Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Comparative characterization of the durability behaviour of textile-

reinforced concrete (TRC) under tension and bending
Kanhchana Kong a, Zyed Mesticou a, Marie Michel b, Amir Si Larbi a,⇑, Angel Junes b
a
Univ Lyon, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Saint-Etienne (ENISE), Laboratoire de Tribologie et de Dynamique des Systèmes (LTDS), UMR 5513, 58 rue Jean Parot,
42023 Saint-Etienne Cedex 2, France
b
LGCIE Site Bohr, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Domaine Scientifique de la DOUA, 82 Boulevard Niels Bohr, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation into the durability behaviour of
Received 20 January 2017 textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) subjected to both tensile and bending loads to compare its macroscale
Revised 2 May 2017 characterization. Composites are produced as a laminate material using 2 and 6 layers of glass fibre mat
Accepted 12 July 2017
as reinforcements. The instantaneous and long-term (durability) properties of composite TRC are identi-
Available online 21 July 2017
fied by tensile and flexural testing with specimens made from the same fresh mortar. The long-term tests
are conducted in two ageing environments: natural ageing, which was conducted under the laboratory
Keywords:
atmosphere (20 °C and 50% RH), and accelerated ageing, which consisted of immersion of the specimens
Durability
textile-reinforced concrete (TRC)
in hot water at 50 °C. The durability performance of TRC is evaluated by the reduced macroscale perfor-
Glass fibre mat mance and damage mechanisms. The effects of the reinforcement ratio, testing conditions, and thermal
Tension and bending behaviour conditions on the long-term response of TRC are investigated, and the microstructure of both matrix and
Microstructure fibre is observed and discussed after the tests with observations via scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
The addition of layers of glass fibre (reinforcement ratio) increased the strength capacity and the first
macro-crack strength of TRC in both tensile and bending tests. The ultimate strength value of the TRC
composites obtained from the tensile test is lower than that from the bending test over the same tested
days as a result of the different redistribution mechanisms; however, the difference between tensile and
flexural stress remains approximately equal with similar deviations. An increase in the tensile and flex-
ural strength capacity over the ageing time is observed before 90 days of ageing. However, after 90 days,
the test results showed a loss of ductility of the accelerated aged specimens.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction structures [9,21], pedestrian bridges [19], and corrosion protection

Textiles have been chosen as a way to reinforce concrete for
years, resulting in what is commonly called textile-reinforced con-
crete (TRC). Such materials have excellent mechanical properties
and offer a potential reduction of self-weight and cost, significant
energy carbon dioxide (CO2) savings, and a sustainable solution
that provides many possible applications in both new and old
structures [1]; TRC has gained in popularity, with a substantial
increase in scientific publications. Research studies involving TRC
are carried out all over the world, such as in Germany [2–4], Israel
[5], the United States of America [6], France [7,8], Belgium [9], the
United Kingdom [10], Japan [11], Brazil and China. The scope of
research has widened to different applications: strengthening
applications [12–18], façade panel solutions [19,20], shell
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: amir.si-larbi@enise.fr (A. Si Larbi).
[22,23]. Because TRC is primarily used under tensile stress, two
types of characterization procedures have been studied: direct ten-
sile characterization [7] and tensile characterization by bending
[24]. To characterize, analyse, model and optimize the mechanical
behaviour of the composite TRC in direct tension, different testing
procedures have been developed over the years. They differ pri-
marily in the shape and dimensions of specimens, the nature and
configuration of end plates and clamps, the displacement rate,
and the instrumentation. For example, the load-carrying capacity
in tension depends on the reinforcement ratio, not the specimen
thickness, because the matrix cracks before failure and does not
contribute directly to composite strength [25]. The ease of imple-
mentation is particularly dependent on the choices made. How-
ever, some implementations require an additional cost induced
by the particular shape of the mould, the difficulty of perfectly
positioning the perforated plate (clamp), and the relative unsuit-
ability of the type of implementation for thixotropic mortars,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2017.07.030
0263-8223/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
108 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
which can be unacceptable. Recently, methods for evaluating the
characterization of TRC have been formalized with standardized
uniaxial tensile test methods by the association of RILEM [26]. In
the form of flexural behaviour, the mechanical properties of TRC
are considered by Brameshuber [27] to be insufficiently quantified.
Recently, the durability of TRC has been the subject of considerable
academic and commercial concern. Different authors have exam-
ined the durability of TRC to improve its durability performance
[28–30] and participate in formalizing the design standards of
TRC [31,32]. Studies comparing the static behaviour of TRC com-
posites in tension and flexure are very rare, and no literature exists
on the comparison of its long-term behaviour (durability). The
time-dependent behaviour of the matrices alone is complex; the
interaction of the matrices and fibres enlarges this complexity.
The degradation processes, such as deterioration of the reinforcing
textile fibres, alterations in the matrix itself, and the changes in the
adhesive properties of the interface between the matrix and fibres,
can cause undesirable changes in the mechanical performance of
the composite with time [25,33]. According to [1], these interfaces
are generally between the matrix and bundles, strands or tows of
filaments, into which the matrix does not fully penetrate at first.
In particular, the tensile/bending strength, ductility and strain to
failure may decline considerably.
This research mainly aims to compare the characteristics of TRC
(short- and long-term behaviour) in tension and bending based on
the experimental campaigns. The textile reinforcement of TRC used
in this investigation is a fibreglass mat that consists of
alkali-resistant glass fibres assembled randomly by a binder to
yield a fibreglass with isotropic in-plane material properties. The
test parameters include two types of test setup (tension and
bending), two types of reinforcement ratio, two thermal conditions
of the ageing processes and many durations. The response
mechanisms of TRC have been investigated at both micro- and
macrostructural levels. The microstructures of the matrix, fibres,
and matrix–fibre interface are examined after the tests using
observations via SEM to gain deeper insight into the failure
mechanisms.
2. Experimental program
To investigate the long-term behaviour (durability) of textile-
reinforced concrete to compare its characteristics as obtained by
the different test setups (tension and bending), a proper experi-
mental program is carried out. The specimens tested are made by
reinforcing a specific mortar with different layers of textile rein-
forcement. This section describes the materials involved in the
implementation, specimen dimensions, thermal conditions
(including natural and accelerated ageing), test setup and test pro-
cedure adopted.
2.1. Materials
The mortar of TRC used in the present study consists of a
selected mortar [34]. The mortar is composed of a granular
skeleton (with a particle size of less than 300 mm), a binder and
an additive system. The particularity of this composition resides
in the nature of the binder, which is an ettringitic binder, consist-
ing of calcium aluminate cement (CAC), calcium sulphate, and
Portland cement. Unlike Portland cement, which has a slower reac-
tion with water, the ettringitic binder is characterized by the fact
that its dormant period is reduced to only a few minutes so that
this composition achieves a sufficiently short hardening time to
demould within minutes. The main hydrate, ettringite, is formed
from the first moments following Eqs. (1) and (2), which gives
the product-specific characteristics, namely, the hardening and
rapid rise in resistance [35].
^ þ 38H ! C6 AS
3CA þ 3CS ^3 H32 þ 2AH3 ð2Þ
The additive system comprises setting controlling agents, used
to adjust the pot life and cure time of the grout, and an association
of rheology agents to ensure fluidity and stability of the matrix
such that the impregnation of the fibres is accomplished without
mechanical clamping and without dephasing of the matrix (Fig. 1).
The textile reinforcement is an alkali-resistant fibreglass mat,
also known as a Chopped Strand Mat or CSM for short, which is a
nonwoven material of 300-g/m2 surface density. It consists of glass
fibres laid randomly across each other and is held together by a
styrene binder that ensures mechanical strength; this polyester
resin, which binds the fibres, can also help distribute the forces
and provide chemical protection. The fibreglass mat is one of the
most popular forms of reinforcement; it is relatively inexpensive
and easy to use and can quickly build in thickness for parts,
moulds, or even repairs. It features randomly oriented strands
throughout that effectively hide the print-through of heavier fab-
rics and create equal stiffness in all directions for moulds and parts
[36]. In addition to improving the mechanical strength of TRC, the
fibreglass mat is also found to be useful in strengthening applica-
tions, especially for thin slabs. In this study, the composite material
contains two types of reinforcement (2 and 6 layers of fibreglass
mat).
2.2. Implementation and specimen dimensions
The laminating technique used in the specimen implementation
involves a wooden mould of 600  250 mm2 and 350  304 mm2
for tensile and flexural specimens, respectively, which is greased
and sufficiently rigid. The thickness varies from 3 to 8 mm for 2
and 6 layers of fibres, respectively, which correspond to reinforce-
ment ratios of approximately 4 and 4.54%. A thin layer of mortar is
placed in the specimen, followed by the first reinforcement fabric,
with the aid of a trowel, and then a lamination roller is used to
impregnate the textile. This sequence is repeated until the corre-
sponding reinforcement ratio is achieved. By using a specific mor-
tar, the layers of the fibre mat are uniformly distributed
throughout the thickness of the composite. When the top surface
is levelled and smoothed, it is finally covered with a plastic film
(polyene), excluding any air bubbles. After sealed curing in the
mould for one day, the plates are demoulded. From those plates,
a width of 50 mm is removed from around the melded plate to
eliminate any implementation heterogeneity and prevent water
absorption at the ends of the specimen; three elements of
500  50  3–8 mm3 (length, width, thickness) and
250  68  3–8 mm3 for tensile and flexural specimens, respec-
tively, are obtained by using a diamond saw. For 2 and 6 layers
of fibreglass mat reinforcement, there are 54 specimens for each;
thus, 108 total samples are fabricated.
2.3. Storage conditions: Natural and accelerated ageing
After demoulding, all specimens remained for curing for 7 days
with the ettringitic binder use [37] in a wet environment (95% RH)
at room temperature (20 °C). The seventh day is considered time
zero of the ageing process, after which specimens are then divided
 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123 109

