to ecosystem. There are three types of
The various trophic levels are: pyramid of numbers:
Level 1: Plants and algae make their ownfood, and Upright Pyramid of Number: This type of
are called primary producers. pyramid number is found in the aquatic and
grasslarnd ecosystem, in these ecosystems there
Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called are numeroussmallautotrophs which support
primary consumers. lesser herbivores which in turn supports a
Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called Smaller number of carnivores and hence this
secondary consumers. Pyramid is upright.
Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are Partly Upright Pyramid of Number: It is seen
called tertiary consumers. in the forest ecosystem where the number of
Level 5: Apex predators that have no further producers is less and support a greater number
of herbivores and which in turn support a fewer
predators, are at the top of the food chain.
number of carnivores.
Ecological Pyramid
An ecological pyramid (also known as trophic
Pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes food pyramid) Carnivore
is a graphical representation designed to show the
biomass or bio productivity at each trophic level in a
given ecosystem.
Ecological pyramids begin with the producers
at the bottom (such as plants) and
proceed through
the various trophic levels (such as herbivores
Herbivores
eat plants, then carnivores that eat that
herbivores,
carnivores that eat those carnivores,
and so on). The
highest level is the apex predators
which are at the
top of the food chain. Producers
The ecological pyramid can be categorized as:
Pyramid of Numbers, Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy. and
Partly Upright Pyramid of Number
10
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Ecosystom

Inverted Pyramid of Number: This type of
ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food
chain where one primary producer supports
numerous parasites which support more
hyperparasites.
Pyramid of Biomass: Biomass pyramids show
how much biomass is present in
the organisms at
each trophic level. This pyramid of biomass is
used to overcome the shortcomings of
the pyramid
of number.
inverted. The phytoplankton reproduce very
quickly, but have much shorter individual life.
One problem with biomass pyramids is that
they can make a trophic levelappear to contain
more energy than it actually does. For example,
all birds have beaks and skeletons, which,
despite having mass are not eaten by the next
trophic level.

Hyperparasites Top Carnivore 1 kg

Parasites Primary Carnivore 10 kg

100 kg
Herbivores Herbivores/
1000 kg
Producers

Producers
Upright Pyramid of Biomass in a Terrestrial Ecosysten

Inverted Pyramid of Number

An ecological pyramid of biomass shows the Carnivore /12gy/m
relationship between biomass and trophic level
by quantifying the biomass present at each
trophic level. of an ecological community at a Herbivores 8ga/m²
particular time.
• It is a graphical representation of biomass
present in unit area at different trophic levels. 1Am/m?
Typical units to measure biomass are grams/ Producers
meter², or calories/meter'.
Biomass is the amount of living or organic
matter present in an organism per unit area per Inverted Pyramid in an Aquatic Ecosystem
unit time and is represented in terms of
dry weight. Pyramid of Energy: Apyramid of energy illustrates
The pyramid of biomass may be "upright" or
Go how much energy is needed, as it flows upward,
TO SuPport the next trophic level. The efficiency
"inverted". For example, pyramid of biomass
in a terrestrial ecosystem is upright because the with which energy or biomass is transferred from
one trophic level to the next is called the ecological
standing crop of various grasses and plants at
any given point will be more than the mass of efficiency.
the consumers. But, in a pond ecosystem, the Consumers at each level convert, on average,
standing crop of phytoplankton, the major only about 10% chemical e.energyin their
producers, at any given point will be lower than food to theirown oricie (the ten percent
the mass of the heterotrophs, such as fish and law)Forthis reason, food chains rarely extend
insects. So the pyramid of aquatic ecosystem is toomore than5 or6levels.
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Environment& Eoology and Dlsastor Manageme.

Allelopathy
It is a biological phenomenon by which an
Treple Levet
organism produces one or more bio-chemicals
100 that influence the germination, growth, survival).
and reproduction ofother organisms. These bio.
chemicals are known as allele-chemicals and can
have beneficial (positive allelopathy) or
Phethe Pt
detrimental (negative allelopathy) effects on the
hereAtrPhyhles
Cybe ynptste
target organisms and the community.
t04,009
Allelo-chemicals with negative allelopathic
effects are an important part of plant defence
against herbivory.
Pyramid of Enersy
The production of allelo-chemicals is affected by
At the lowest trophic level (the bottom of the nutrients available and other abiotic factors such
food chain), plants convert about 1% of the as temperature and pH.
sunlight they receive into chemical energy. Ecological Interaction
follows fronn this that the total energy originally
present in the incident sunlight that is finally Organisms living on the earth are connected to
embodied in a tertiary consumer is abo1t each other in some way or the other. The interaction
0.001%.
between the organisms is fundamental for their
survival and functioning of the ecosystem as a whole.
Unlike nmass and number,which can be inverted Depending upon the nature of interaction, the
PyTamids, the energy Pyramid is always categorization of ecological interactions is given as
upright. under.

Types of Effect Effect

Interaction YoCharacteristics on X
It is a
mutually detrimental interaction between individuals,
populations or species. Cheetahs and lions; both species feed on
Competition (-) (-)
similar prey, they are negatively impacted by the presence of
the other because they wilIl have less food.
It is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another
Ammensalism organism without any costs or benefits received by it. For (-) (0)
example: sheep or cattle trample grass
In antagonistic interactions one species benefits at the expense
Antagonism (-) (+)
of another. It includes herbivory, parasitism, and the predation.
It describes interactions where the act of one species has
Neutralism (0) (0)
absolutely no effect whatsoever on that of the other.
In this, one organism benefits while the other organism is neither
benefited nor harmed, for example, Remora living with a shark.
Commensalism (+) (0)
Remoras eat leftover food of the shark, the shark is not affected
in the process as its resources do not get depleted.
It is a mutually benefiting interaction between two or more
species. Close mutualism is also called a symbiotic relationship.
Mutualism Coral reefs show mutual relationship of symbiotism, in which (+) (+)
corals and algae zooxanthellae interact and benefit each other.

{12 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS

 Page 7 of 43

Ecological Succession
Type of Successions
The process by which communities
of plant and Primary Succession
animal species in an area are replaced or
changed into It refers to the first phase of ecological
another over a period of time is known as
ecological succession, characterized by the growth of
succession. Succession is a
universal process of "pioneer plants," such as fungus, grasses and
directional change in vegetation, on an
ecological time annual wildflowers.
scale. Succession occurs due to
large scale changes or These plants love sun, barren rock and/or
destruction (natural or manmade).
disturbed soil and serve to create life-giving
The process involves a progressive series soil to support the lives of higher order
of
changes with one community replacing another until organisms.
a stable, mature, climax
community develops. With the development of new organisms and
It involves
the processes of colonization, increased diversity, the competition also
establishment, and extinction, which act on the increases and new niche opportunity develops
participating plant species. in the ecosystem.
Most successions contain a number of stages that
can be recognized by the collection of species CLKAKCOBRYNY
that
dominate at that point in the succession.
The entire sequence of communities that
successively change in a given area are called
sere(s).
The individual transitional communities are SMALL ANNUAL CRASSEANO BRADE
ROCK PLANTS PXRONIALS RADE-DNTOLERANt
termed seral stages or seral communities. AND LCHENE
TRES SUCH ASPOS OALAND KICHOL

In the successive seral stages, there is a change in

1-HUNDRTDSOF YIARS

the diversity of species of organisms, an increase

·
Primary Succession
in the number of species and organisms as well as
an increase in the total biomass. Secondary Succession
It begins in areas where natural biotic
Stages of Succession
communities have been destroyed such as in
Pioneer Community: The first plant to colonise the abandoned farmlands, burned or cut forests
area is called the pioneer community. and lands that have been flooded.
Successional Stages: The stages leading to the • Since some soil or sediment is present,
climax community are called successional stages succession at this stage is faster than primary
or seral stages or sere. succession.
Climax Community: The final stage of the
succession is called the climax community. The 3PIONER SPECIES INTERMEDIATE SPECns CLIMAK CoMwUNITY

concept of a climax community assumes that the

a
plants colonizing and establishing themselves in
given region can achieve stable equilibrium. The
climax ecosystems could also change, if drastic
climate changes occur or if alien species are
introduced into the ecosystem, a, process ot
adaptation and succession follows.When left 63SEARS S4TLARS

Ls undisturbed, an ecosystem always moves towards

a state of dynamic balance. Secondary Succession

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Environmont &
Ecology and Disastor Managomem,

Other Types of Succession

Allogenic Succession
It is caused by the abiotic components of an ecosystem.
The succession can be brought about in a number of ways, such as volcanic eruptions; meteor or com
strike; Alooding: drought; earthquakes and non-anthropogenic climate change.
For example: In Cormwall, England,observations on the estuary of the Fal river suggest that the deposition
of silt may be causing an allogenic succession from salt marsh to woodland.
Autogenic Succession
It is caused by the biotic components of an ecosystem. The plants themselves (biotic
components)cause
succession to occur for instance light captured by the leaves; production of detritus; water and nutrient
uptake; nitrogen fixation; anthropogenic climate change.
These aspects lead to a gradual ecological change in a particular spot of
land, known as a progression
of inhabiting species.
Autogenic succession can be viewed as a secondary succession because of pre-existing
plant life.
Progressive Succession
It is a succession where the community becomes complex and
contains more species and biomass over
time.
Retrogressive Succession
It is a succession where the community becomes simplistic and contains fewer species
and less biomass
Over time.
Some retrogressive successions are allogenic in nature. For example, the introduction of grazing animals
results in degenerated rangeland.
Ecosystem Stability
The Gaia Hypothesis
An ecosystem is said to possess ecological stability Itis also known as Gaia theory or Gaia principle.
(or equilibrium) if it does not experience unexpected lt proposes that organisms interact with their
largechanges in its characteristics across time, or ifit inorganic surroundings on Earth to formasynergistic
is capable of returning to its equilibrium state after a self-regulating, complex system that helps to
perturbation. maintain and perpetuate the conditions for life on
the plane.
Homeostasis Topics of interest include how the biosphere and
The natural, normal ecosystem attains its steady the evolution of life forms affect the stability of
state or equilibrium condition through the inbuilt global temperature, ocean salinity, oxygen in the
self-regulating process. This self-regulating process atmosphere, the maintenance of a hydrosphere of|
liquid water and other environmental variables that
by which an ecosystem maintains its stability is
affect the habitability of Earth.
called homeostasis.
Any change in the ecosystem is counterbalanced NUTRIENT CYCLING
by the responses of the system to change and (BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES)nsla
ultimately ecosystem or ecological stability is The circulation of elements or nutrients from
restored. nonliving to living, and then back to the non-living
Homeostasis ensures steady state conditions in components of the ecosystem in a circular fashion
climax ecosystems. Homoeostasis applies to every is known as biogeochemical cycle.
living organism in the ecosystem. If homeostasis The movement of nutrient elements through the
is successful, the organism continues to live, if various components of an ecosystem is called
unsuccessful, it dies. nutrient cycling.
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iogeochemical cycles are of two types: and convert the inorganic carbon into organic
Gaseoun Nutrient Cycle: Carbon cycle, matter (food) and release oxygen. A part of the
Nitrogen cycle, iydrological cycle, etc. food made through photosynthesis is used by
• Sedimentary Nutrient Cycle: Sulphur cycle, plants for their own metabolism and the rest is
I'hosplhorus cycke. stored as their biomass, which is available to
The reservoir for the gaseous type of nutrient cycle various herbivores, heterotrophs, including human
(e,nitrogen, carboncycle)exists in theatmosphere beings and microorganismns as food.
and for the sedinentary cycle (e.g,, sulphur and Forests act as reservoirs of CO, as carbon fixed by
phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is located in the trees remain stored in them for long due to their
Barth'scrust. long life cycles.
Respiration: Respiration is carried out by all living
Gaseous Cycles organisms. It is a metabolic process where food is
Carbon Cycle oxidized to liberate energy, CO, and water.
The continuous exchange of carbon between the Impact of Human Activities on Carbon Cycle
atmosphere and organisms constitutes the carbon
cycle. The global carbon cycle has been increasingly
disturbed by human activities, particularly since the
beginning of the industrial era. Large scale
deforestation and ever growing consumption of
Sunllght CO, In the fossil fuels by the growing numbers of industries,
atmoephere
power plants and automobiles is primarily
Photosynthesls
by producers
Fossll fuel
responsible for the increasing emissions of carbon
Plant
reopiratlon
combu6tlon dioxide.
Anlmal
Decomposition: AIl the food assimilated by
Carbon flxatlon
respiration animals or synthesized by plants is not metabolized
oonsumers
by by them. The dead organic matter is decomposed
by microorganisms and CO, is released into the
atmosphere by decomposers.
Dscompositlon
Combustion: Burning of biomass releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
FoDstis 6nd tossiH tuere
Nitrogen Cycle
Carbon Cycle Our atmosphere contains nearly 78% of nitrogen,
Carbon from the atmosphere moves to the green but it cannot be used directly by the majority of living
plants through photosynthesis and then to the organisms. Broadly, like carbon dioxide, nitrogen
animals. By the process of respiration and also cycles from gaseous phase to a solid phase, then
decompositíon of organic matter, it returns back back to a gaseous phase through the activity of a
to the atmosphere. Therefore, carbon cycle is wide variety of organisms. Cycling of nitrogen is
usually a short term cycle. vitally important for all living organisms. There are
However, some carbon also enters a long term cycle five main processes which are essential for nitrogen
due to accumulation as undecomnposed organic cycle these are:
matter or as insoluble carbonates in the aquatic Nitrogen Fixation: This involves the conversion of
system. It also gets dissolved in the occan and gaseous nitrogen into ammonia, a form in which
remains there for a long tine. it can be used by plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can
The global carbon cycle consists of the be fixed by the following three methods:
followingsteps: Atmospheric Fixation: Lightening, combustion
Photosynthesis: Green plants in the presence of and volcanic activity help in the fixation of
sunlight utilize CO, in the process of photosynthesis nitrogen.
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Environment & nt

Cycle (Water Cycle)

temperature and Hydrological
Industrial Fixation: Athigh The water cycle, also
known as the hydrolopi.,
broken
pressure, molecular nitrogen is cycle, describes the continuous
high
which then combines with cycle or the H,0water on, above and below the
into atomic nitrogen movement of
hydrogern to form ammonia. surface of the earth.
are two types of
Bacterial Fixation: There or
atmospheric
bacteria which can combine to form
dissolved nitrogen with hydrogen Cendenaln

ammonia. These are: Iaporatden

in the Preepliatten
• Symbiotic bacteria, c.g., Rhizobium
Trenaplrtlon

root nodules of leguminous plants.

c.g. Nostoc,
• Free living or symbiotic Ivepotlos

Azotobacter, Cyanobacteria etc. Snewmatl

process by which
Nitrification: It refers to the
or
ammonia is converted into nitrates nitrites. Oreundelet

Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed by

as
plants is converted into organic molecules such
make
proteins, DNA, RNA ctc. These molecules Hydrological Cycle
plant and animal tissuc. constant
Ammonification: Living organisms produce The mass of water on Earth remains fairly
as urea and uric over time, but the partitioning of the water into the
nitrogenous waste products such water
acid. These waste products
as well as the dead major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline on
and atmospheric water is variable, depending
remains of organisms are converted back into
bacteria. This proçess a wide range of climatic variables
inorganic ammonia by the on the earth is
is called ammonification. Almost 95% of the total water
chemically bound to the rocks and does not cycle.
Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back
denitrification. Out of the remaining 5%, nearly 97.3 % is in the
into gaseous nitrogen is called oceans and 2.1% exists as polar ice caps. Thus, only
near the
n Denitrifying bacteria live deep in the soil 0.6% is present as fresh water in the form
of
water table, as they like to live in an oxygen free atmospheric water vapours, ground and soil water.
medium. Denitrification is the reverse of nitrogen
The driving forces for water cycle are:
fixation. Solar Radiation
Gravity
N, In the
tlon
etmoephere
Dentrifle Steps Involved in Water Cycle
The water moves from one reservoir to another,
llphtning
rltlcati

such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the

Absorption of
N
In ntmsi
atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and
Nhrogeniaing
betede
Deoompeoere
subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through
DenltAs
different phases: liquid, solid (ice) and gas (vapour).
Significance of Water Cycle
ecn(NH) The water cycle involvesthe exchange of energy,
NH)
NItytng basere
NHtylng baeterla which leads to temperature changes. For instance,
Nhetoetten,
(NOI
NISrlfleotion
when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its
surroundings and cools the environment. When it
Nitrogen Cycle
condenses, it releases energy and warms the
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
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 Page 11 of 43

environment. These heat exchanges influcnce essential element, being a constituent of many
climate. proteins and cofactors.
The cvaporative phase ofthe cyclepurifies water, Minerals such as pyrite (FeS,) comprise the original
which then replenishes the land with fresh water. pool of sulphur on earth. Owing to the sulphur
Theflow of liquid water and ice transports minerals cycle, the amount of mobile sulphur has been
across the globe. continuously increasing through volcanic activity
It is also involved in reshaping the geological as well as the weathering of the crust in an
features of the carth,through processes including oxygenated atmosphere.
erosion and sedimentation. When SO?is assimilated by organisms, it is
The water cycleis also essential for the maintenance reduced and converted to organic sulphur, which
of life and ecosystems on the planet. is an cssential component of proteins.
However, the biosphere does not act as a major
Sedimentary Cycle sink for sulphur, instead the majority of sulphur
is found in seawater or sedimentary rocks,
Sulphur Cycle
especially pyrite rich shales and evaporite rocks
The sulphur cycle is the collection of processes by (anhydrite and baryte).
which sulphur moves to and from minerals (including
the waterways) and living systems.
BIOACCUMULATION
Steps of the Sulphur Cycle AND BIOMAGNIFICATIONstarn
Mineralization of organic sulphur into inorganic Pollutants, especially those which are not
forms, such as hydrogen sulphide (H,S)/elemental biodegradable tend to accumulate and move up the
sulphur, as well as sulphide minerals. trophic level. This occurs through the twin processes
Oxidation of hydrogen sulphide, sulphide, and of biomagnification and bioaccumulation.
elemental sulphur (S) to sulphate (SO2).Reduction
of sulphate to sulphide. Biomagnification
Incorporation of sulphide into organiccompounds Biomagnification, also known as bio amplification
(including metal-containing derivatives). or biological-magnification,refers to the increase

Sulfur ($o,, H,S)

in the concentration of pollutants as they move
Sunlight
In the atmoophere from one trophic level to the next.
Smeltlng burning
Preoiplallon
Volognization
of foaeil ueln In other words, biomagnification is a cumnulative
wai),
Animal
uplake
increase in the concentrations of a persistent
WeAnesng
otroake Sullate substance (e.g. pesticides, metals, etc.) in the tissues
(90,
runoff
In ferlitzer
Pan &anima
of organisms, as it moves up the food chain. The
Isunsce emnwRNOs
runot
Fetitlzer Sultate
contaminants include heavy metals such as
Letchine (so,
In eoll
Organie mercury, arsenic; pesticides such as DDT, and
uttur
BacterietBacterat
Oxidationreduotion
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) compounds.
Redueed
eulfur
For biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must
Sulfate MS Decomposltion
(80,) (,, be:
In water
Long-lived
Sulflde (e) Soluble in fats
In oedlmente
Mobile
Biologically active
Sulphur Cycle If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down
Significance of Sulphur Cycle before it can become dangerous. If it is not mobile,
it willstay in one place and is unlikely to be taken
Such biogeochemical cycles are important in up by the organisms. If the pollutant is soluble in
geology because they affect many minerals. They water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants
are also important for life because sulphur is an that dissolve in fats such as mnethyl mercury,
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 17
 Page 12 of 43

move up the food

Pesticides or heavy metals chain,
a
however, are retained for long time. If a pollutant into rivers
way or lakes, and are
work their eaten
may bio-magnify, but such as
fish, which in
isnot active biologically, it by aquatic organisms tur
won'tcause any problemns. are eaten by large birds, animals
or humans.
jin tiissuesThe
Bioaccumulation substances become concentrated or
organs as they move up the chain,
internal ie.
bioaccumulate and biomagnify. Hence, it
is
imperative to reduce the use of pesticides
The Minamata Convention on Mercury 2013
Contaminant Levels
TIME The Minamata Convention on Mercury is an
international treaty designed to protect human
health and the environment from anthropogenic
emissions and releases of mercury and mercury
compounds. The Convention is named after the
Contarninant Levels Biomagnification Japanese city of Minamata.
This naming is of symbolicimportance as the
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification city went througha devastating incident mercury of

poisoning The convention has prohibited a myriad

Bioaccumulation 4O of productscontaining mercury, and their production
Bioaccumulation occurs within an organism, when and trade will be altogether prohibited by 2020.
the concentration of a substance builds up in the These products include batteries, compact
tissues and is absorbed at a rate faster than it is fluorescent lamps, switches and relays, soaps and
removed. cosmetics, thermometers, and blood pressure
It can occur in different ways,either by consuming devices along with vaccines containing mercury, as
contaminated food or by absorption directly from well as dental fillings which use mercury amalgam.
air, water or soil. The biggest mercury release comes from coal-fired
power stations and use of mercury to separate
gold
Pesticide Pollution from ore-bearing rock.
The term pesticide is a composite term that includes
all chemicals that are used to killor control pests.
The excessive use of these chemicals causes
WHAT IS THE MINAMATA
pesticide pollution.
CONVENTION? tis an international agreement
that aimns to protect people and
the environment from mercury
REGIONAL TRANSPORT
The health sector is working to:
1EVAPORATION
SPRAY DRIET
WINDEROSION
1. bod pressere dervces that
RUNOFF ctai rrcury
Pronote
PESTICIDe
APPLICATION
2. dotalaalga
al heazh and reuce
n
DRAN
RON 3. girtstrateges to ptt
RUNOE eatscal ara

4. Mortot
pOvteah
ots
9
ari
ENTRY tec
THROUGH
SEEPAGE Weus
RECHARGE GROUNDATERSEEPAGE
FROM DISCHARGE Everyone can contribute:
STREAMs TO STREAMS
ord Neath
Organization
b
Pesticide Pollution
ite Minamata
Conventionis
18
DRISHTIPUBLICATIONS
 Page 13 of 43

6,000tonnes of DDT are still

produced annually
for the eradication of mosquitoes
and other pests.
After restricting DDT, the government eapila

began
encouraging the use of other persistent per 25
organic
pollutants (POPs), that were potentially even more hectars

harmful, such as HCH (later banned BIOCAPAOTY-

in 1997), Global zociy
endosulfan (later banned in 2011)and then
lindane
(restricted in 2012). es
tesit
India entered into an agreement with uuumnlumnluuluumw
the UN to
end the use of the insecticide DDT by 2020. 970 2000

BIOTIC POTENTIAL Carrying Capacity

Bioticpotential refers to the maximumreproductive Ecological Overshoot

capacity of an organism under optimum environmental When a population surpasses its carrying capacity,
conditions. It is often expressed as a proportional or
it enters a condition known as ecological overshoot.
percentage increase per year. Each species will have Populations
a
different bioticpotential due to variations in: always decline to (or below) the carrying
capacity. How long they stay in overshoot depends
The Species' Reproductive Span: How long an on how many
individual is capable of reproducing. stored resources are there to support
their inflated numbers.
The Frequency of Reproduction: How often an
individual can reproduce.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Litter Size: How many offspring are born each
time. Humankind benefits in a multitude of ways from
Survival Rate: How many offspring survive until ecosystems. The 2006 Millennium Ecosystem
reproductive age. Assessment (MA), has defined ecosystem services as
"the benefits people obtain from ecosystems" and has
Species Productive Capacity ecosystemn
divided system services in following four
High - bacteria, insects, mice,
and rabbits categories:
o
produce a large number of offspring in a Supporting
short time. Regulating
- Provisioning Cultural
Low larger species like elephants, tigers and
humans: Gestation period is long, so they Provisioning Services
produce only a few offspring during their
Ecosystem provides us with several products
lifetime, even if ideal food and environmental
conditions are given. which are essential for the very existence of life on the
earth. Products obtained from ecosystems include:
CARRYING CAPACITY Food (including seafood), crops, wild foods, and
spices
For a given region, carrying capacity is the Raw materials (including lumber, skins, fuel wood,
maximum number of individuals of a given species organic matter, fodder, and fertilizer)
that an area's resources can sustain indefinitely Genetic resources (including crop improvement
without significantly depleting or degrading those genes, and health care)
resources.
Water
The carrying capacity of an environment may vary
for different species, and may change over time
Minerals (including diatomite)
due to a variety of factors like food availability, Medicinal resources (including pharmaceuticals,
water supply, environmental conditions and chemical models, and test and assay organisms)
living space. Energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)i
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 19

Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA)
is an
Ecosystem-Based Adaptation or EbA
development
emerging strategy for community
management that seeks to use
and environmental to help
an ecosystem services framework
change.
communities adapt to the effects of climate
The Convention on Biological Diversity currently use
as
defines Ecosystem-Based Adaptation "the
to help
of biodiversity and ecosystem services
of climate
people adapt to the adverse effects
change", which includes the use of "sustainable
management, conservation and restoration of
ecosystems, as part of an overall adaptive strategy
that takes into account the multiple social,
economic and cultural co-benefits for local
communities".
The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
(TEEB) is an interrnational initiative to draw
attention to the global economic benefits of
biodiversity.
Its objective is to highlight the growing cost of
biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and
to draw together expertise from the fields of
science, economics and policy to enable practical
actions.
One motive for the study was to establish an
objective global standard basis for natural capital
accounting. Estimnates establish that biodiversity
and ecosystem damage is expected to cost 18%
of global economic output by 2050 and is
currently at over US$2 trillion.
TEEB presented its Final Report suite at the UN
meeting by the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) in Nagoya, Japan.
In October 2010 it released its report
"Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: a
synthesis of the approach, conclusions and
recommnendations of TEEB" and launched the
Bank of Natural Capital.
TEEB finds that investing in ecosystem-based
measures such as financing, Reducing
Emissions
from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(REDD) can thus assist in combating
climate
change and can also be a key anti-poverty
and
adaptation measure.
20
Page 14 of 43
Environment & Eoology and Disostor Mähögemens
fashion,
Ornamental resources (including
decoration
handicrafts, jewellery, pets, worship,
orchids.
and souvenirs like furs, feathers, ivory,
shells,etc.)
butterflies, aquarium fish,
Supporting Services
Ecosystem services "that are
necessary for the
production of all other ecosystem services" include
services such as nutrient recycling; primary production
and soil formation. These services make it possible for
as
the ecosystems to provide services such food supply,
flood regulation and water purification.
Regulating Services
These are the benefits obtained from the regulation
of ecosystem processes. These include:
Carbon sequestration and climate regulation
Waste decomposition and detoxification
Purification of water and air
Pest and disease control
Cultural Services
These include the non-material benefits that
people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual
enrichment, cognitive development, reflection,
recreation, and aesthetic experiences.
Cultural (including the use of nature as motif in
books, film, painting, folklore, national symbols,
architecture, advertising, etc.)
Spiritual and historical (including use of nature for
religious or heritage value or natural)
Recreational experiences (including
ecotourism,
outdoor sports, and recreation)
Science and education (including
the use of natural
systems for school excursions,
and. scientific
discovery)
Therapeutic (including ecotherapy,
social forestry
and animal assisted therapy)
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Natural Ecosystems
A natural ecosystem is an assemblage
ac of plants and
animals, which functions as a unit
and is capable
of maintaining its identity such as
forest, grasslarnd,
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
 Page 15 of 43

or an estuary. These ccosystems are totally

dependent on solar radiation for energy. Examples
of such ecosystems are forests, grasslands, occans,
lakes, rivers and deserts. They provide food, fuel,
fodder and medicincs.
There are two main categories of natural
ecosystems:
Terrestrial Ecosystem: Ecosystems found on
land, e.g. forests, grasslands, deserts, and
tundra.
Aquatic Ecosystem: Plants and animal
community found in water bodies. These can
be further classified into twosubgroups:
Amazon Rainforest
Freshwater ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes
and ponds. Distribution
Marine ecosystems, such as Oceans,
Tropical rainforests occur in areas having cmn high
estuaries, mangroves, corals. temperature and high humidity (above 200 of
Man-made Ecosystems rainfallper year).
Such forests are on
found both sides theof equator,
These are the artificial ecosystems which do not East
possess a self-regulating mechanismn and rely on especially in the Western Coast of India, South
the human efforts to sustain.
Asia, some parts of Africa, especially Congo Basin
and South America, especially Amazon Basin.
These can be agricultural lands or aquaculture
ponds which are dependent on solar energy, or
fossil fuel dependent ecosystems like urban
settlements or industrialecosystems.