Fig. 1. Fibber mat impregnated with mortar without mechanical clamping (a) top view and (b) bottom view.

into 3 groups: reference, natural and accelerated ageing groups.
The first group is stored for 28 days in the laboratory atmosphere
(20 °C and 50% RH) and then tested under tension and bending
to investigate the static behaviour of the TRC; these are used as a
reference for the mechanical properties. Subsequently, one other
group of specimens is subjected to natural ageing (reference stor-
age), which is conditioned to the laboratory atmosphere (but for
the sake of simplification, natural has been retained). The ageing
of the third specimen group is accelerated by immersion in hot
and tap water, with a temperature of 50 °C. The accelerated ageing
in hot water is intended to evaluate the fibre corrosion and matrix–
fibre interaction in aggressive environments. Such water tempera-
ture causes a greater ageing process [38]. According to [1], hot
water (typically 50 °C) is used to accelerate the ageing process
because it provides thermal inertia. The hydration process is accel-
erated with the temperature since there is a blocking of the pores
with the formation of the hydrate crystals [39]. High temperature
results in a rate decrease of permeability and diffusivity increase of
concrete. The macroscale long-term properties related to the dura-
bility of the TRC composites are measured as precisely as possible
in real-time [23]; however, because of the time constraint, the
accelerated ageing test or experimentally calibrated numerical
model is generally applied to predict the macroscale long-term
performance and/or lifetime of materials. The durations of storage
in both natural and accelerated ageing are 14, 90, and 120 days
after the curing period. No fewer than three specimens are used
for each set (time period and exposure type).
The samples subjected to accelerated ageing are removed from
the hot water for 24 h prior to preparation and testing in the labo-
ratory atmosphere. To avoid cracking before the tests and to pre-
serve the mortar hydration, the test specimens are stored in
stabilizing conditions [40]. Once exposed to thermal conditions,
each specimen set is tested under tension and bending according
to the experimental setup described in the following section.
Table 1 presents the configurations of the TRC specimens
according to the experimental setup used in this study. Each
specimen is identified through the following notation: a letter that
defines the test setup, i.e., a tension test (T) or flexure test (F); a
number that nominally denotes the number of reinforcement lay-
ers that make up the specimen; another letter specifying whether
the specimen is natural ageing (N) or accelerated ageing (A) when
thermally treated; and another number, which stands for the dura-
tion of ageing (e.g., T2-N-90 days indicates a tensile test treated
through 2 layers of reinforcement of a natural ageing specimen
for 90 days).
2.4. Test setup
After determination of the natural and accelerated ageing of
these specimens, an experimental study is conducted to investi-
gate the load-carrying capacity and overall structural behaviour
of TRC under tensile and bending stress.
2.4.1. Tensile test setup
The test setup is illustrated in Fig. 2. The tensile force is applied
with clamps that are developed to allow hinging conditions. Back-
lashing the clamping devices prevented torsional and bending
moments caused by an eventual misalignment of the constraints
(to minimize or eliminate the parasitic bending moment due to
implementation errors and reinforcement inhomogeneity of the
fibres) [7].
To yield a relative comparison, tensile tests are conducted on
both reference and aged specimens (natural and accelerated). To
obtain representative measurements of the tensile behaviour of
TRC until failure, two linear variable displacement transducers
(LVDTs) are placed centrally on each side of the specimen. They
cover a distance of 200 mm and a sufficient number of cracks to
be representative of the behaviour of TRC that is multi-cracked
and/or has a very open mesh. Following the example of [41], a dis-
tance of 5 cm around the clamps is excluded from the measure-
ment zone.
The tests are displacement-controlled by imposing a constant
displacement rate equal to 1 mm/min. The average operating stress
(force applied to the reported TRC cross-section) vs. average strain

Table 1
Tested TRC configurations.