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Forests cover about 30% of land on the earth.
Forests are large areas supporting rich growth of trees.
are
Depending on the climate and type of trees they
generally grouped into:
Tropical Rainforests
Boreal or North Coniferous Forests
Tropical Deciduous Forests
Mediterranean Forests (Chaparral)
trsle
Temperate Deciduous Forestsi ixte iT
Tropical Rainforest Soils
Rain forests play an important role in maintaining
the biological diversity, sequestering and storing
carbon, global climate regulation, disease control,
and pollination.
They have been called theworld's largest
pharmacy', because over one quarter of natural
medicines have been discovered within them.
Major Rainforests
Flora and Fauna
These forests have a very rich biodiversity. 9
Trees are tall, growing up to 50 to 60 m.
These forests also support epiphytes, like vines,
creepers, woody creepers etc.
and orchid
Despite the growth of abundant vegetation in a
tropical rainforest, soilquality is quite poor. Rapid
bacterial decay doesn't allow the accumulation of
humus.
The concentration of iron and aluminitum oides
is seen by the laterization process whichgives the
Oxisols a bright red colour.

DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 21

Evolution of Rainforests
into Four Distinct Layers of Trees
Emergent Layer: These trees are the tallest (100
to 240 feet) and are spaced wide apart, thus
taking full advantage of the sunlight.
Upper Canopy: In this layer, the trees grow 60
to 130feet and receive somne sunlight. It is in this
layer that most of the animals of the rainforest
live because of the abundant food supply found
here.
Understory: This layer comprises of small trees,
shrubs and plants. Because of the constant shade
and little air movement, the plants have evolved
to adapt to this environment of low light and
high humidity.
Forest Floor: The forest floor isthe bottom-most
layer and receives only 2% of the sunlight.
Because of the lack of light, few bushes grow
there, making it fairly easy for humans to walk
3G
through most parts. Only plants adapted to low
elight can grow in this region.
Four Distinct Layers of Trees
Plant Adaptations
many tropical rainforests is
A common feature of trees, i.e., a widespread
the distinct buttress roots of more efficient
root network on the surface for
uptake of nutrients. trunks, with
trees have straight
Most rainforest difficult for plant
smooth, thin bark, making it
trees.
parasites to hold on to the creepers and
are only 70%, the rest are
I Trees
climbers. t
whose roots are not
on the
Epiphytes are climbers
are long woody climbers.
grounds, while Lianas
Page 16 of 43
Envtronmoent & Ecology and Disastor Managoma.
Animal Adaptations
Small animals, including monkeys, birds, snakes
rodents, frogs, and lizards are common in
h
tropical rainforest.
Many of these animals and a multitude of insect
never set foot on the ground as they are arboreal
i.e., tree living.
Because there are so many animals competing for
food, many animals have adapted by learning to
eat a particular food eaten by no other animals.
Net primary productivity of Rainforests is 5000 dry
grams/m²/year, which is the highest of all
ecosystems on the earth.
Tropical Deciduous Forest
Distribution
as
The tropical deciduous forest also known
tropical dry forest, vine thicket, vine scrub and
monsoon deciduous forest is located at tropical and
subtropical latitudes.
The average temperature is around 27
to 30°C.
Rainfall is less than 200 cm. It is characterised by
season.
two distinct seasons -nmoist season and dry
Flora and Fauna
rainforests,
Though less biologically diverse than
tropical deciduous forests are home toa wide variety
cats,
of wildlife, including monkeys, deer, large
parrots, various rodents, and ground dwelling birds.
Mammalian biomass tends to be higher in dry
(deciduous) forests than in rain forests, especially
are lianas
in Asian and African dry forests. There
and epiphytes too.
Plant Adaptations
Deciduous trees predonminate in most of these
a
forests, and during the drought leafless period
occurs, which varies with species type. Though,
shrubs at third stratum are evergreen.
I The shedding of leaves allows trees such
as teak
and mountain ebony to conserve water during dry
periods. The shedding of leaves is called
abscission.
Height of trees ranges from 12
m to 30 m, hence
lower than rainforests.
Sal and Teak trees of Indian deciduous
forests form
like an umbrella
the forest canopy, but notcanopy
or
cauliflower as is seen in the of rainforests.
deciduous forests
Net primary productivity of dry
is 5000 dry grams/m²/year.
DRISHTIPUBLICATIONS
 Page 17 of 43

Animal Adaptations
Animals have large bodies trees utilize their broad, flat leaves to
and they are migratory collect
animals as forest lacks enough sunlight spreading out as they grow, but they need
prey locally to feed warmth and moisture to survive.
allthe animals. These forests are
biodiversity. hot spot of faunal They take advantage of the three mild seasons and
Elephants, horses, rhinos, lions, stop growing during the winter when food is not
are big bodied animals. buffaloes, and tigers available.
The forests also provide the
largest number of domesticated Deciduous trees generally have a thick bark to
animals. protect them during the cold winter months.
Temperate Deciduous Forests
Animal Adaptations
a Because of the relatively
harsh winters and scarce
food supplies, many animals migrate to warmer
climates during the fall. For example, many
Canadiarn songbirds fly south in the fall,
returning
in the spring.
The cold winter temperatures means
that most
animals reproduce seasonally, during the spring
and summer, not year round.
Sonme mammals such as bears
and mice dig out a
den or burrow, lowering their metabolism and
sleep during the cold months.

Temperate Deciduous Forests

Distribution
They occur mostly in northwest, central and eastern
Europe, eastern North America, northern China,
Korea, Japan, far eastern Russia and Australia.
These forests occur in areas of moderate climatic
conditions such as temperature ranging between Distribution of Temperate Deciduous Forest
10-20°Cwith a 6-month long winter, and an annual
rainfall of about 75 to 150 cm. Boreal or North Coniferous Forests
They have brown soil which is rich in nutrients.
Flora and Fauna
Common trees are oak, heath, chestnut, birch, pine.
These forests also show stratification and have a
storey of saplings, shrubs and tall herbs. Prominent
i grazers include deer, bison' and rodents. i
Black bear, raccoons, wild cats, wolves, foxes and
skunks are omnivores found in.these forests.
Invertebrate fauna comprises green flies, aphids,
certain moths and butterflies.
Plant Adaptations
irai.
Trees of deciduous forests shed their leaves in
autumn and new foliage grows in the spring. These io 8 Boreal Forest
in Alaska
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
 Page 18 of 43

winter hibernating in
Some animals
spend the near freezing,
temperature falls to
Distribution They
dens; their body
rate slows dramatically and they see
are also known as "Taiga'. their heart
Coniferous forests America
belt across North lifeless.
extend as a continuous the arctic tundra.
below
and North Eurasia these forests in the
counterpart of
There is no as there is no land at this
southern hemisphere
latitude. a
long, harsh winter, with
The climate is cold with 0°C. The soil is
mean annual temperature below
acidic and poor in
nutrients.
source
world's richest
Theconiferous forest is the
pulpwood for making
of softwood timber and over
paper, and it has been increasingly exploited
200 years. In this cool climate, forest of Boreal or North Coniferous Forests
the last can take Distribution
regeneration is painfully slow, and
centuries. Mediterranean Forests
Flora and Fauna
evergreen, Distribution
Coniferous forests are characterized by the
drought resistant and woody conifers,
e.g., spruce, The lands around the Mediterranean Sea form is
fir and pine trees which bear naked seeds in
cones. largest area where this climate type is found, but it
The animals found in these forests, are red squirrels, also found in most of California, in parts of Western
south-western South Africa,
deer, goat, mule, moose (elks),etc. and South Australia, in
The carnivores which feed upon them
are timber sections of Central Asia, and in central Chile. The
are Mediterranean climate is characterized by
warm to
wolves, lynxes, bear, etc. Some common birds
crossbill, thrushes, warblers, flycatchers, robinand hot dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.
sparrow.
Plant Adaptations
The spire shape of trees promotes shedding of
snow and prevents loss of branches.
The narrow shape of the needles reduces surface
area where water may be lost through transpiration.
waxy coating also helps protect them from
A

drying winds.
Fire is crucial to a healthy boreal forest. It removes
old, diseased trees along with the pests in their
bark. Mediterranean Forests
Some tree species, such as aspen and jack pine,
actually need fire to Flora and Fauna
stimulate their
reproductive cycle. The Mediterraneari forests, woodlands,
and scrub
Net primary productivity of Taiga forest is 700 dry biomes are closely associated with Mediterranean
grams/m²/year. climate zones.
Particularly distinctive of the climate are
Animal Adaptations sclerophyll
shrublands called maquis in the Mediterranean
Mammals in this climate have thick layers of fur,
basin, chaparral in California, matorral
and the boreal hasa wealth of fur-bearing animals fynbos in South Africa, and mallee in Chile,
such as lynx, sable, mink, marten and others. and kwongan
shrublands in Australia.s
24
DRISHTIPUBLICATIONS
 Page 19 of 43

Plant Adaptations
Sclerophyllshrubs have the Major Grasslands of the World
gaseous exchange ability to regulate the
with the environment Classification Grasslands Region
regulating the opening of stomata basedthrough on the
availability or scarcity of water. Pampas Argentina
The vegetation is hard and drought Prairie North America
Temperate
includes evergreens, cacti, olive and resistant and
Grasslands Veld South Africa
cork oak, among others. fruit trees, and
Steppe Central Asia
The shrubs have xerophytic structure such
thickened
cuticles, granular hairs, sunken stomata, etc. Down Australia
Small hard needles are an asset Savanna East Africa
in this environment, Tropical
as well as plants Llanos Venezuela
with small leathery leaves as they Grasslands
help reduce loss of moisture. Campos Brazil
Plants have adapted by storing water
thick bark or waxy coverings, through the
and by growing
thorns to prevent animals from eating them.
Fire is one of the key elements of this ecosystem.
Many members of the community rely on
to suppress larger competitors from shading the fire
them
out; usually larger competitors are not
well adapted
to fire conditions.
Net primary productivity of Mediterranean forest
is 700 dry grams/m/year.
Animal Adaptations
Animals have adapted to thissparse and
rough
terrain by becoming agile climbers, foraging over Grassland Ecosystem
lårger areas, and varying their diet to include the often
scrubby bush lands.
Tundra,
Tundr

Steppes
Pralries

Savana
Pampas Veldt

Grasslands of the World

Mediterrancan Forest Distribu tion
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
Grasslands are areas dominated by grasses. They
OCcupy about 20% of the land on the earth's surface.
Grasslands occur in both tropical and temperate
regions where rainfall is not enough to support the
growth of trees.
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
Temperate Grassland
Flora and Fauna
Grasses are the dominating vegetation
with
scattered drought resistant thormy trees.
Animals that can be found in temperate grasslands
of North Ameriça include bison, ipronghom
yantelope, rodents, badgers, coyotes, blackbirds,
 Page 20 of 43

Environment &
Ecology and Disas ter. Managemen

a
special adaptive digestive
system to proces.
grouses,quails, hawks, owls, snakes, grasshoppers,
the grasses. the
leafhoppersand spiders. a
of Because of the relatively short height of plants,
Grasslands also support large population are able to see a predator from a distance and ba,
rodents, reptiles and insects. been adapted to run swiftly
away from danger.
Plant Adaptations Grasslands
generally deep and Tropical
The soil of the grasslands is Savannas
way below ground Tropical grasslands are commonly called
fertile, with roots penetrating aro
in Africa and veld in Southern Africa. They
where moisture is retained during droughts. hot all vear
Perennialgrasses bud below ground just
or on the found close to the equator and areseasons.
round, with distinctive dry and wet
surface, making them resistant to drought, fire and
The rain is generally concentrated in 6-8 months
cold.
The stem is narrow and upright, reducing the and the remainingmonths have drought conditions.
effects of heat in the summer. Net primary These are found in eastern Africa, South America
productivity of temperate grassland is 600 dry Australia and India. Savannas form a complex
grams/m'/year. ecosystem with scattered medium size trees in
grasslands.
Difference between
Tropical and Temperate Grasslands Plant Adaptations
Tropical Grasslands Temperate Grasslands Different plants have adapted to grow in specific
They are located in the They are located in-the Savanna areas, depending on how much rainfall
tropical latitude in the temperate latitude in the ocCurs.
interior of the continent| interior of the continent Grasses in these areas have very deep roots that
in the trade wind belt. in the belt of Westerlies. remain unharmed during fires, rapidly sending up
The grass is tall (3 m) The grass is short, soft, new shoots once the rains return.
coarse and spiky, which juicy and nutritious. Shrubssurvive on the subterranean food reserves
is neither juicy nor These are treeless plains in their roots until the rainy season. Some trees
nutritious and there are as rainfall is less. survive the fires because of their fire-resistant bark.
scattered deciduous trees. Net primary productivity of tropical grassland is
They are knowWn as the The prairies are known 900 dry grams/m²lyear
"big game country' as as the 'bread baskets of
there are a variety of the world.' Animal Adaptations
herbivores and Savannas mammals tend to reproduce during the
carnivores. hospitable wet season when food is plentiful,
People practice nomadic Commercial farming affording sufficient nutrition for mothers to nurse
herding. and commercial herding their young ones.
is carried on. A relatively less dense cover of vegetation in the
Soil is not very fertile. Soil is very fertile. Savanna biome provides maximum mobility to the
They are known as They are known as prairies
animals, and thus Savanna grasslands have been
savannas in Australia in North America, steppes responsible for the origin and evolution of a great
and Africa and Llanos in Asia, pampas in number of large mammals like elephants, zebras,
and Campos in South Argentina and Downs in antelopes, etc., and birds such as bustards, ostrich,
emu, etc.
America. Australia.
Many burrowing animals go into a state of
Animal Adaptations dormancy (summer sleep called aestivation) during
The most predominant species found in the this period.
temperate grasslands are large grass-eating Many grassland mammals have front legs and
(herbivorous) who are able to take full advantage paws adapted to dig burrows where they can be
of the various grasses found there and who have safe from predators