Test Specimen Reinforcement (number of layers) Condition ageing Age of specimen (days)
Tension T2-N_0; 14; 90; 120 days 2 Natural 0; 14; 90; 120
T2-A_14; 90;120 days Accelerated 14; 90; 120
T6-N_0; 14; 90; 120 days 6 Natural 0; 14; 90; 120
T6-A_14; 90; 120 days Accelerated 14; 90; 120
Flexure F6-N_0; 14; 90; 120 days 2 Natural 0; 14; 90; 120
F6-A_14; 90; 120 days Accelerated 14; 90; 120
F6-N_0; 14; 90; 120 days 6 Natural 0; 14; 90; 120
F6-A_14; 90; 120 days Accelerated 14; 90; 120
110 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
Fig. 2. The tensile test setup.
(the average of measured displacements reported in the measure-
ment height is 200 mm) is consistent with the instrumentations
using the displacement sensors LVDT and a load sensor of 50 KN
(±50 N).
2.4.2. Bending test setup
The flexural behaviour of TRC is investigated via four-point
bending tests. The four-point bending test is often favoured for
obtaining flexural behaviour rather than shear behaviour in the
central zone. The aim is to create a flexural moment in TRC and
thus solicit the lower fibres in tension (the superior fibres will be
in compression owing to the asymmetric behaviour). Fig. 3 shows
the geometry of the four-point bending and the deflection mea-
surement apparatus. The load is applied by a hydraulic jack with
a capacity of 50 kN. To control the loading, the speed of the jack
displacement is 1 mm/min. The mid-span deflection is measured
by the LVDT sensor, which is affixed to the centre of the specimen
parallel to the direction of the applied load. The loading span of the
rectangular specimen is 83 mm, which is one-third of the support
span (250 mm).
Fig. 3. The bending test setup.
2.5. SEM study
The characterization of TRC is highly dependent on the tensile
properties of fibre, its cement impregnation rate and interfacial
adhesions. Low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in
backscattered electron (BSE) mode equipped with energy-
dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) is used to investigate the mor-
phological structure of hydrates, the microstructure of fibres, and
its interfaces. Observations are performed on a Philips XL30
ESEM-FEG scanning electron microscope (Technological Centre of
Microstructures CTm at Claude Bernard Lyon 1 University). In a
low vacuum, specimens are not easily destroyed, especially
hydrates such as ettringite.
3. Tensile behaviour of TRC
From simple tensile testing, conclusions can be formulated con-
cerning changes in the stress–strain behaviour, the development of
the matrix cracking pattern and the reinforcement tensile strength
after ageing.
3.1. Mechanical properties
3.1.1. Instantaneous behaviour of TRC
Fig. 4 shows a typical response of a TRC specimen subjected to
tension loading, with three indicated loading states [27]. The first
state (I) is called the free-crack state; it corresponds to the elastic
state of the uncracked TRC composite, in which the stiffness is said
to be entirely a function of the concrete matrix. The second state
(IIa) is defined by further crack formation, marked by load jumps
or snap-back, leading to pronounced quasi-ductile behaviour of
the composite. The crack formation eventually stabilizes in state
IIb, which is marked by a gain of stiffness said to be governed by
the properties of the textile reinforcement [42]. Typically, when
state III is reached, the failure of TRC occurs when the textile rein-
forcement reaches its ultimate limit load, causing brittle failure.
The average stress–strain curves obtained from tensile testing
on TRC specimens with both 2 and 6 layers of glass fibre mat textile
reinforcement are illustrated in Fig. 5. The results obtained in this
 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
Fig. 4. The expected tensile behaviour of a (a) conventional mortar and concrete and (b) textile-reinforced concrete [27,42].
Fig. 5. Stress–strain relationships of TRC reinforced by 2 layers of fibres and 6 layers
of fibres in a tensile test.
study generally agree with the studies cited [27,42], particularly
regarding the existence of three states. A pronounced increase in
the first crack stress could be observed in the TRC plates reinforced
by the textile with 6 layers of glass fibre mat compared with
results obtained with 2 layers of glass fibre mat. The first-crack
stress value increased by a factor of 1.3, which tends to join the
micro-cracks and delay the occurrence of the first macro-crack.
As expected, the use of a glass fibre mat led to the expansion of
state IIa, in which multiple cracks form; cf. Fig. 4. This expansion
is particularly pronounced in the case of TRC with 6 layers of glass
fibre mat; the width of this region (i.e., strain) is more than 30%
higher than in the case of TRC with 2 layers of glass fibre mat, as
emphasized in Fig. 5. This is because of the good random distribu-
tion of fibres, the high reinforcement ratio and the shrinkage pro-
cess (differentiated between 6 and 2 layers). More predominantly,
this finding is explained by the fact that the stochastic characteris-
tic associated with the TRC composites comprising a small number
of layers (2) over the thickness of the composite is very marked,
and therefore it is likely to downwardly affect the nominal perfor-
mances obtained with a substantially higher number of layers, par-
ticularly 6 layers; taking into account that the positioning of the
textile is never perfect, the regularity of implementation is even
more delicate to ensure with 2 layers in addition to the induced
parasitic effects. Consequently, the entire set of potential causes
with very relative impact of the increase in the rate of fibre rein-
forcement [43] enables crack bridging and crack mechanisms,
which improve the ductility, rupture modulus, resistance to crack
111
propagation, and residual load-carrying capacity in the post-peak
region of the tensile response. However, the enhancement of the
stress level diminishes gradually with increasing strain, so only a
very moderate or low increase in the tensile ultimate strength of
the composite could be recorded owing to the use of nonwoven
material (6 layers compared with the 2 layers of glass fibre mat);
see Fig. 5 and Table 2.
The failure mode of TRC reinforced with 2 layers of glass fibre
mat occurs randomly along the specimen height near the central
area by the exhaustion of tensile reinforcement (Fig. 6(a)). Mean-
while, the failure of the TRC reinforced with 6 layers of glass fibre
mat occurs near the clamps due to the overstress generated by the
adjacent aluminium plates (Fig. 6(b)). This is because the different
stress distribution over the total cross-section of the matrix and fil-
aments is inhomogeneous, whereby the filaments experience
higher strains and therefore higher stresses on the matrix; cracking
is governed by the pull-out behaviour and potentially at the end of
the plate length [44]. In the case of 2 layers, the overstress induced
by the end plates remains below the mortar strength dispersion
level, and thus failure does not occur around the clamps [7].
3.2. Influence of ageing on the durability of TRC under tension
The influence of ageing on the durability of TRC is determined
by the loss of strength and strain, which is related to either the
degradation of the fibres or the continuous densification of the
matrix or fibre–matrix interface. To evaluate the long-term loss
of macroscale strength of TRC, two processes have been used: nat-
ural and accelerated ageing.
Figs. 7and 8 show the average stress–strain curves for the TRC
specimens reinforced with 2 layers and 6 layers of fibreglass mat,
respectively. The ages of the TRC specimens tested in natural age-
ing and accelerated ageing are 14, 90, and 120 days after the curing
period. Compared with the reference specimen (T2-N_0 day or T2-
A_0 day), the first-crack stress values of the TRC specimens rein-
forced with 2 layers of fibreglass mat are slightly different, approx-
imately 5–10% (Fig. 7, Table 5), whereas the first-crack stress of 6
layers of fibreglass mat is significantly higher than that of the ref-
erence specimen (T6-N_0 day or T6-A_0 day) at approximately 30%
(Fig. 8). The first cracking takes place once the tensile strength of
concrete is reached, and so this increase is caused by the continu-
ous hydration process, particularly with immersion in hot water,
leading to an increase in the tensile strength of the matrix [45].
Indeed, TRC composites present a porous texture due to the com-
plex microstructure of the matrix, textile and textile-mortar inter-
face; this allows better hydration of the cement [46] and thus
112 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123

Table 2
Mechanical properties of TRC reinforced by 2 layers of fibres and 6 layers of fibres in a tensile test.

Samples Reinforcement Average value (standard deviation)

First-crack strength (MPa) Tensile strength (MPa) Strain of first-crack (m/m) Strain capacity (m/m)
T2-N_0 2 layers 3.11 (0.67) 6.71 (1.54) 0.00057 (0.00027) 0.0061 (0.0018)
T6-N_0 6 layers 3.68 (0.66) 6.92 (1.91) 0.00037 (0.00005) 0.0075 (0.00084)

(Figs. 7(b) and 8(b)), there is a decrease in the ultimate tensile

Fig. 6. Failure mode for (a) 2 layers of fibres and (b) 6 layers of fibres in a tensile
test.
improves filament-mortar and filament-filament adhesion. This
improvement may be more visible in the second reinforcement
configuration (6 layers compared to the use of only two layers).
The specimens reinforced with 2 layers of fibreglass mat slightly
increase the stress levels during the subsequent multiple cracking
of state II, and the specimens reinforced with 6 layers provide
higher stress levels at state II and also at failure compared to the
reference specimens.
In natural ageing, there is little or no increase in ultimate stress-
strain for the TRC using 2 layers of fibres (Fig. 7(a)) and a moderate
increase for 6 layers of fibres (Fig. 8(a)). In accelerated ageing
strength and ductility at 90 days. It should, however, be noted that
some information regarding the tensile strength of the TRC rein-
forced with 2 layers of fibreglass mat at 14 days in the accelerated
ageing test is accidentally lost. The reductions in the stress–strain
capacity of the TRC after 90 days could be attributed mainly to the
disadvantageous new formation of hydration products, especially
in the fibre–matrix interface. The creation of new hydrates is likely
to lead to two potentially conflicting consequences. Alternately,
they may be an improvement of the properties of the mortar or
of the interphase if the hydration occurs in a ‘‘harmonious” man-
ner, i.e., without generating additional stresses, possibly concen-
trated and therefore likely to degrade the mortar and / or the
textile. However, the hydration is accompanied by potentially
adverse effects in the mortar and the interphase, especially in the
case of delayed hydration. This is affected by the chronology of
the hydration, the nature and the shape of the formed hydrates,
i.e., if they are sharp and in contact with the filament, they are
liable to weaken it; for the environmental conditions, the effect
balance can be either favourable or unfavourable. Indeed, whatever
the nature of the binder is, Portland cement or ettringitic binder,
high temperatures used in accelerated ageing affect the nature of
the hydration products in the cement matrix [47]. For example,
with Portland cement, the formation of hydration products
depends on the manner of specimen conservation. With storage
in water, there is formation of ettringite in the subsequent temper-
ature rise, even by decomposition of primary ettringite with
deferred precipitation, generating swelling and cracking of mortar,
or secondary formation of ettringite with crystallization in free
space [48]. In the case of this study, with the ettringitic binder, this
hypothesis is confirmed via experimental measures: the quantity
of bound water that corresponds to the quantity of formed
hydrates is measured for temperatures between 0 and 300 °C for
the ettringitic matrix kept for 7 days under ambient conditions
(T = 20 °C, HR = 50%) and for the same ettringite matrix kept for
2 months under water (temperature gradient TG 0–300 °C). The
porosity measurements are also carried out by mercury porosime-
try. Table 3 below summarizes the experimental measurements.

Fig. 7. Stress–strain curves under tension for TRC reinforced with 2 layers of fibreglass mat; (a) natural ageing and (b) accelerated ageing.
 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123 113

Fig. 8. Stress–strain curves under tension for TRC reinforced with 6 layers of fibreglass mat; (a) natural ageing and (b) accelerated ageing.

Table 3
Experimental characterization of ettringite expansion.

Storage conditions T = 20 °C; Immerged in

HR = 50%; 7 days water; 2 month
Porosity (%) 28 26
Bound water (TG 0–300 °C) (%) 9.1 10.4

The results show that the amount of hydrate increases after

immersion of the matrix for 2 months. These hydrates fill the void
spaces of the composite matrix, resulting in a decrease in the total
porosity. Nevertheless, with dry storage under ambient conditions
(T = 20 °C, HR = 50%), there is a loss of water and thus a reduction
in the quantity of hydrates formed with increased porosity due
to evaporation of the water [49]. Under such conditions, the stud-
ies carried out by Ngoc Lam [49] have shown a gradual stabiliza-
tion of the mechanical performances of the matrix based on the
ettringitic binder, starting from 90 days, accompanied by that of
the porosity. Observation of the microstructure of the composite
via SEM can provide the explanation for this situation and the
applicable assumptions. Fig. 9. Typical load versus mid-span deflection for a TRC under four-point bending,
with indicated stages [31].