26 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
 Page 21 of 43

There is nocompetition for food among

in the Savannas as animals animals Hot Desert Ecosystem
have developed
typical feeding habits and Distribution
mechanisms as per
vegetation. Deserts occupy one-fifth of the Earth's land
Role of Fire in Savanna surface and occur in two belts between 15° and
In order to prevent 35° latitudes in both the southern and northern
the areas from becoming
rainforests, most tropical grasslands are hemispheres.
maintained by frequent fires (both These bands are associated with the high solar
natural and
man-made) during the dry season, intensities that allareas in the tropics receive, and
beginning in
October. being too far from the equator to receive rain from
The fires clear out old dead grass the Inter-TropicalConvergence Zone ([TCZ).
and make way
for new growth. Most of the
plants survive Flora and Fauna
because they have extensive root systems
allow them to grow back quickly that Cacti, Acacia, Euphorbia and Prickly Pears are
aftera fire. The some of the common desert plants.
trees have thick bark which
helps them to Desert animals include shrew, fox, woodrats,
survive. The animals generally can run to escape
the fire. Some animals burrow deep rabbits; camels and goats are common mammals
into the in the desert.
ground to survive. Insects generally die by the
millions in afire, but thisprovides a feast to many Other prominent desert animals are reptiles, and
birds and animals. burrowing rodents and insects.
Fires provide opportunistic meals for birds and Plant Adaptations
other animals,who feed off the insects, mice and
Desert plants are xerophytes which are adapted to
lizards killed by the fire.
hot and dry conditions.
The fires produce a fine ash providing nutrients
Desert ecology is characterized by dry, alkaline
for the new growth of grass, increasing the forage
soils, low net production and opportunistic feeding
yield.
patterns by herbivores and carnivores.
Under moist conditions, fire favours grass over
trees, whereas in dry conditions, fire is necessary Net primary productivity of warm deserts is 200
to maintain grasslands against the invasion of dry grams/m²/year.
desert shrubs. Animal Adaptations
The animals are physiologically and behaviourally
DESERT ECOSYSTEM adapted to desert conditions.
They are fast runners, remain inactive during the
hot daylight hours, nocturnal and conserve water
by excreting concentrated urine.
Cold Desert Ecosystem
LQTATO Cold deserts are found in the Antarctic,Greenland,
Northern and Western China, Turkestan, and Iran.
Cold deserts canalso be found in certain mountainous
Narmib
Aurtrean areas, such as the Great Basin area of the western
Patngonan Iobaher
United States.
Desert Ecosystem Plant Adaptations
Though all deserts are dry and they have large Plants can vary from heights between 15 cm and
daily temperature variations, the deserts can be 122 cm, depending upon the area.
classified as either hot, such as the Australian desert, Most shed their leaves (deciduous) and have spiny
or cold desert, such as the Gobi desert. leaves.
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 27

Animal Adaptations
Deer inhabit some of these areas only in winter,
having grown a thick fur coat, and then migrate in
the summer scason, after shedding this coat.
Small mammals such as kangaroo rats, kangaroo
micc, pocket mice, grasshopper mice, antelope
ground squirrels, badgers, kit fox and coyotes, as
well as scveral lizards, all dig burrows to wait out
the cold weather.
Hot and Cold Desert
TUNDRA ECOSYSTEM
The word tundra means a "barren land" since they
are found in those regions of the
world where
environmental conditions are very severe, There are
two types of tundra - arctic and alpine.
Tundra Biome
Animal Adaptations
Distribution of Tundra Ecosystem
Page 22 of 43
Environment &
Ecology andI Disastor
Monogema
Arctic Tundra
Distribution
Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt
belc
the polar ice cap and above the tree line
in the
northern hemisphere. It occupies the northern
fringe of Canada, Alaska, European Russia,,Siberia
and island group of Arctic Ocean. The
tundrais
absent in the southern hemisphere.
Alpinet tundra occurs at high mountainsabove
the
treeline.Since mountains are found at all
therefore alpine tundra shows day and nigh
latibd
temperature variations.
Flora and Fauna
In the tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf
shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses, and lichens
and dwarf herbs.
The characteristic lithosols of Tundra biome mostly
support lichens and mosses. Scattered trees grow
in some tundra regions.
The ecotone (or ecological boundary region)
between the tundra and the forest is known as the
tree line or timberline.
Biodiversity is low as only 3% of plant species are
found in Tundra regions due to lack of sunlight
and severe cold.
Plant Adaptations
Tundra plants are small (usually less than 12 inches
tall) and low-growing due to lack of nutrients. This
is so because being close to the ground
helps keep
the plants from freezing, besides, the roots cannot
penetrate the permafrost.
The vegetation is cryophytes i.e. such vegetations
are well adapted to severe cold condition.
Plants are dark in colour - some are even red - this
helpsthem absorb solar heat.
Net primary productivity of Tundra biome varies
from 228 to 142 dry granms per square meter per
year depending upon the location.
Mammals of the tundra region have large body
size and small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat
from the surface. The body is covered with fur for
insulation.
Insects have short life cycles which are completed
during a favourable period of the year.
HTI

Migration and hibernation are examples of
behavioural adaptations used by animals
in the
Arctic tundra. Polar Bears go
into hibernation.
Reindeers (Caribou) are migratory
animals.
Melting of Permafrost
About one third of the world's soil-bound
carbon is
permafrost of taiga and tundra areas. When the
permafrost melts, it releases carbon in the form of
carbon dioxide and methane, both of
which are
greenhouse gases.
Alpine Tundra
Alpine tundra is located around the world on high
altitude mountains above the tree line. These
windswept areas are characterised by an abundance
of barren rocks or thin soils. In the well-drained
soil,
the growing season is only 180 days. There are very
few wildlife species found in the Alpine Tundra,
and
these include:
Mammals: pikas, marmots, mountain goats, sheep,
elk.
Birds: ptarmigan, kea parrots and other grouse like
birds.
Insects: springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies.
Alpine Tundra
Plant Adaptations
Alpine plants are generally darker in colour in order (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions. A
to absorb more heat and grow low to the ground.* typical lake has distinct zones
Only low growing shrubs, cushion plants, small
forbs survive here, producing large, bright flowers
(but only every 4-5 years), as wellas lushmeadows
of sedges and grasses. Most are slow-growing and
long-lived perennials.
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
Page 23 of 43
Animal Adaptations
Yellow bellied marmots and ground squirrels
hibernate for eight months of the year. Pikas hide
from the weather under rocks, storing food in piles
to graze on during the cold winters.
Ptarmigans manage to survive year-round, whereas
the New Zealand kea parrot will move to lower
ground.
Kea is able to eat a leaf buds, roots, berries, fruit,
seeds, blossoms, nectar and insects.
Mountain goats,elk and bears move lower further
down the mountain to take advantage of the
available food supply there.
AQUATICECOSYSTEM
Aquatic ecosystems refer to plant and animal
communities occurring in water bodies. Aquatic
ecosysterms are classified on the basis of salinity into
the following 3 types:
Freshwater: It has low salt concentration of less
then 5 ppt (parts per thousand).
Marine: It has a high salt concentration of 35 ppt
or above. Example, shallow seas and open ocean.
Brackish water: Salt content is between freshwater
and marine water, i.e. 5 to 35 ppt. They are estuaries,
mangroves, salt marshes, etc:
Freshwater Ecosystem
Water on land which is continuously recycled, and
has low salt content is known as fresh water. Its
study is called limnology.
It can be classified into:
Stagnant or still water (Lentic): For example,
pond, lake, bogs and swamps.
Running water (Lotic): For example, springs,
mountain brooks, streams and rivers.
Lake Ecosystem
A lake ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants,
animals and microorganisms, as well as abiotic
of biological communities:
Littoral Zone: It lies near shore area where sunlight
penetrates all the way to the sediment and allows
aquatic plants i.e. macrophytes to gro grow. Light
levels of about 1% or less of surface values usually
define this depth.
29
 Page 24 of 43

Environmont Ecology and Diaaster

&
Monogom

Euphotic Zone: The 1% light level also defines tlhe

zone are invertcbrates, such as Dipterans
euphotic zone of the lake, which is the layer from larvae (midges, mosquitoes, blackflies,clc.)ot
c

the surface down to the depth where light levels crustaccans.

st
become too low for photosynthesizers. In most
lakes, the sunlit euphoticzone oceurs within the
epilimnion. The higher plants in the littoral zone,
in addition to being a food source and a substrate LITTORAL ZONE LIMNETIC
ZONE (OPEN HATEO
TERRCSTRIAL
for algae andinvertebrates, providea habitat for PLANTS EMCRGD
PLANTS

fish and other organisms tlhat are very different FLOATING

PLANTS

from the open water environment. sVBPERGED

Limnetic Zone: The limnetic zone is the open water

PLAITS
LUPNTIC

area where light docs not generally penetrate all

the way to the bottom. OENTHIC2ONE
BenthicZone: The bottom sediment, known as the
benthic zone, has a surface layer abundant with
organisns. Most of the organisms in the benthic Lake Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem in India

Freshwater are terrestrial aquatic ecosystems. Lakes, flood ponds, reservoirs and rivers are its important
components. The total freshwater area of India is about 7.6 million hectares.
Lakes: A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, surrounded by land, apart from any river
or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. These can be naturally formed deep water bodies
e.g. Sultanpur lake, Chilka lake, Batkal lake, or man-made water bodies for storage of water e.g, Bhojtal
lake, Bhimtal lake etc.
Flood Plains: A floodplain is a gernerally flat area of land next to a river or stream, stretching from the
banks of the river to the outer edges of the valley. Flood Plains are the places that undergoperiodic
flooding as a river channel overflows with flood water, i.e., natural areas constituting shallow and seasonal
water bodies. Bank of large rivers have flood points.
Reservoir: The reservoir is man-made areas holding water irrigation and human use, e.g., reservoirs
formed by dams used for irrigation.

Ecotone
Ecotone is a zone of junction between twoor more diverse ecosystems. For example, the mangrove forests
which represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Some more examples of ecotone are
-grasslands, wetlands, estuaries, river banks, etc.
Characteristics of Ecotone
It may range from being very narrow or quite wide.
It has the conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence ecotone is a zone of tension.
It is linear as it shows progressive increase in species composition of one in coming community and a
simultaneous decrease in species of the other outgoing adjoining community
E A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of the adjoining
Communiies.
Edge Effect: Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species are
much greater in this zone than either community. This is called edge effect.
i (Contd.)
 Page 25 of 43

A
Ecotone
occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are krnown as edge
Edge Species: The organisms which
species.
ecosystems that
Ecotones:A transltional region between two adjacent
one and also
contains some of the specles and chgracteristics of ench
contalns species oflts own.

bodsioa
Transitional Aquatic
Land eoerste
ecosystem ecosystem

Ecotone Ecosysterm I
Ecosystem I
(marshland)

Ecotone
In the terrestrial ecosystems, edge effect is especially applicable to birds. For example, the density of song
birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between the forest and the desert.

WETLANDS Important Wetland Types

It is the transitional land between terrestrial and Marshes
aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually Marshes are areas with shallow water that are
at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow mostly grasslands. Marshes can be freshwater
or
a can
water. Wetlands are ecotone between landand waterSaltwater and the amount of water in marsh
change with the seasons and in the case of salt water
Characteristics of Wetlands marshes, can also change with the tide.
It should be covered by water or waterlogged soil Plants: Freshwater marshes have soft stemmed and
for at least seven days during the sowing season. herbaceous plants, like grass, shrubs and wildflowers.
It should have adopted plant life (hydrophyte). Plants found in saltwater marshes include reeds,
grasses and shrubs like rushes, sedges, and saltbush.
There should be hydric soil (i.e. not sufficient
oxygen available for some plants).

Types of Wetlands
Marine/Coastal Wetlands
Saline Water: Coral Reefs
Saline or Brackish Water: Lagoons, Estuarine
waters
Saline, Brackish, or Freshwater: Karst and other
Subteranean hydrological systems
Fresh Water: Coastal freshwater lagoons
Inland Wetlands
Fresh water: Inland river deltas, rivers/ creeks/
streams (M), freshwater springs, oases
(Y).it: 91:) EAMárshes
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 31:
 Page 26 of 43

Environment &
Eoology and Dlsastor. Monogeme

Animals: Marshes are home to a variety of animals, Animals: Swamp wildlife includes alligator,
including beavers, alligators, newts, shrimp and snakes, a variety insects, bobcats, beavers,larg
of

turtles. diversity of birds and river otter.

Location: Freshwater marshes often occur along Location: Swamps are found in low-lying areo.
the edges of lakes and rivers. Saltwater marshes near rivers or coastalareas. Terairegion in norther.
OCcur along coastlines, inlets and estuaries where plains are examples of swamps. Swarnp soil i
they are affected by tides, and often have a source poorly-drained and water logged.
of fresh water from surrounding land, rivers or
Bogs and Fens
groundwater.
A bog is a freshwater wetland,usually formed in
Swamps an old glacial lake with a spongy peat
base. Most of
Swamps are slow moving streams, rivers or the bogs water comes from rain. A fen is a freshwater
isolated low areas with more open and deeper water peat wetland covered mostly by grasses,
sedges, reeds,
than marshes. and wildflowers of high pH (alkaline) ground water.
Plants: Swamps have trees (for example, cvpress Bogs and tens are found mostly in cold climates and
trees in freshwater and mangrove
trees in salty absent in India.
water) and woody shrubs rather than grasses Plants: Bogs have soil that is low in nutrients.
herbs. In African swamps, papyrus is
and
the main plant. Evergreen trees and shrubs, and a floor covered by
a thick carpet of
sphagnum moss. Some species of
carnivorous plants are also found in bogs.
Animals: There are only a few animals
that are
found in bogs. These include red deer, Dragonflies
and birdssuch as grouse and plover.

Swamps
Bogs and Fens
How Wetlands are Different
Basis from Lakes?
Lakes
In terms of depth National Lake Conservation Wetlands
Programmne Wetlands have depth less
considers lakes with standing water than 3 metre
more than 3 metres, of depth rich with nutrients and
with little or no aquatic macrophytes.
abundant
vegetation (macrophytes).
Stratification Lakes have thermal
stratification, such as
Wetlands do not
epilimnion, metalimnion and have thermal
Regulation hypolimnion.
stratification.
Lakes are thermally regulated.
Water level changes Water level changes in lakes are Wetlands are regulated
low. by the wind.
In wetlands, the water
are relatively level changes
Productivity Productivity of lakes is low. large.
Biodiversity Wetlands have high
Biodiversity of lakes is not productivity.
much.
ImportancesLakes are less important with respect to Wetlands have high productivity.
ecosystemfunctions Wetlands are
compared to wetlands. important. comparatively more
32
DRISHTIPUBLICATIONS

Ecosystem Functions of Wetlands
Wetlands provide for the four ecosystem
services
which are, provisioning, supporting,
regulating and
recreation services, as listed below:
Food Supply: The range of products derived
from
wetlands include food such as fislh,
rice and
cranberries; medicinal plants; peat
for
gardens; poles for building materials; fuel and
and grasses
and reeds for making mats, baskets and thatching
houses.
Clean Water: Wetlands act as
the carth's filters. world. For example, on the Cobourg Peninsula (the
These are like highly efficient sewage treatment
works, absorbing chemicals, filtering
pollutants
and sediments, breaking down suspended solids
and neutralising harmful bacteria.
Shoreline Protection: Worldwide, an estimated
200 million people who live in
low-lying coastal
regions are at potential risk of catastrophic flooding,
hurricanes, cyclones and tsunamis.
Coastal Wetlands: Reefs, mangroves
and salt
marshes act as frontline defences against potentialhreats to Wetlands
devastation. The roots of wetland plants bind the
shoreline together, resisting erosion by windand
waves and providing a physical barrier
that slows
down storm surges and tidal waves, therèby
reducing their height and destructive power.
Reservoirsof Biodiversity: Wetlarnds are the most
biologically diverse ecosystemson earth. Hundreds
of thousands of animal species, 20,000 of them
vertebrates, are living in wetland systems. The
discovery rate of fresh water fish is at 200 new
species per year.
Genetic Diversity: Many species in wetland
systems are unique due to the long period of time
that the ecosystem has been physically isolated
from other aquatic sources. The number of endemic
species in Lake Baikal in Russia classifies it as a
hotspot for biodiversity and one of the most bio-
diverse wetlands in the entire world.
A
Refuge for Migrating Birds: The world's
wetlandsoffer a welcome stop, offering Reasons for Depletion of Wetlands ,ylbiqst
protection and food for nigratory birds. The
abundance of invertebrates found within the It waste, pollutants (industrial effluents, domestic
mud is a food source for migratory waterfowl.
Amur Falcon migrates from Siberia to South
African wetlands while takinga stopinNagaland.
during northern winter.
snecological imbalance by altering thé population of
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
Page 27 of 43
Materials and Medicines: Wetlands yield fuel
wood for cooking, thatch for roofing, fibres for
textiles and paper making, and timber for building,
Medicines are extracted from their bark, leaves,
and fruits,and they also provide tannins anddyes,
used extensively in the treatnent of leather.
Cultural Value: Throughout history, humans have
gathered around wetlands and these areas have
played an important part in human developrnent
and are of significant religious, historical or
archacological valuc to many cultures around the
world's first Ransar site), traditional Aboriginal
owners still conduct an active ceremonial life and
undertake semi-traditional hunting and gathering
in this coastal wetlands.
Recreation Areas: Wetlands everywhere provide
important leisure facilities - fishing, shell collecting
and bird watching, swimming and snorkelling,
hunting and sailing.
Half of the world's wetlands have disappeared
since 1900. Development and conversion continue
to pose major threats to wetlands, despite their
value and importance.
Conversion of wetlands for commercial
development, encroachment, drainage schemes,
extraction of ninerals and peat, overfishing,
tourism, siltation, pesticide discharges from
intensive agriculture, toxic pollutants from
industrial waste, and the construction of dams and
dikes,often in an attempt at flood protection, are
major threats to wetlands everywhere.
Alien invasive species also have severe impacts on
local aquatic flora and fauna. q
Increase in temperature is causing polar ice to
ai and sea levels to rise.
melt
This in turn is leading to
a1 shallow
wetlands being swamped and some species
90,of mangrove trees being submerged and drowned.
Hoot el_erttuld isgtesu igtisl kyea
Excessive
agricultural runoff, etc.)being dumped into
wetlands beyond the recycling capacity.
Habitat destruction and deforestation create
wetland species.oui

Conversion of wetlands for agriculture and
encroachment by public and mafia.
Overfishing and fish farming (aquaculture).
Overgrazing in marshy arcas.
Removal of sand from soils.
scas makes
Removal of sands from near beds near
the wetland vulnerable to wave action and tidal
bore.
Eutrophication of Wetlands
Eutrophication is the enrichment of a standing
water body with nutrients such as phosphorus and
an
nitrogen. Eutrophication is characterized by
excessive plant and algal growth due to the
increased availability of one or more limiting
growth factors needed for photosynthesis, such as
sunlight, carbon dioxide, and nutrient fertilizers.
In eutrophic lakes, there is increased photosynthetic
activity through algal blooms. This results in cloudy
water covered by a layer of algae and cyanobacteria.
Eutrophication is a leading cause of the impairment
of many freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems
in the world. Eutrophication is of two types:
Natural Eutrophication: It occurs naturally
over cernturies as lakes get older and are filled
in with sediments and nutrients. It occurs when
the flow of nutrients ison a seasonal basis.
Cultural Eutrophication: Human activities
have accelerated the rate and extent of
eutrophication through both point-source
discharges and non-point loadings of limiting
nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus,
into aquatic ecosystems with dramatic
consequences for drinking water sources,
fisheries, and recreational water bodies.
Process off Eutrophication
Fertilisers, untreated sewage and other nutrient
rich run-off go into nearby water bodies, causing
an increase in the nutrient levels. This causes
phytoplankton to grow and reproduce more
rapidly, resulting in algal blooms. This bloom of
algae disrupts normal ecosystem functioning.
The algae take up all the oxygen in the water, leaving
none for other marine life. This results in the death
of many aquatic organisms such as fish, which need
the oxygen in the water to live. The bloom of algae
may also block sunlight from photosynthetic marine
plants under the water surface, ut
34
Page 28 of 43
di
When these dense algal blooms eventually
microbial decomposition severely
deplete
a or anoxi
dissolved oxygern, creating hypOXic suppor
'dead zone' lacking sufficient oxygen to
most organisms, hence all the aquatic organisms
die due to lack of
oxygen. This leads to eventutl
degradation of aquatic ecosystems.
Harmful AlgalBlooms (HABs)
or
Analgal bloom is a rapid increase accumulation
in the population of algae in freshwater or marine
water systems, recognized by the discoloration
in the water from their pigments. But not all algal
blooms are harmful. Most blooms, in fact, are
beneficial because the tiny plants are food for
animals in the ocean. In fact, they arethe major
source of energy that fuels the Ocean food web.
n Harmful algal blooms, or HABs, occur when
ou:colonies of algae grow out of control while
producing toxic or harmful effects on people,
fish, shellfish, marine mammals, and birds.
HABs are caused due to 'overfeeding'. This
oCcurs when nutrients from point and non-point
sources are released into nearby water bodies,
and build up at a rate that overfeeds' the algae
that exist normally in the environment.
HABs are often associated with large-scale
marine mortality events and have been associated
with various types of shellfish poisonings. People
often get sick from eating shellfish containing
toxins produced by these algae. Airborne HABs
ot toxins may also cause breathing problems and,
in some cases, trigger asthma attacks in
Susceptible individuals.
An algal bloom, often called Red tide or Brown
tide, is caused by a few species of dinoflagellates
Loeand the bloom takes on a red or brown colour.
Though the red tide is a mnisnomer as algal
blooms are not always red, they are also not
associated with the tides.
Harmful Algal Blooms
DRISHTIPUBLICATIONS
 Page 29 of 43

Effects of Eutrophication
Decreased Biodiversity: Sites may be added to and removed
When dissolved oxygen from the
levels decline to hypoxic Record only with the approval of the
levels, fish and other Contracting
marine animals suffocate. Parties in which they lie. Chilka lake in Odisha
As a result, creatures was added to the Montreux
such as fish, shrimp, Record, but removed
and especially immobile later on.
bottom dwellers die off.
New Species Invasion: List of Ramsar Sites in India
Eutrophication may cause
competitive release by making State/Union
abundant a
limiting nutrient. This process causes normally Territory Site bl fsssT
species composition of ecosystems. shifts in the Andhra Pradesh Kolleru Lake
an increase in For instance,
nitrogen might allow new, Assam Deepor Beel
competitive species to invade Bihar
and out-compete Kabartal Wetland
original inhabitant species.
Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary
Increased Toxicity: Some algal
blooms,
called"nuisance algae" or "harmful algalotherwise Gujarat Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary
are toxic to plants blooms," Wadhvana Wetland
and animals. Toxiccompounds
they produce can make their way up Khijadiya Wildlife Sanctuary
chain, resulting in animal mortality. the food
Sultanpur National Park
Haryana Bhindawas Wildlife
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Sanctuary
The Ramsar Convention (formally, Chandertal Wetland
on Wetlands of International the Convention Himachal
Importance, especially Pradesh Pong Dam Lake
as Waterfowl Habitat) an
is international treaty for Renuka Wetland
the conservation and sustainable utilization of Hokera Wetland
wetlands, recognizing the fundamental ecological Jammu and
Kashmir Wular Lake
functions of wetlands and their economic,
cultüral, Surinsar-Mansar Lakes
scientific, and recreational value.
It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, Ashtamudi
where Kerala Vembanad Kol Wetland
the Convention was signed in 1971.
At the centre of the Ramsar Convention's Sasthamkotta Lake
philosophy is the "wise use" of wetlands, which is Tso Moriri
Ladakh
maintenance of ecological character within the Tso Kar
context of sustainable development. Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Wetlands
The Ramsar Convention works closely with five Nandur Madhameshwar
Maharashtra
other organisations known as International Lonar Lake
Organization Partners (IOPs). These are Birdlife Manipur Loktak Lake
International, the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the International Odisha
Chilka Lake1 08
Bhitarkanika Mangroves
Water Management Institute (IWM), Wetlands
Harike Lake
International and WWF International.
Montreux Record, under the Ramsar Convention, Kanli Lake
Ropar Lake

*
isa register of-wetland sites of international
s importance where changes in ecological character
have occurred, are occurring,or are likely to occur
Punjab Beas
tntre
Conservation
Keshopur-Miani
l as aresult of technological developments, pollution totsho CommunityYKeservE
slor other human interference. It is maintained as LtheitcabisNangal Wildlife Sanctuary
part of the Ramsar List mns
Tts t (Cont.)
DRISHTIPUBLICATIONS
35