4. Bending behaviour of TRC

4.1. Instantaneous static behaviour of TRC under bending
The load versus mid-span deflection is depicted in Fig. 9, along
with the indicated loading states. These behavioural stages are
similar to that previously described for the tensile behaviour. A dif-
fering aspect is that the flexural strength of the textile is typically
compared with the stress–strain behaviour of TRC to observe the
deformation hardening effect and the effectiveness of the interfa-
cial bond [50].
The average flexural properties of the composite TRC with 2 and
6 layers of glass fibre mat can be seen in Fig. 10. Table 4 also pre-
sents the standard deviations. The results obtained in this study
still agree with the studies cited [50]; however, state IIa seems to
disappear and skip to state IIb, where the deformation hardening
is predominant. The curves of this study can thus be considered
as the typical load–deflection response curves of fibre-reinforced
cement composites in the study of Naaman [51]. A comparison of
the curves of TRC reinforced with 2 and 6 layers of glass fibre
mat shows that the flexural load of the TRC composite with six lay-
ers of fibres is superior to the two-layer case with 430 N vs. 248 N;
however, it demonstrates a lower deflection of 15.56 mm vs.
19.97 mm.
The failure mode of TRC reinforced with 2 and 6 layers of glass
fibre mat occurs in the central region, where the bending moment
is maximized near the point of application of the load (Fig. 11). The
body of specimens is still attached.
4.2. Influence of ageing on the durability of TRC under bending
Degradation of the composite TRC reinforced with 2 layers of
fibreglass mat is reflected in the change in bending load versus
midspan deflection curves, as shown in Fig. 12(a) and (b) in natural
and accelerated ageing, respectively. As expected, there is a loss in
the bending load after ageing at first cracking (state I), during the
subsequent multiple cracking (state II), and at failure. Additionally,
the composite TRC at 120 days noticeably lost its deflection capac-
ity after immersion in hot water of 50 °C; this may be because of
the degradation of the fibres and matrix, as well as the fibre–ma-
trix interface, as discussed in the previous section. Unfortunately,
observations by SEM are not able to elucidate these effects because
the specimens are too thin (3 mm) to prepare for observation by
SEM.
However, regarding the behaviour of the composite stored in
air, the chemical reactions can be used to explain the degradation
114 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
Fig. 10. Flexural load versus midspan deflection for TRC reinforced by 2 layers of fibres and 6 layers of fibres in bending test, indicated with a typical curve by Naaman [51].
Table 4
Mechanical properties of TRC reinforced by 2 layers of fibres and 6 layers of fibres in bending test.
Samples Reinforcement Average value (standard deviation)
First-crack stress LOP (N)
F2-N_0 2 layers 90.78 (-)
F6-N_0 6 layers 104.19 (16.36)
in the performance of the composite TRC with two layers of fibre-
glass mat. According to equations 1 and 2 cited above, the main
hydrate of the mortar is ettringite, which is exposed to CO2 in
the air carbonate. The carbonation of ettringite is controlled by
the increased CO2 and moisture in the matrix and the porosity
[37,49,52–54]. The carbonation of the ettringite leads to the
formation of gypsum, calcium carbonate, and aluminium hydrox-
ide (Eq. (3)).
^3 H32 þ 3C
C6 A S ^ ! 3CC
^ þ 3CSH
^ 2 þ AHx þ ð26  xÞH
However, because carbonation is a surface phenomenon, the
effect is greater with a thin member (2 layers) than a thicker ele-
ment (6 layers). Taking into account the composite with 6 layers,
Fig. 13(a) shows no loss in ductility or strength. At the heart of this
composite, ettringite is protected [37].
However, it should be emphasized that the tendency observed
under flexion is totally different from that observed under tension,
suggesting that the explanation, at least partially, is the stochastic
characteristic related to the presence of only 2 layers on the thick-
ness of the composite, and particularly affecting it is bending solic-
itation (the effect on the results of a slight defect in positioning on
the thickness is significantly greater for 2 layers than for 6 layers).
Consequently, the flexural results obtained with a 2-layer compos-
ite are to be considered with extreme caution or even scepticism
insofar as they reflect more a particular case of implementation
than a reproducible case.
Fig. 13(a) and (b) show the flexural load versus midspan deflec-
tion for TRC reinforced with 6 layers of fibreglass mat in natural
and accelerated ageing, respectively. The slope of the first section
of the curve (state I) is nearly the same for all TRC specimens. Over-
all, the first macro-cracking load, the load at the end of the crack
formation (state II) and the ultimate load (state III) are observed
to be equal or slightly increased for both natural and accelerated
ageing. The slope of the curve’s final branch (state II) is considered
Flexural force MOR (N) Deflection LOP (mm) Deflection MOR (mm)
248.01 () 2.4 () 19.97 ()
430.10 (14.04) 0.72 (0.13) 15.56 (1.79)
to be unchanged compared with the slope of the reference speci-
men (Table 5). In addition, the deflection capacity of TRC attributed
to natural ageing is approximately the same. However, there is a
dramatic loss of ductility, which in this case also represents the
deflection capacity of TRC, due to the exposure of TRC after 90 days
of accelerated ageing. Obviously, some deterioration processes
occurred in the TRC. These processes will be indicated when pre-
senting the results of the observations by SEM.
ð3Þ
5. Comparison and discussion
From the preceding discussion, it is clear that a sufficient num-
ber of fibre layers is necessary to limit the impact of the stochastic
characteristic and obtain a beneficial effect on the static properties
of TRC under both tension and flexion. That is why, in the following
discussion, only the results of the composite comprising 6 layers of
fibres are exploited. Table 5 shows a comparison between the ten-
sile and flexural properties of the reference specimen of the com-
posite TRC with different reinforcement ratios.
5.1. Different durability behaviour of TRC between tension and
bending
5.1.1. Microstructure investigation
In this section, selected results of microstructure investigations
performed corresponding to the tensile and bending tests are pre-
sented. As mentioned above, the loss of strength and deformation
can be related to the degradation of the fibres, continuous densifi-
cation of the matrix, and the fibre–matrix interface, which can be
analysed by using microstructure investigations. Fig. 14 shows an
SEM image of fractured fibres of TRC specimens tested under ten-
sion (Fig. 14(a)) and bending (Fig. 14(b)) after immersion in hot
water for 120 days. It should be noted that the fibres indicated in
the bending test correspond to the inferior layer located at the
 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123 115

Table 5
Summary of tensile and flexural test results presented as average values.

Test Specimen Ageing Average value (standard deviation)

Condition First-crack Strain of EI (GPa) Ultimate Ultimate EIII (GPa)
strength (MPa) first-crack (m/m) strength (MPa) Strain (m/m)
T2-N_0 day Natural 3.11 (0.67) 0.0005 (0.0002) 6.98 (1.29) 6.93 (1.54) 0.006 (0.002) 0.46 (0.07)
T2-N_14 days Natural 2.42 (1.61) 0.0006 (0.0004) 8.95 (6.34) 7.85 (0.81) 0.005 (0.003) 0.42 (0.17)
T2-N_90 days Natural 3.02 (0.28) 0.0005 (0.00004) 6.48 (1.79) 7.14 (2.17) 0.009 (0.002) 0.29 (0.11)
T2-N_120 days Natural 2.87 (1.58) 0.0004 (0.00004) 8.05 (4.55) 5.58 (2.64) 0.006 (0.0008) 0.24 (0.12)
T2-A_0 day Accelerate 3.11 (0.67) 0.0005 (0.0002) 6.98 (1.29) 6.93 (1.54) 0.006 (0.002) 0.46 (0.07)
T2-A_14 days Accelerate 2.97 (0.25) 0.0009 (0.0002) 5.91 (0.38) 3.92 (2.05) 0.002 (0.002) 0.43 (0.17)
T2-A_90 days Accelerate 3.99 (0.64) 0.0009 (0.0003) 4.51 (0.42) 8.21 (0.52) 0.004 (0.003) 0.49 (0.03)
Tension T2-A_120 days Accelerate 3.78 (0.30) 0.0006 (0.0002) 7.01 (2.76) 7.32 (1.54) 0.006 (0.001) 0.47 (0.009)
T6-N_0 day Natural 3.68 (0.66) 0.00037 (0.00005) 9.91 (1.54) 6.73 (1.91) 0.0075 (0.00084) 0.315 (0.16)
T6-N_14 days Natural 3.58 (0.59) 0.00033 (0.00005) 10.78 (2.34) 6.83 (1.31) 0.01002 (0.00106) 0.362 (0.04)
T6-N_90 days Natural 5.34 (1.01) 0.00048 (0.00021) 13.77 (4.56) 12.70 (1.08) 0.01297 (0.0012) 0.595 (0.41)
T6-N_120 days Natural 6.36 (0.13) 0.00044 (0.00002) 14.41 (0.75) 10.53 (0.34) 0.01165 (0.00014) 0.483 (0.02)
T6-A_0 day Accelerate 3.68 (0.66) 0.00037 (0.00005) 9.91 (1.54) 6.73 (1.91) 0.0075 (0.00084) 0.315 (0.16)
T6-A_14 days Accelerate 4.11 (0.46) 0.00038 (0.00004) 9.83 (2.99) 7.72 (1.15) 0.0100 (0.0014) 0.387 (0.03)
0.00041 (0.00019)
T6-A_90 days Accelerate 6.15 (0.60) 0.00047 (0.00004) 15.60 (3.45) 7.25 (0.23) 0.00212 (0.0016) 0.487 (0.49)
T6-A_120 days Accelerate 6.84 (0.22) 14.47 (0.74) 8.16 (1.05) 0.00332 (0.00205) 0.161 (0.11)

First-crack Deflection Rigidity Ultimate Deflection Rigidity

strength LOP (mm) EII (N/mm) strength MOR (mm) EIIII (N/mm)
LOP (MPa) MOR (MPa)
F2-N_0 day Natural 4.84 (0.62) 0.07 (0.013) 711.02 (204.2) 16.71 (7.34) 22.89 (4.23) 11.24 (3.64)
F2-N_14 days Natural 3.86 (1.14) 0.09 (0.01) 112.79 (8.15) 13.13 (2.97) 29.11 (2.72) 0.59 (0.08)
F2-N_90 days Natural 3.65 (1.29) 0.13 (0.62) 55.09 (21.8) 11.32 (9.32) 21.78 (2.72) 0.51 (0.19)
F2-N_120 days Natural 3.94 (2.13) 0.05 (0.04) 116.43 (100.05) 10.34 (6.02) 22.43 (3.35) 0.77 (0.17)
F2-A_0 days Accelerate 4.84 (0.62) 0.07 (0.013) 711.02 (204.2) 16.71 (7.34) 22.89 (4.23) 11.24 (3.64)
F2-A_14 days Accelerate 4.32 (1.14) 0.88 (0.01) 109.25 (3.01) 12.79 (3.14) 18.47 (5.31) 0.99 (0.59)
F2-A_90 days Accelerate 3.91 (1.74) 0.15 (0.11) 83.26 (47.43) 13.66 (5.12) 13.99 (3.13) 1.14 (0.31)
Flexure F2-A_120 days Accelerate 5.63 (2.83) 0.13 (0.06) 87.02 (52.32) 9.62 (7.47) 8.19 (0.09) 2.07 (0.08)
F6-N_0 day Natural 5.17 (1.05) 0.72 (0.13) 145.39 (13.66) 21.75 (6.17) 15.56 (1.78) 18.98 (2.14)
F6-N_14 days Natural 7.53 (0.81) 1.02 (0.22) 101.68 (8.25) 24.53 (4.05) 17.11 (2.41) 19.15 (6.15)
F6-N_90 days Natural 7.18 (0.99) 1.07 (0.22) 167.53 (13.04) 19.85 (1.06) 17.45 (0.66) 17.30 (1.81)
F6-N_120 days Natural 8.69 (1.11) 1.04 (0.15) 184.51 (3.38) 24.52 (1.93) 17.76 (0.81) 17.44 (0.78)
F6-A_0 days Accelerate 5.17 (1.05) 0.72 (0.13) 145.39 (13.66) 21.75 (6.17) 15.56 (1.78) 18.98 (2.14)
F6-A_14 days Accelerate 7.24 (1.63) 0.88 (0.12) 155.78 (7.74) 22.59 (1.85) 15.47 (2.43) 11.86 (0.25)
F6-A_90 days Accelerate 8.91 (0.73) 1.01 (0.24) 156.15 (38.29) 21.26 (0.56) 7.99 (0.09) 17.43 (4.04)
F6-A_120 days Accelerate 10.42 (1.07) 1.05 (0.14) 154.62 (13.51) 24.53 (2.81) 8.19 (1.09) 20.19 (1.37)

fibres, which are extracted from fibre cement sheets exposed to

Fig. 11. Failure mode for (a) 2 layers of fibres and (b) 6 layer of fibres, under
bending.
most extreme edge of the tension part. The images show the brittle
failure of fibres in both cases, tension and bending. It can also be
seen in Fig. 14(a) and (b) that the fibres’ cross-sectional surfaces
deform as a bevelled shape before they fail. Furthermore, it is indi-
cated that no sign of degradation could be observed among the
hot water for 120 days. These findings suggested that the loss of
strength and ductility of the TRC after ageing is not caused by
the degradation of fibres.
Microscopic investigation of fractured fibre surfaces by means
of SEM shows that the fibre mat has smooth fracture surfaces with-
out any degradation of the fibres after ageing (cf. Fig. 15). As visible
in the pictures, the un-stretched fibres have no holes, damage, pits
or any other surface disconformities. This might not affect the
properties of the fibre, thereby leading to no significant loss in
stress or strain under either tension or bending tests. There are
some hydrates in the form of small grains on the surface that
remain glued to the fibres during the preparation of specimens
for SEM observation (Fig. 15). These are regarded as particles
deposited on the fibres without any unfavourable effect on their
structure or any other fibre properties, but it emphasizes the good
affinity between the matrices and fibre. Therefore, it can be reason-
ably assumed that the fibre itself has good durability in different
environments of ageing and does not depend on the type of test
setup.
5.1.2. Tensile and flexural strengths
First, it is important to emphasize that the comparison aims to
establish benchmarks and cannot be considered without the fol-
lowing limits:
116 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123

Fig. 12. Flexural load versus midspan deflection for TRC reinforced with 2 layers of fibreglass mat; (a) natural ageing and (b) accelerated ageing.

Fig. 13. Flexural load versus midspan deflection for TRC reinforced with 6 layers of fibreglass mat; (a) natural ageing and (b) accelerated ageing.

Fig. 14. SEM image of fractured fibres of TRC after ageing in a (a) tensile test (b) flexural test.