List of Ransar Sites ln India
State/Union
Territory Site
Keoladeo Ghana National
Rajasthan I'ark
Sambhar Lake
TamilNadu I'oint Calimere
Tripura Rudrasagar Lake
Uttarakhand Asan Barrage
Upper Ganga kiver (Brijghat
to Narora Stretch)
Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary
Parvati Aranga Bird
Sanctuary
Saman Bird Sanctuary
Uttar I'radesh
Samaspur BirdSanctuary
Sandi Bird Sanctuary
SarsaiNawar Jheel
Sur Sarovar
Haiderpur Wetland
Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary,
West Bengal East Caleutta Wetlánd
Sunderban Wetland
Wetlands International
It is a globalorganisation that
works to sustain and
restore wetlands
and their resources
biodiversity. It is an indeperndent, for people and
global organisation, not-for-profit,
supported by government
NGO membership from and
around the world.
Based mostly in
the developing world, it
regional, national orproject has 20
offices in allcontinents
and a head office in Ede,
the Netherlands.
Bird Life International
Bird Life International
is a global partnership
conservation organisations of
that strives to conserve
birds, their habitats
working with people and global biodiversity,
towards sustainability
Use of natural resources, in the
It is the world's
largest
organisations, with overpartnershipof conservation
120 partner organisations.
Birdlife International
is the official
authority for birds, Red List
for the International
Conservation of Nature. Union for
36
Page 30 of 43
Envtronment &
Eoology ond Dlsaefer Manageman
Migratory Blrds and Flyways lProgtamme
The flyways concept has been adopted by Birdl.k
|International to help coordinate global efforts
conserve migratory birds. The geographical area
covered by a migratory bird over the course of i
annual cycle, encompassing breeding and non.
breeding grounds and the connecting migration
route, is known as a flyway.
Wetlands in India
Natural wetlands in India consist of
the hioh.
altitude Himalayan lakes, followed by wetlands
situated in the flood plains of the
major river systens.
saline and temporary wetlands of the
arid and serni.
arid regions, coastal wetlands
backwaters and estuaries, mangrove such as lagoons.
swamps, coral
reefs and marine wetlands, so on. Wetlands in
and
India occupy 58.2 million ha
including areas under wet
paddy cultivation. Indian
wetlands are grouped as:
Himalayan Wetlands
Western Himalayas: Pangong
Tso, Tso Morad,
Chantau, Noorichan, Chushul
Marshes. and Hanlay
Kashmir Valley: Dal, Anchar,
Malga, Haukersar and KranchuWular, lakes.
Haigam,
Central Himalayas: Nainital,
Naukuchital. Bhimtal and
Eastern Himalayas:
Numerous wetlands in Sikkim,
Assam, ArunachalPradesh,
Meghalaya, Nagaland
and Manipur, Beels in the
valley. Brahmaputra and Barak
Indo-Gangetic Wetlands
The Indo-Gangetic
wetland system in floodplain is the
largest
Indus in the west toIndia, extending from the river
includes the wetlands Brahmaputra in the east. This
Indo-Gangetic plains. of the Himalayan terai and the
Coastal Wetlands
The vast intertidal areas,
along the 7500 km mangroves
long coastline in West and lagoons
Andhra Iradesh, Tamil Bengal, Orissa,
Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka.
Maharashtra, and
Gujarat. Mangrove Goa.
Sunderbans, West Bengal forests of
Islands, coral reefs and Andaman and
of Nicobar
Lakshadweep and Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar.
Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS

Deccan Wetlands
It includes a few natural wetlands,and innumerable
small and large reservoirs, and several water storage
tanks in almost every village in the region.
Problems with Indian Wetlands
Wetlands in India, as elsewhere are increasingly
facing several anthropogenic pressures. The rapidly
expanding human population, large-scale changes in
land use/land covers, burgeoning development
projects and improper use of watersheds have all
caused a substantial decline of wetland resources of
the country. Some of the problems are listed below:
Agricultural conversion
Direct deforestation in wetlandsiM
Hydrological alteration
Inundation by dammed reservoirs
Alteration of upper watersheds
Degradation of water quality
Groundwater depletion
Introduced species arnd extinction of native biota
Wetlands Conservation in India
Wetlands conservation in India is indirectly
influenced by an array of policy and legislative
measures. Article 48A of the Constitution says that the
State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife
of the country. Article 51A of the Constitution makes
it a Fundamental Duty of every citizen "to protect and
improve the natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers and wildlife".
Some of the key legislations are given below:
The Indian Fisheries Act - 1857
The Indian Forest Act - 1927
Wildlife (Protection) Act-1972
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act -
1974
Territorial Water, Continental ShelE, Exclusive
Economic Zone and otherMarine Zones Act-1976
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act - ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
1977
Maritime Zone of India (Regulation and fishing by
foreign vessels) Act - 1980
Forest (Conservation Act)-1980
Environment (Protection) Act - 1986
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
Page 31 of 43
Coastal Zone Regulation Notification - 1991
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 1991
-
National Conservation Strategy and Policy
Statement on Environment and Development-1992
National Policy and Macro level Action Strategy
on Biodiversity-1999
National Biodiversity Action Plan-2008
National Environment Policy-2006
India is also a signatory to the Ramsar Convention
on Wetlands and the Convention on Biological
Diversity. World Wetlands Day, which is celebrated
each year on 2d February marks the date of the adoption
of the Convention on Wetlands on 2nd February 1971.
New Wetland (Conservation
and Management) Rules, 2017
The new Wetland (Conservation and
Management) Rules, 2017, as notified by the
Union Environment Ministry, prohibit a range
of activities in the wetlands like setting up and
expansion of industries, waste dumping and
n
discharge of effluents. These rules replace the
2010 version of the rules.
The new rules stipulate setting up of a State
Wetlands Authority in each state and union
territory. These authorities will be headed by the
state's environmnent minister. They will also
include one expert each in the fields of wetland
ecology, hydrology, fisheries, landscape planning
and socioeconomics to be nominated by the state
government.
Under the new rules, the powers have been given
to the state governments so that protection and
conservation work can be done at the local level.
Central government has mainly retained powers
regarding monitoring.
To oversee the work carried out by states, the rules
stipulate for setting up of National Wetlands
Committee, which willbe headed by the MoEFCC
Secretary, to monitor implementation of these
rules.
An estuary is a place where a river or a stream
opens into the sea. It is a partially enclosed coastal
area at the mouth of theriver where its fresh water
carrying fertile silt and runoff from the land mixes
with the salty sea water.
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Environment &
Ecology and Disastor. Managemen

They are distributed

over the east and west coast
It represents an ecotone between
freshwater and Nicobar.
a of salinity and island of Andaman and
marine ecosystem, and shows variation Since mangroves are located between the land and
freshwater.
due to mixing of scawater with sea, they represent the best example of the ecotone.
Estuaries are very dynamic and productive
ecosystems since the river flow, tidal range and Characteristics of Mangrove Ecosystem
changes.
sediment distribution continuously include
Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal The mangrove forests diverse
bays,tidal marshes, lagoons and deltas. composition of trees and shrubs, where:
Ingeneral the plhytoplankton of estuaries is diatoms, Plants are well adapted to high salinity (halophytic)
dinoflagellates, green algae, blue-green algae. Resistant to tidal effect.
are
E Towards the sea coast of the estuaries there Tolerant to high temperature.
large algae and sea grasses. Near the mouth of the Roots bear pneumatophores (or aerial roots), which
rivers and deltas there are mangrove forests. is an aerating system.
All the plants and animals in the estuaries are
subjected to variations in salinity to which they are Mangrove Adaptations
adapted (osmoregulation). Oxygen diMuses through
Salt dands in
he urface
Layers of leaves sereie at

Estuaries are richer in nutrients than fresh waters

eNCretas
(salt
he spongy Bssue of th
pneumalophore lo the
or marine waters therefore; they are highly resl of he plant. Salk may accumutate
in
older lesres
productive and support abundant fauna. The before hy fall

seashore provides feeding and breeding ground

for a number of birds also. levret hgh te
Waler at

Estuaries have been damaged due to urbanization, Poeumatophores

(breathing roos arise )
Prop roots desçend rom the
provide addtiorel support
b
trunk

industrialization and population growth. he cable roots.

(rom

Aquaculture activities such as prawn seed

harvesting has caused considerable damage.
Further, pollution due to industrial effluents has
caused eutrophication.
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
Benefits of Mangrove
Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral (near
the seashore) forest ecosystem. These forests grow
in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats,
tidal creek backwaters (current less, coastal waters
held back on land), marshes and lagoons of tropical
and subtropical regions.
Cable roos ridite frombe frunk. Specatzsd root mebirnes in some
Fina Jeedngroots grow of hose radinl
roots and creale a stabia pattorm
menpeoves prevent salt tonrng
heir rools (sal cluoers)
Mangrove Adaptations
Mangrove forests are nesting and migratory sites
for hundreds of bird species, as well as home to a
wide variety of reptile, amphibian, and mammal
species. For example, the Sunderban mangroves
of India and Bangladesh - the largest mangrove
forest on Earth - are home to Bengal tigers, spotted
deer,saltwater crocodiles, fishing cats, and various
dolphin species.

MAMSaON

Mangroves Mangrove Distribution Around the World

38 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS

Fine, anoxic sediments
mangroves act as sinks for a
deposited under the
variety of heavy metals
which are scavenged from the overlying seawater
by colloidal particles in the sediments.
Mangroves not only clean air, but also are sinks of
significant amounts of carbon in the
sediments.
It also provides timber and
plantproducts and
support ecotourism activities.
Mangroves in India
Indian mangroves are distributed along east
and the west coasts and Andaman and Nicobar the
Islands.
Mangroves along the east coast are more luxuriant
and considerably diverse due to the presence
nutrient rich deltas formed by the of
rivers Ganga,
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.
Mangroveyof lndia
Mangroves of India
Threats to Mangrove Ecosystem in India
Mangroves in India have been reduced to more
than 50% during the last forty years and more than
35% of the world's mangroves are already gone. They
are subjected
toboth natural as well as anthroP°genc
threats. Natural calamities such as cyclones, tsunami
and anthropogenic activities such as construction of
houses and markets causing soil erosion and soil
sedimentation has lead to their destruction. For
example, in the Sunderbans collection of tiger prawn
seeds for trade has greatly affected the other animals
Major threats to mangrove forests and their
habitats include:
Clearing: Mangrove forests are cleared to make
room for agricultural land, human settlements and
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
Page 33 of 43
infrastructure (such as harbours), and industrial
areas. More recently, clearing for tourist
developments, shrimpaquaculture, and salt farms
has also taken place.
Overharvesting: Mangrove trees are used for
firewood, construction wood, wood chips, and
pulp production, charcoal production, and animal
fodder.
River Changes: Dams and irrigation reduce the
amount of water reaching mangrove forests,
changing the salinity level of water in the forest. If
salinity becomes too high, the mangroves cannot
survive. Freshwater diversions can also lead to
mangroves drying out. In addition, increased
erosion due to land deforestation can massively
increase the amount of sediment in rivers. This can
overcome the mangrove fores's filtering ability,
leading to the forest being smothered.
Overfishing: The global overfishing crisis facing
the world's oceans has effects far beyond the
directly overfished population. The ecological
balance of food chains and mangrove fish
communities can also be altered.
Destruction of Coral Reefs: Coral reefs provide
the first barrier against currents and strong waves.
When they are destroyed, the stronger-than-normal
waves and currents reaching the coast can
undermine the fine sediment in which the
mangroves grow.
Pollution: Fertilizers, pesticides, and other toxic
man-made chemicals carried by river sstems from
sources upstream can kill animals living in
mangrove forests, while oil pollution can smother
mangrove roots and suffocate the trees.
Climate Change: Mangrove forests require stable
sea levels for long-term survival.
They are therefore
extremely sensitive to current rising sea levels
caused by global warming and climate change.
Initiatives of the Government to Protect
Mangroves
India has drafted a 'National Strategy andAction
Plan' to sustainably mitigate
the mangroye andu
9 coastalecosystem.
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notification under
the Environmental Act, 1986, declared all coastal
stretches up to 500 m from the high tide line as
2-CRZ, which is very essential for conservation and
sustainable management of mangrove forests.
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Envtronment & Eoology and Dlsaster,Aanogy

a exoskeleton that protectsthe

of Environment, Forest and Climate to create hard, durable
Ministry
Change put restrictions on the expansionof shrimp soft, sac-like bodies.
farming.
In Andhra I'radesh, Forest Department han formed
Eco-Development Committees and Van
Samrakshan Smithis for joint implementation of
projects in mangrove areas.
Maharashtra became the first coastal state to
declare a state mangrove tree species named
Sonneratia albaor mangrove apple as a symbol to
enhance conservation of mangroves.
Mangroves for the Future
"Mangroves for the Future (MFF" is a regional
initiative, being coordinated by United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) and the
International Union for Conservation of Nature Coral Reefs
(IUCN). Coral Polyps: Each individual coral is referred to
MFF is a unique partner-led initiative to promote as a polyp. New coral polyps
live on the calcium
investment in coastal ccosystem conservation for carbonate exoskeletons of their ancestors,
adding
sustainable development. MFF provides a their own exoskeleton to the existing
coral structure.
platform for collaboration among
the many Zooxanthellae: Tropical coral polyps
have small
different agencies, sectors and countries
which algae, or zooxanthellae, growing inside
are addressing challenges to them. This
coastal ecosystem is a cooperative, or symbiotic venture.
and livelihood issues. The goal is to promote an gets shelter and food (in The algae
the form of nutrients from
integrated occan-wide approach to captured plankton) from the polyp, while
management and to building the coastal the polyp
resilience of also gets some food in return from
photosynthesis (turning light energy the
algae via
ecosystem-dependent coastal communities.
It focuses on tsunami-hit into food). from the sun
countrics such as India,
Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, The algae also give corals
Sri Lanka and
u
Thailand. the algae become stressed, their vibrant colours. If
temperature becomes too such as if the water
Under this initiative, the document on high, they leave the polyp.
Strategy and Action Plan' (NSAP) 'National This exposes the white,
for India has calcium
of the coral and is what we carbonate skeletons
been drafted in consonance
with national policies call coral bleaching.
i and programmes of India.
MF programme in India provides focus on
promoting conservation
coastal and marine and management of The symbiotic relationship
biodiversity,
ecosystems are at center-stage, while mangrove
on three important Corals exerete thelr wastes
aspects: coastal restoration; to tiny algae.
and Integrated coastalzone coastal livelihoods; The tiny algae produce
nutrltlon for coral polyps.
management.
CORAL REEFS
Cabon dhoatde
Airete
Coral reefs are Phouphate
large
composed of the skeletons underwater structures
invertebrate animals. of coral, which are Amn cts
The coral species that marine photoynthess
reefs are known as build coral coral
because they extract hermatypic or "hard" corals algae
calcium carbonate Mutuallstke
nutrtlonal relattonshlp
from seawater Mutualistic Nutritional
40 Relationslhip between
Coral and Aloge
DRISHTI
PUBLICATIONS