– The stress redistribution phenomena are more marked in the
case of bending in view of the favourable stress state (including
the taut portion).
– The macroscopic tensile stress, which is determined in the case
of bending, is necessarily greater than that determined in direct
tension taking into account the redistribution phenomena men-
tioned above. This difference is particularly important when the
material is ductile. The hydric gradients in the composite could
not be evaluated experimentally, but their effects are likely to
differentially affect direct tension and bending; the mortar
degradation, particularly by the capillary water evacuation,
affects more significantly and more directly the macroscopic
 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
Fig. 15. SEM image of surface fibres of TRC after ageing in a (a) tensile test (b) flexural test.
Fig. 16. Comparison of mechanical properties of TRC; evolution of the ultimate strength obtained from tensile and bending tests (a) in natural ageing and (b) in accelerated
ageing.
performances measured in the case of the direct tension than
the bending, taking into account, in particular, the differenti-
ated redistribution processes.
– The composite dissymmetry, which is very relative in view of
the care taken in the use of the test pieces, is more important
in the case of direct tension than bending due to the favoured
redistribution processes in the case of flexion.
– The structural effect is taken into consideration in the case of
bending.
– Therefore, the focus will be on the likely impact of the interface
without losing sight of the stated reservations and their conse-
quences in terms of differentiated processes at work.
In comparison (Fig. 16), for the same testing day, the stress
value of the TRC composites obtained from the tensile test is lower
than from the bending test. However, the difference between ten-
sile and flexural stress remains approximately equal to similar
deviations for the same tested days (see also Table 5). The average
of these differences is approximately 3 times. The higher values of
the bending stress compared with the tensile stress are due to the
deflection pressures as a result of the bending of the TRC at the
crack. This means that, in the bending test, the bond properties,
especially of the surrounding fibres, are improved, which are only
slightly activated under a centric tensile stress because of the
smaller matrix penetration into the fibre mat and the lower friction
between the fibres (filaments) and matrix. However, to estimate
the tensile stress compared with the flexural stresses, some errors
117
could occur because of the different available anchorage length and
the clamping featured in the tensile test. Adding a coefficient to
reflect the difference could be an option, as suggested in, e.g., Heg-
ger et al. [55]. However, this difference would likely be minimized
if the failure mode in both the flexural and tensile tests is not the
same, e.g., failure under tension. Furthermore, this difference
depends on the homogeneity and the random distribution of fibres
in the specimen section.
Therefore, it can be assumed that the ageing condition affects
the strength of TRC in the same manner and does not depend on
any type of test setup, even if the effects of accelerated ageing
seem to be more pronounced after 90 days. As mentioned in the
observation of the microstructure above, the degradation of the
fibres is neglected because no effects are observed. The influence
of this accelerated ageing after 90 days on the strength of TRC
could thus be caused by the degradation of the matrix or/and
fibre–matrix interface, which can be explained by using the obser-
vation of the microstructure in the following.
5.2. Influence of accelerated ageing on the durability of TRC
5.2.1. Microstructural changes related to TRC durability
Fig. 17 shows the SEM micrographs of the surfaces of TRC fibres
for (a) virgin fibre, (b) natural ageing and (c) accelerated ageing
specimens after 120 days. The fibres have the same surface aspect,
smooth, as the two modes of ageing at 120 days. The fibre size is
unchanged; the diameter of the fibres after ageing is equal to the
118 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
Fig. 17. SEM micrographs surfaces of fibres of TRC for (a) virgin fibre; (b) natural ageing and (c) accelerated ageing specimens after 120 days.
diameter of a virgin fibre. In agreement with the foregoing obser-
vation of the microstructure (Section 5.1.1), the degradation of
the fibres is neglected because no effects are observed. Thus, it is
not subject to alter the fibres in the cementitious material. It can
be concluded that the established losses in the mechanical perfor-
mance of the composites consisting of a cement-based matrix and
continuous fibreglass mat cannot result solely from delayed failure
due to stress corrosion of fibres.
In contrast, if hot water is used to accelerate the corrosion of the
fibres, it has a non-negligible effect on the hydration of the matrix.
The hydrates formed in the matrix and conserved for 120 days in
the atmosphere have a different nature compared with the
hydrates formed in the matrix and stored for 120 days in hot
water. When observing the matrix and the interfacial zone
between the fibres and the matrix of TRC composites under natural
ageing and accelerated ageing, a difference in the microstructure of
the hydration products is seen in each ageing process. In the case of
the naturally ageing, the cement hydrates are in relatively small
units and compacted together, resulting in a dense cement layer
(Fig. 18(a)), and the hydrates formed are essentially of ettringite,
hydrated calcium aluminates and gibbsite. A fragment of the com-
posite is removed from the sample and heated in a controlled
atmosphere to identify the nature of hydrates in the mortar. As
the temperature rises, the sample decomposes and releases water
and/or carbon dioxide or vitrifies. Each endothermic or exothermic
peak corresponds to a particular phase, as shown with the DTA sig-
nal in Fig. 19.
In the case of the composite subjected to accelerated ageing for
120 days, the cement hydrates are in relatively large products that
are not well compacted around the fibre perimeter, leaving many
empty pores between them (Fig. 18(b)). This hydrate is a form of
ettringite, gibbsite and strätlingite, which has a very angular shape
and anchors the fibre. The observed enlargement of void space con-
firms the assumed hypothesis of the increase of permeability and
diffusivity [56] and also justifies, for example, the decrease of the
stress strain capacity of the tensile test for specimens subjected
to accelerated ageing for more than 90 days (Figs. 7(b) and 8(b)).
It results in the enlargement of the void space (pores, textile-
mortar or intergranular interfaces, internal fissures), and mainly
already big void volume. The dissipation of energy would then be
controlled by the fibre-matrix adhesion and by the frictional resis-
tance of the fibre after the loss of adhesion of the fibres.
The diffractogram XRD, shown in Fig. 20, confirms the presence
of strätlingite C2ASH8 (dominant peak for angle 2.h = 7°) for the
composite stored in hot water, unlike the composite stored in air.
Because of the presence of hydrate strätlingite C2ASH8, which
anchors the fibres and no longer allows frictional resistance
between the fibre and the matrix, the strain of the composite
stored in hot water dramatically decreases. Therefore, it is evident
that accelerated ageing can influence the stress–strain capacity of
TRC by affecting the matrix–fibre interaction, resulting in losses
in composite performance.
Indeed, for composites comprising Portland cement, it can be
deduced that the accelerated ageing test can fulfil its potential to
 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
Fig. 18. Microstructure of the matrix of TRC specimens for (a) natural ageing and (b) accelerated ageing specimens after 120 days.
Fig. 19. DTA signal of mortar removed from the natural-aged composite after
120 days.
provide some information on the degradation process of TRC com-
posites with regard to their behaviour in real climates over their
service life and can be useful as a database. Alternately, in the case
of an ettringitic mortar, the equivalence of natural ageing-
accelerated ageing is clearly invalidated under the ageing modali-
ties used. Accelerating ageing with a bath of hot tap water (50 °C)
for mortar made by the ettringitic binder is not equivalent to the
natural ageing of any duration because the hydrates formed are
not similar between the two cases. Consequently, this finding
clearly suggests that the modalities or approach of accelerated age-
ing should be reviewed in the case of an ettringitic mortar to acti-
vate degradation mechanisms and kinetics similar to those of
natural ageing.
Moreover, the durability model should be developed by some
means of accelerating normal ageing and hence predict the long-
term behaviour of TRC to propose a correlation between hot
water-accelerated ageing and natural weathering, as suggested in
[57].
5.2.2. Evolution of strains
Fig. 21 illustrates the effect of ageing on the strain of TRC by
varying the condition of storage of the specimens: laboratory
119
Fig. 20. XRD diffractogram.
ambient environment (natural ageing) and hot water at 50 °C
(accelerated ageing). The results of tensile and bending tests show
that the strain at the first cracking of TRC has no clear difference
between the natural and accelerated ageing for the same day test.
However, compared to the natural ageing, the tensile failure strain
of the TRC composites subjected to the accelerated ageing shows a
pronounced decrease of approximately 90% after immersing the
specimen for 90 days in hot water (Fig. 21(a)-(right)). In the same
manner, there is a dramatic 80% decrease in failure deflection in
the bending test after 90 days of ageing in an accelerated environ-
ment (Fig. 21(b)-(right)). It is clear that the hydration of acceler-
ated ageing affects the durability of TRC composites with the
formation of angular hydrates as strätlingite and damage to the
fibre mortar interface. The hydration process may be amplified
by the presence of fibre textile because they orient the water infil-
tration with a more porous structure whose permeability and dif-
fusivity increase with the temperature.
5.2.3. Evolution of strength
In the tensile test, the first-crack stresses of TRC specimens aged
in the natural and accelerated environments increase via the same
trend over time (Fig. 22(a)-(left)). However, the evolutions of the
120 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123