Cold-Water Corals
Cold-water corals live at depths
of 40 m down to
2,000 m, in water temperatures as
do not have symbiotic algae low as 4°C.They
so they do not living in their polyps
need sunlight to survive.
They feed solely by capturing food
particles from
the surrounding water. Their polyps
tend to be
much bigger than tropical corals.
Deep-sea coral reefs are made up
of only a few
coral species, but they provide a
other animals, including sea home for many
worms, starfish, fans, sponges,
brittle stars, sea urchins,
crustaceans, and fish.
Deep coral reefs, also known scierntifically as
mesophotic coral reefs.
Ecosystem Functions of Coral Reefs
Coral reefs provide close to US$30 billion each
year in goods and services.
As pointed out by UNEP's
World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
coral reefs
provide all four types of ecosystem services, as defined
by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment:
Provisioning: ie., fisheries, pharmaceuticals,
construction materials
Supporting: i.e., nutrient cycling, nursery habitats
Regulating: i.e., coastal protection from storm
Surges and waves
Cultural: ie., tourism, spiritual and aesthetic
appreciation
Coral reefs are among the most productive and
diverse ecosystems on Earth. About 25% of all known
marine species rely on coral reefs for food, shelter and
breeding. Sometimes coral reefs are referred to as "the
rainforests of the sea" for their biodiversity.
Coral Bleaching
When corals are stressed by changes in conditions
such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the
symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them
to turn completely white. This refers to coral bleaching.
Ifthe stress-caused bleaching is not severe, coral have
been known to recover. If the algae loss is prolonged
and the stress continues, coral eventually dies.
Causes of Coral Bleaching
Global Warming: The increased temperature of
sea water due to global warming increases the
solubility of calcium carbonate and corrodes the
DRISHTIPUBLICATIONS
Page 35 of 43
coral reefs. El Nino effect, which leads to a general
warming of eastern pacific, is also responsible for
coral bleaching.
Acidification: Acidification of ocean water, due to
dissolution of carbon dioxide in it, decelerates the
calcification process and makes it difficult for
polypsto create their skeletons. It also corrodes the
coral reef.
WWF Works to Protect Areas Rich in Corals
WWF is working on major global policy issues
facing reefs, particularly climate change, and also
with communities, governments and partners
around the world to reduce the threats to reefs
including in the following regions:
Coral Triangle: The Coral Triangle, the global
centre of marine biodiversity, is a 6 million km?
area spanning Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Timor Leste and
the Solomon Islands. Within this nursery of the
seas live 76% of the world's coral species,
6 of
the world's 7 marine turtle species, and at least
2,228 reef fish species.
Mesoamerican Reef: Known as the jewel of the
Caribbean, the Mesoanmerican Reef is a rich
tapestry of coral reefs, mangrove forests, coastal
wetlands and diverse marine life. Stretching
nearly 1,000km from the northern tip of Mexico's
Yucatan Peninsula and the Caribbean coasts of
Belize and Guatemala to the Bay Islands off
northern Honduras, the Mesoamerican Reef is
the largest reef system in the Americas and only
second in the world after the Great Barrier Reef.
East African Coast: From coastal forests and
savanna woodlands to mangroves
and coral
reefs, East Africa's coastline is one of the
continent's most biologically diverse areas. WWF
is working to conserve these important habitats,
which are home to abundant wildlife and sustain
the livelihoods of millions of people. The coasts
of Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique offer a rich
mosaic of coral reefs, mangroves, lowland forests
and savanna woodlands.
South Pacific Coast: In the southwestern corner
of the Pacific lie the islands of Melanesia, which
include New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago,
the Great Sea Reef of Fiji, New Caledonia, the
Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, as well as the iconic
Seascape of the Great Barrier Reef.
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Environment &
Ecology and Disaster. Monagomen

Destructive Storms: More frequent and intense

storms may also damage the reef structure more Coral Reefs in India
significantly, and the coral regrowth may not be
able to keep pace.
|Fringing Reefs
Ozone Depletion: Ozone depletion allows the
passage of ultraviolet radiation, which damages
|Atol! Recfs
coral in shallow areas.
Overharvesting and Destructive Fishing: The
overharvesting of fish on a reef disturb the entire
food web and leads to the overgrowth of macro algae INDIA
(seaweed) which ultimately suppress the growth of Gulf of
reefs. Destructive fishing techniques, anchors,
gear (like nets) can damage reefs physically; oneand
KMtch
Munbai
of Bay of Bengal
the most harmful practices, dynamite fishing, can
Arabian Goa
destroy an entire reef in one act.
Sea
Water Pollution: Coral reefs thrive in clean Andaman
and
clear water. Pollution can affect the health of reefs. Palk
Islands
Too many nutrients due to pollution Lakshadwecp
Baycs
impede the Islands Nlcobar
growth and reproduction of coral. Galfof
Mannar Sri Lanka Islands
Unsustainable Tourism: Unsustainable
leads to the interference in the coral ecosystem,tourism Coral Reefs in India
the form of increased pollution and in Gulf of Mannar: Fringing reefs with a chain of 21
destruction of
coral habitats, and destroy the coral islands from Rameswaramn
Coastal Development and
reefs. Thoothukudi (Tuticorin)in the in the north to
south. This part of
Building and road construction, Sedimentation: the gulf forms part of the Gulf of Mannar
mining, biosphere
and farming along coastal areas can logging, reserve.
erosion. As a result, sediment all lead to Lakshadweep: Exclusively coral atolls
particles end up in with 36
the ocean and cover coral reefs, islands, of which 10islands are
coral by depriving it of sunlight. smothering the inhabited.
Status of Corals in India
Coral Mining: Mining can also
Sometimes coral pieces are destroy coral reefs. According to a study done by
Society for Andaman
bricks or road-fill; sand and removed for use as and Nicobar Ecology (SANE),
coral reefs are used to
limestone derived fromn coral bleaching in 1998 around there has been mass
make cement for new 30-70% bleaching Andaman reefs and
buildings. Corals are also mined to around
ElNino led temperature Nicobar islands due to
and jewellery. make souvenirs
rise.
Epizootics: It means invasion
coral ecosystem which leads to of pathogens in the Snowflake Coral
such as coral plague, white the spread of diseases Colonies of snowflake
coral
bands black bands, etc. invasive species, was recently (Carijoa riisei), an
Coral Reefs in India Thiruvananthapuram found off the coast of
pose a serious and Kanyakumari.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands: threat to the marine ecologyIt could
of Bengal, exclusively fringing Situated in the Bay region. In India, it has
islands, most of these reefs of about 500 of Mannar, the Andaman been reported from of the
islands have a healthy the
and Nicobar Islands, Gulf
biodiversity. of Kutch and Goa. Gulf
Gulf of Kutch: Exclusively According to the
reefs.The reefs are relatively consists of fringing Oceanography (NIO)study by the National
a large range temperature less developed due to based Institute of
of and high salinity. The of the Kavaratti at Goa, the coral reefs
harbours have less biodiversity.
The entire Gulf of Lakshadweep have and Kadmat islands
of
Kutch is also known as a
marine national park.
icoral bleaching duesuffered great
to bacterial damage fromn
warmer sea temnperatures. diseases and
42

DRISHTIPUBLICATIONs

The corals in the Gulf of Kutch
have bleached to
siltation.
Initiatives of the
Government to protect Coral Reefs
Establishment of Indian Coral
Reefs Monitoring Accelerator Platform
Network (|CRMN) for effective implementation
of
Management Action Plans on identified
areas, training coral reef
and capacity building in taxonomy,
biophysical methods and scuba
diving so as to
monitor the health of coral reefs
and promotion of
research on identified thrust areas.
Establishment of Database Network and Website
on Coral Reefs.
Establishment of National Coral Reef Research
Centre at Port Blair.
Inclusion of Corals in Schedule Iof the Wild Life
Protection Act, 1972.
Implementation of UNDP-PDF-B Project on
Management of Coral Reefs in Andamans.
Implementation of India-Australia Training vulnerable islands. Artificial reefs made of conerete,
and Capacity Building ((ATCB) Project On
Coral Reefs.
The coral bleaching Alert System (CBAS) has been
initiated by INCOIS since 2011. This model uses Mannar. This was successfully demonstrated in
the satellite derived Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
in order to assess the thermal stress accumulated
in the coral environs. This information yields in, MOUNTAIN ECOSYSTEMS
drawing the early signs of the intensity and spatial
extents of coral bleaching.
Development of sustainable alternative livelihoods
and viable options for coastal populations to reduce
the pressure on reef resources.
Management of coral reef areas should be improved
by increasing the efficiency in use of funding.
Increase enforcement of existing laws such as those
relating to coral mining, while ensuring that
populations are not deprived of ivelihood options.
Research into current conservation status of food
fishes, lobsters, sea cucumbers, ornamental fishes
and other reef-associated biota.
Appropriate regulation mechanisms to ensure that
fisheries are sustainable, possibly though
t introduction of licenses and certification schemes. athe water cycle. Deforestation disrupts this role of
LDevelop/mechanisms for managing coral reef
i information, including monitoring data and ensure
3
that these are avvailable to coral reef managers and
decision makers.
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
Page 37 of 43
Coral reef management should be seen much more
'as a way of life' rather than a series of short-term
projects.
Global Coral Reef Research and Development
It is an innovative action-oriented initiative aimed
at creating a global research and development
programme to advance research, innovation and
capacity building in all facets of coral reef
conservation, restoration and adaptation.
It will strengthen ongoing efforts and commitments
made to enhance coral reefs conservation and stop
their further degradation.
India intends to take measures to enhance coral
reef conservation under the National Coastal
Mission Programme.
Artificial Reefs to Save Sinking lslands
Recently, Tamil Nadu deployed artificial reefs near
have been found capable of preventing further
erosion of ecologically sensitive islands and
regenerating coral biodiversity in the Gulf of
Vaan island in the Munnar region.
Mountains have unique characteristics and can be
studied as distinct biomes. Due to relative
inaccessibility, mountains often stand as a place of
rich biodiversity. As height increases, soil, climate,
flora and fauna change similar to moving from
equator to pole. Climate changes from tropical to
alpine tundra and forests from tropical-subtropical
to coniferous to alpine tundra and snow.
Mountains perform many ecological services for
us. Apart from being home to many endemic
species of plants and animals, they are sanctuaries
for animals driven from
the plains. ol ethsanT
Mountains are sources of streams and rivers, hence
provide water to us and play an important role in
mountains.
The international centre for integrated mountain
development in Nepal works for, sustainable
development of mountains. ia a
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Environment &
Ecology and Disasfer, Managemem

The power generation, water supply and ultimately

Himalayan Ecosystem
the whole economy of southern India adversely
is
The Himalavas have attainedaunique personality affected.
owing to their high altitude, steep gradient and Logging, urbanisation, tourism, encroachment.
rich temperate flora. The forests are very dense
with extensive growth of grass and evergreen tall livestock, grazing, building dams and power
trees. Oak, chestnut, conifer, ash, pine, deodar are plants, mining, construction, including forest fir
abundant in the Himalayas. often caused by human beings leading
degradation of forests and loss of biodiversity are
The Himalayan region includes many climatic
tropical, subtropical, temperate, major threats to Western Ghats.
systems:
and alpine. Protection Efforts by the Government
The lower levels of the mountain range suPport Setting up Protected Area Networks (PANs): The
many types of orchids. On the eastern slopes, Government of India established many protected
rhododendrons grow to tree height. areas including 2 Biosphere Reserves,
16 National
Some of the serious issues that need urgent Parks to restrict human access, 47 wildlife
attention are accelerated forest loss, soil erosion, sanctuaries and over 100sacred groves.
resource degradation, and loss of habitat and
biodiversity. Centre Marks New No-go Zone for Western
Ghats: The Centre recently came up with a fresh
Climate Change is a major source of worry, and
needs intensive study because of its potential for draft notification for the Western Ghats, declaring
56,825 sq km area as a
severe ecological damage. 'no go zone for high
polluting human activities like mining quarrying,
Western Ghats big constructions, thermal power plarnts and certain
Western Ghats (also known as Sahyadri) types of industries.
mountain range that runs parallel to the western isa Gadgil Committee Recommendations: The
coast of the Indian peninsula. Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP)
The range extends designated the entire hill range as an Ecologically
1600km through 6 states-Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Sensitiye Area (ESA).
Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
It is aUNESCO World Heritage
Kerala:io The panel, in its report, has classified the 142 taluks
Site and is one of
the eight "hottest hotspots" of biological in the Western Ghats boundary
diversity Sensitive Zones (ESZ) 1,2
into Ecologically
in the world. and 3.
The Western Ghats are home to ESZ-1 being of high
four tropical and priority, almost all
subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregions - developmental activities (mining,
North Western Ghats moist the power plants, etc.) were thermal
deciduous forests, restricted in it.
North Western Ghats montane The Gadgil Committee report
Westerm Ghats moist deciduousrain forests, South present system of governance specifies that the
forests, and South
Western Ghats montane rain environment should be of the
forests. changed. It asked for
These mountains act as a bottom to top approach,
rain
southwest monsoon, leading to barrier during more powers to local decentralization and
source to 58 major ample rainfall and authorities.
rivers. The commission recommended
Threats to Western Ghats Ecosystem a Western Ghats constitution of
as a statutory Ecology Authority
The past 30 years have seen
the onslaught of authority under the (WGEA),
"development" activities Environment Forest Ministry of
population, both of which and an increase in and
Environment (Protection) climate change under
fragile resource system. have exhausted this The major criticism Act, 1986.
faced by the Gadgil
The recurring drought report was that was more Committee
it
Karnataka, Maharashtra, in the provinces of and not in tune with environment-friendly
Kerala and Tamil the ground
clearly indicates watershed Nadu Recommendations were realities.
degradation. cited as impractical
implement. to
44

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Fcosystem

Kasturirangan Committee
Instead of the total area of Recommendations: No thermal power project be allowed and
37% (i.e., 60,000 sq.
the Western Ghats, only
km.) of the
total area hydropower projects be allowed only after
under ESA under Kasturirangan be brought
report. detailed study.
Complete ban on mining, Red industries, i.e. which are highly polluting
quarrying and sand
mining in ESA. Distinguished be strictly banned in these areas.
between cultural
and natural landscape.
The central government has adopted the group
Current mining areas in the ESA report disregarding Gadgilpanel's report and
should be
phased out within the next five years, or at the implementing it by declaring 37% of the
time of expiry of mining lease,
whichever is Western Ghats as Ecologically Sensitive Area
earlier.
(ESA).

Eco Sensitive Zones

They are notified by the Ministry of Environment.
3 of the Environment
Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) under section
(Protection) Act, 1986.
ESZ areas act as "shock absorbers" to
the protected areas by regulating and managing
around such areas. The width of the ESZ could go up to 10 the activities
Several activities, though not prohibited kms around the protected area.
in ESZs are subject to regulation.
Regulation of activities in the ESZ maintains the "carrying
capacity of the area while ensuring sustainable
development of the region", taking into consideration "the needs
and aspirations of the local people".
Asper 2015
data, there are 29 ESZs in the country. Some of them are
the following:
Dahanu Taluka Ecofragile Area
Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Area
Mahabaleshwar-Panchgani Eco-Sensitive Area
Matheran Eco-Sensitive Area
Mount Abu Eco-Sensitive Area

PREVIUS YEARS' QUESTIONS

1. "If rainforests and tropical forests are the lungs 3. Chickpea 4. Clover
of the Earth, then surely wetlands function as its 5. Purslane (Kulfa) 6. Spinach
kidneys." Which one of the following functions Select the correct answer using the code given
of wetlands best reflects the above statement? below:
(2022)
(a) 1,3 and 4 only (b) 1,3,5 and 6 only
(a) The water cycle in wetlands involves surface (c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only (d) 1,2, 4, 5 and 6
runoff subsoil percolation and evaporation. 3. Consider the following pairs:
(2022)
(b) Algae form the nutrient base upon which
fish, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles Wetland/Lake Location
Hokera Wetland
1.
Punjab
and mammals thrive.
eli (c) Wetlands play vital role in maintaining 2.Renuka Wetland HimachalPradesh
3. Rudrasagar Lake -
sedimentation balance and soil stabilization. Tripura
(d) Aquatic plants absorb heavy metals and 4. Sasthamkotta Lake Tamil Nadu
excess nutrients. How many pairs given above are correctly
2. Which of the following are nitrogen-fixing matched?
plants? (2022) (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs
1. Alfalfa 02, Amaranth (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs

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Environment &
Ecology and Disaster., Managemen

4. "Biorock technology" is talked about in which Select the correct answer using the code
given
one of the following situations? (2022) below.
(a) Restoration of damaged coral reefs (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 2, 3, 4 and only
5
(b) Development of building materials using (c) 1,3 and 5 only (d) 1, 2,3, 4 and5
plant residue 10, Which of the following have species
that o
(c) ldentification of areas for exploration/ establish symbiotic relationship with
other
extraction of shale gas organisms? (2021)
(d) Providing salt licks for wild animals in 1. Cnidarians 2. Fungi
forests/protected areas 3. Protozoa
5. What is blue carbon? (2021) Select the correct answer using
the code given
(a) Carbon captured by oceans and coastal below.
ecosystems (a) 1 and 2only (b) 2 and 3 only
(b) Carbon sequestered in forest biomass and (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
agricultural soils 11. The vegetation of savannah
consists of grassland
(c) Carbon containèd in petroleum
and natural with scattered small trees, but extensive areas
gas have no trees. The forest development in such
areas is generally kept
(d) Carbon present in atmosphere or a combination of somein check by one or more
6. In the nature, which conditions. Which of
of the following is/are most the following are such conditions?
likely to be found surviving on a surface without (2021)
soil? 1. Burrowing animals and termites
(2021) 2. Fire
1. Ferrn 2. Lichen
3. Moss
3. Grazing herbivores
4. Mushroom 4. Seasonal rainfall
Select the correct answer using
the code given 5. Soil properties
below.
Select the correct answer using
(a) 1 and4 only (b) 2 only the code given
below.
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1,3 and 4
(a)1 and 2
7. Consider the following (b) 4 and 5
inds of organisms: (c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1,3 and 5
(2021) 12. "Leaf litter decomposes
faster any other
1. Copepods 2. Cyanobacteria biome and as a result the soilthan in
3. Diatoms almost surface is often
4. Foraminifera bare. Apart from trees,
largely composed of plarnt the vegetation is
tWhich
food
of the above are primary producers
in the into the canopy vicariously, forms that reach up
chains of oceans? by climbing the trees
or growing as
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 3
epiphytes, rooted on the upper
and branches of trees." This
(c) 3 and 4 is the most likely
(d) 1and 4 description of
8. In case of which one (2021)
of the following bio (a) Coniferous forest
geochemical cycles, the weathering
of (b) Dry deciduous forest
main source of release of nutrient torocks is the
rf
Cycle? enter the (c) Mangrove forest
(2021) (d) Tropical rain
(a) Carbon cycle
(b) Nitrogen cycle 13. Consider the forestn 3r
following
(c) Phosphorus cycle (d) Sulphur cycle 1. Under
Ramsar
statements:3 (2019)
on the part of Convention, it is mandatory
9. Which of the following are
detritivores? (2021)
1. Earthworms the Government
2. Jellyfish protect and conserve of India to
3. Millipedes all the wetlands in
4. Seahorses territory of India. the
S
5. Woodlice 2. The Wetlands
Management) Rules, (Conservation
2010 were framedand
46 by
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 Page 41 of 43

Ecosystem

the Government of India based on the| 3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal
recommnendations of Ramnsar Convention. phyla than those hosted by tropical
3.The Wetlands (Conservation and rainforests.
Management) Rules, 2010 also encompass Which of the statements given above is/are
the drainage area or catchment regions of correct?
the wetlands as determined by the authority. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
(a) 18. Which one of the following is the best description
1
and2only (b) 2 and 3 only
1,2 and 3 of the term 'ecosystem? (2015)
() 3 only (d)
14. Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) (a) A community of organisms interacting with
in the desert areas to inhibit water loss? (2018) one another
1. Hard and waxy leaves (b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by
2. Tiny leaves living organisms
3. Thorns instead of leaves (c) A community of organisms together with
Select the correct answer using the code given the environment in which they live
below: (d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area
(a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only 19. Which one of the following is the correct sequence
(c) 3only of a food chain? (2014)
(d) 1,2and 3
15. Consider the following: (a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings
(2018)
1. Birds 2. (b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
Dust blowing
4. Wind blowing (c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans
3. Rain
Which of the above spread plant diseases? (d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
(a) and3 only
1 20. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1,2 and 4 only
to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? (2014)
(d) 1,2, 3 and 4
1. Volcanic action
16. Which of the following statements best describes
"carbon fertilization"? 2. Respiration
(2018)
3. Photosynthesis
(a) Increased plant growth due to increased
4. Decay of organic matter
concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Select the correct answer using the code given
(b) Increased temperature of Earth due to below:
increased concentration of carbon dioxide (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
in the atmosphere. (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2,3 and 4
t (c) Increased acidity of oceans as a result of 21. With reference to 'Eco-Sensitive Zones', which of
increased concentration of carbon dioxide the following statements is/ are correct? (2014)
in the atmosphere. 1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas
that are
(d) Adaptation of all living beings on Earth to declared under the Wildlife (Protection)
the climate change brought about by the Act, 1972.
increased concentration of carbon dioxide 2. The purpose of the declaration of
in the atmosphere. Eco
Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of
17. Consider the following statements: (2018))
|tt human activities in those zones except
1. Most of the world's coral reefs are in tropical agriculture.
waters. Select the correct answer using the
code given
2. More than one-third of the world's coral below:
reefs are located in the territories of (a)
1 only.: (b) 2 only
Australia, Indonesia and Philippines. (c) Both1 and
2eit (d) Neither 1 nor 2
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-Evironment&Ecology and
Disastor1
Manogomem.
22. Which of the following have coral reefs? (2014) Which of
1.
the statements given above
Andaman and Nicobar Islands correct? is]are
2. Gulf of Kachchh (a) 1only
(b) 1
and 2 only
3. Gulf of Mannar (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
4. Sunderbans 27. In the grasslands, trees
do not replace the grac
Select the correct answer using the code given as a part of an ecological succession
because
below: of
(2013)
(a) 1, 2 and3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (a) insects and fungi
(c) 1and 3 only (d) 1,2, 3 and 4 (b) limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients
23. Which of the following leaf modifications
occurs/ (c) water limits and fire
occur in desert areas to inhibit water loss?
(d) None of the above
(2013) 28. Which one of the following is the correct sequence
Hard and waxy leaves
1.
of ecosystems in the order of decreasine
2. Tiny leaves or no leaves productivity? (2013)
3. Thorns instead of leaves (a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves
Select the correct answer using the codes given (b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes
below: (c) Mangroves, grasslands, 1lakes, oceans
(a) 1and 2 only (b) 2 only (d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3 29. What would happen if phytoplankton of an ocean
24. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, is Completelydestroyed for some reason? (2012)
which of the following kinds of organism is/are 1, The ocean as a carbon sink would be
known as decomposer organism/orgarnisms? adversely affected.
(2013) 2. The food chains in the ocean would be
1. Virusis 2. Fungi adversely affected.
(in 3. Bacteria 3. The dernsity of ocean water would drasticaly

Select the correct answer using the codes given. decrease.

below: Select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only below:
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
25. Which of the following adds/add nitrogen to
30. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes
(2013)
the soil? the following major categories of ecosystem
1. Excretion of urea by animals services-provisioning supporting, regulating
2. Burning of coal by man preserving and cultural. Which one of the
following is supporting service? (2012)
to stn 3. Death
of vegetation
(a) Production of food and water
Select the correct answer using the codes given
(b) Control of climate and disease
below: (c) Nutrient cycling and crop pollination
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1,2 and 3 (d) Maintenance of diversity
(c) 1 and 3 only
ecosystems, 31. With reference to the wetlands of India, consider
26. With reference to food chains in
statements: (2013) the following statements: (2012)
consider the following 1. The country's total geographical area under
1 food chain illustrates the order in which
A

upon eachother.. the category of wetlands is recorded more

a
chain of organisms feed populations in Gujarat as compared to other States.
Ov 2.Foodchains are found within the 2. In India, the total geographical area of
of a species. coastal wetlands is larger than that of
inland
3 food chain illustrates the numbers
A of each9 Wetlands. leobr
eaten by others.
organism which are
Si DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS

48
 Page 43 of 43

Ecosys

Which of the statements

given above is/are (c) The mangrove trees are tall with dense
correct?
(a) 1 only canopies and serve as an excellent shelter
(c) Both 1 and 2
(b) 2 only during a cyclone or tsunami
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) The mangrove trees do not get uprooted by
32. Consider the following:
(2011) storms and tides because of their extensive
1. Photosynthesis roots
2. Respiration 36. From the point of view of evolution of living
3. Decay of organic matter organisms, which one of the following is the
4. Volcanic action correct sequence of evolution? (2010)
Which of the abOve add carbon (a) Otter - Tortoise - Shark
dioxide to the (b) Shark - Tortoise - Otter
carbon cycle on Earth?
(a) 1 and 4 only (c) Tortoise - Shark - Otter
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2,3 and 4 only
(d) 1,2,3 and 4 (d) Shark- Otter - Tortoise
33. In the context of ecosystem 37. A pesticide which is a chlorinated hydrocarbon
productivity, marine
upwelling zones are important as they increase is sprayed on a food crop. The food chain is: Food
the marine productivity by bringing crop - Rat - Snake - Hawk. In this food chain,
the (2011) the highest concentration of the pesticide would
1. decomposer microorganisms to
the surface. accumulate in which one of the following?
2. nutrients to the surface.
3. bottom-dwelling organisms to
(2010)
the surface. (a) Food crop (b) Rat
Which of the statements given aboye
correct? is/are () Snake (d) Hawk d

38. Some species of plants are insectivorous. Why?

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (2010)
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only (a) Their growth in shady and dark places does
34. If a tropical rain forest is not allow themn to undertake sufficient
removed, it does not
regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical photosynthesis and thus they depend on
deciduous forest. This is because (2011) insects for nutrition.
(a) the soil of rain forest is deficient (b) They are adapted to grow in nitrogen
in nutrients
(b) propagules of the trees in a rain forest have deficient soils and thus depend on insects
poor viability for sufficient nitrogenous nutrition.
(c) the rain forest species are
slow-growing () They cannot synthesize certain vitamins
(d) exotic species invade the fertile soil of themselves and depend on the insects
rain forest digested by them
35. The 2004 Tsunami made people realize (d) They have remainied in that particular stage
mangroves can serve as a reliable satety that of evolution as living fossils, a link between
hedge autotrophs and heterotrophs
against coastal calamities. Howw do mangroves
function as a safety hedge? 39. With reference to the evolution of living
(2011)
(a) The mangrove swamps separate the human
organisms, which one of the following sequences
sea a zone is correct? (2009)
settlements from the by wide in
nor venture out (a) Octopus - Dolphin - Shark
which people neither live
(b) The mangroves provide both food and (b) Pangolin - Tortoise - Hawk
medicines which people are in need of after (c) Salamander - Python - Kangaroo
any natural disaster (d) Frog - Crab -
Prawni
ANSWER KEY
bepioitydiib ganshazde
1. (c) 2. (a)3. (b)»sh4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (c)o 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (a)
ir8.(c)9.
17. (d)ol 18. (c)
(c) 10. (d)
19, (a) bn 20.- (c)
21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (d)n 24. (b)rsl 25. (c) 26. (a) »i
27. (c) 28. (c) 29. (a)x30. (c)
31:(a) 32. (c)33. (b) rti 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (b)37. (d) 38. (b)aU 39, (c)i3kügoAR

DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
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