Fig. 21. Evolution of strain in natural ageing and in accelerated ageing at first-crack (left) and at rupture (right); (a) under tension and (b) under bending.

Fig. 22. Evolution of strength of TRC in natural ageing and in accelerated ageing at first-crack (left) and at rupture (right); (a) under tension and (b) under bending.
 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
Fig. 23. Evolution of stiffness in natural ageing and in accelerated ageing at first-crack (left) and at rupture (right); (a) under tension and (b) under bending.
failure-stresses of TRC are moderately different between these two
ageing systems with 90 days of ageing (Fig. 22(a)-(right)). Instead
of increasing the failure-stresses of the TRC in natural ageing, the
immersion in hot water slightly reduces its failure stresses. This
simply means that the effects of accelerated ageing have essen-
tially taken place; nevertheless, the diminution of the failure stres-
ses of the specimen immersion in hot water for 90 days is related
to the loss of ductility.
In the flexible test, as shown in Fig. 22(b)-(left), the evolutions
of the first-crack force of the TRC specimen show a slight increase,
but they are vaguely different between the natural and accelerated
ageing. Moreover, Fig. 22(b)-(right) shows the evolutions of the
failure force of TRC. Whereas the failure force of TRC ageing in
the natural environment has increased over time, the failure force
of the TRC in accelerated ageing faintly decreased. This result is
also unobvious; however, it still agrees with the tensile testing,
in which the strength of the specimen after immersion in hot water
for 90 days is smaller than that in the natural environment.
5.2.4. Evolution of stiffness
Fig. 23 shows the evolution of stiffness as a function of the age-
ing time, in (a) tensile and (b) bending tests. Their average values
of tensile (EI, EIII) and flexural (EII, EIIII) stiffness are collected in
Table 5, together with the scatterings. EI or EII represents the initial
stiffness of the composite material in the un-cracked condition; it
is computed as the slope of the stress vs. strain curve for the tensile
test and bending force vs. displacement curve for the bending test
and takes between zero and 0.1 rmax (rmax: ultimate stress). EIII or
EIIII is computed for the cracked condition. This coefficient is
obtained as the slope of the final branch of the stress vs. strain or
force vs. displacement curve of TRC. In this branch, only the contri-
121
bution of the fibres is noticeable, and no further cracks appear in
the matrix. In this case, 0.7 rmax and 0.8 rmax are assumed as limit
values.
In the tensile test, the evolution of the initial stiffness EI slightly
increases, following the same tendency and nearly the same stiff-
ness for both ageing conditions (Fig. 23(a)-(left)). In agreement
with the evolution of stress and strain, the evolution of the
post-crack stiffness EIII shows an increase before 90 days and
dramatically decreases at 120 days (lower than 80% for an
accelerated ageing specimen). In the bending test, the stiffness in
the pre-cracking state (EII) shows no significant difference between
the ageing conditions. Little or no change in the stiffness in the
post-cracking zone (EIIII) can be concluded for specimens tested
under flexure (Fig. 23(b)-(left)).
6. Conclusions
This research compares the durability behaviour of textile-
reinforced concrete (TRC) under tension and flexure in ageing peri-
ods of 14, 90, and 120 days. The TRC specimens are prepared with
two different reinforcement ratios with 2 and 6 layers of glass fibre
mats. Ageing is conducted under different conditions: natural and
accelerated ageing by immersion in a hot bath at 50 °C, with the
aim of analysing the effect of water ageing on the mechanical
properties.
From the findings of the experimental program, it is possible to
draw some important findings; however, it is important to con-
sider these results with caution insofar as the dispersion obtained
for certain configurations is important and thus requires additional
experiments to arrive at more definitive conclusions:
122 K. Kong et al. / Composite Structures 179 (2017) 107–123
– There are no differences in the microstructures of fibres corre-
sponding to the tensile and bending tests. The images indicate
brittle failure of fibres and smooth fracture surfaces for both
cases.
– There is no degradation in the mechanical properties of the
glass fibre mat due to the aggressive environment. If corrosion
takes place, it may affect the mechanical properties of TRC.
Otherwise, a decrease in strain would have been noted in the
case of the accelerated aged composite after 90 days. It is, in
fact, dependent on the evolution of the matrix and the
matrix–fibre bond capacity, which has hydrates with an angular
shape that anchors the fibres and becomes less dense.
– Generally, the long-term behaviour (durability) of composite
TRC shows a loss in performance after accelerated ageing in
hot water for 90 days; it is more noticeable than that of conven-
tional ageing in a natural process. The accelerated ageing can
thus provide some information on the degradation process of
TRC that does not require a long ageing time. However, the
equivalence of natural ageing-accelerated ageing established
in the case of a Portland mortar is clearly invalidated by the
results obtained in the case of an ettringitic mortar. The nature
of the hydrates formed (in a natural environment and acceler-
ated according to the terms of this article) would be the main
reason.
– In the absence of equivalent natural ageing - accelerated ageing
in the case of an ettringitic mortar (in the case of the chosen
modalities) it is possible to detect roughly similar trends (which
should be confirmed and controlled by an anchoring experi-
ment) between the tensile test and the bending tests. However,
it is important to have a sufficient number of textile layers,
which should be evaluated, on the thickness to limit the
stochastic impact. This finding suggests that it would be possi-
ble to use, at least in an exploratory manner, bending tests as a
substitution for tensile tests.
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