Arch

Specialized English English Texts of Architecture collected and edited by Yalvaee-2019
English Texts for the Students of Architecture

Architecture, yesterday and today
Introduction- Architecture in its broad sense has a long history, probably as long as the human`s. It seems that
about 2 million years ago, or more, a hominid so called ‗Homo Habilis‘ had been making some simple wooden-
stone structures in Africa. Since then and during the Palaeolithic times, hominids and humans used open air sites,
caves, savannahs, etc to live. In the Upper Palaeolithic of Europe, particularly in Russia and Ukraine, some
groups constructed structures of large animal bone and ivory. Subject to climate conditions, prehistoric
populations often wandered about territories in search of food. However, sometime about 12000 years ago in the
western Asia, the first permanent or semi-permanent settlements appeared. Within few thousands of years,
number of human groups in ancient Syria, Anatolia, Iraq, Iran and Jordan succeeded to build houses, farm lands
and domesticate animals. They used materials such as wood, mud, stone, wattle and daub, and then mud-bricks to
make structures. Houses and villages in other regions and continents appeared later. The period during which the
first permanent settlements emerged has been called Neolithic by most archaeologists. Since then, architecture has
undergone a long complicated process to achieve today`s high superstructures. In this section, some selected
architectural/urban concepts, subjects and items will concisely be presented.
Questions:
1- When does architecture date back to?
2- During the Palaeolithic period, what was/were humans and their ancestors` settlements?
3- Why did prehistoric people wandered about their periphery?
4- When and where did the first permanent settlements appear?
5- Why did the first domestications occur in the west and southwest of Asia?
6- What was/were the characteristic(s) of the Neolithic period?
Lesson 1: Mammoth Bone Settlements
Of the most ancient human dwellings we may refer to bone- ivory structures made of mammoth bone and ivory.
These are a very early type of housing constructed by Upper Paleolithic hunter gatherers in central Europe during
the Late Pleistocene. During the late Pleistocene, mammoths provided meat and skin for human hunter-gatherers,
fuel for fire, and, in some cases during the Upper Paleolithic of central Europe, as building materials for houses. A
mammoth bone dwelling is typically a circular or oval structure with walls made of stacked large mammoth
bones, often modified to allow them to be lashed together or implanted into the soil (figures 1-3).
Figs 1-3
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Within the interior is typically found a central hearth or several scattered hearths. The hut is generally surrounded
by numerous large pits, full of mammoth and other animal bones. Ashy concentrations with flint artifacts appear
to represent middens; many of the mammoth bone settlements have a preponderance of ivory and bone tools.
External hearths, butchering areas and flint workshops are often found in association with the hut: scholars call
these combinations Mammoth Bone Settlements (MBS). Dating mammoth bone dwellings has been problematic.
The earliest dates were between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, but most of these have been redated to between
14,000-15,000 years ago. However, the oldest known MBS is from the Molodova site, a Neanderthal Mousterian
occupation located on the Dniester River of Ukraine, and dated some 30,000 years earlier than most of the known
Mammoth Bone Settlements.
Ouestions:
1- What is an MBS?
2- What has been claimed about the chronology of mammoth bone settlements?
3- How can you describe a Europe Upper Paleolithic dwelling?
Lesson 2: Stone Structures of Göbekli Tepe
Göbekli Tepe is an archaeological site at the top of a mountain ridge in the southeastern Anatolia region of
modern-day Turkey. The tell has a height of 15 m (49 ft) and is about 300 m (984 ft) in diameter. It was excavated
by a German archaeological team under the direction of Klaus Schmidt from 1996 until his death in 2014.
Göbekli Tepe tell includes two phases of ritual use dating back to the 10th – 8th millennium BCE. During the first
phase, pre-pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), circles of massive T-shaped stone pillars were erected (figures 4-6).
Figures 4-6
More than 200 pillars in about 20 circles are currently known through geophysical surveys. Each pillar has a
height of up to 6 m (20 ft) and a weight of up to 20 tons. They are fitted into sockets that were hewn out of the
bedrock. In the second phase, Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), the erected pillars are smaller and stood in
rectangular rooms with floors of polished lime. The site was abandoned after the PPNB-period. Younger
structures date to classical times. The images below show some views of the monumental structures of Göbekli
Tepe. The purpose of building such structures is not yet clear, however, the excavator, Klaus Schmidt, believed
that they had been the early Neolithic sanctuaries.
Questions:
1- Where is Göbekli Tepe located?
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2- What are the architectural characteristics of Göbekli Tepe?

3- How can you explain a monumental structure?
4- Who did excavate Göbekli Tepe?
Lesson 3: The Architecture of Mesopotamia
The architecture of Mesopotamia is the ancient architecture of the region of the Tigris–Euphrates river system
(also known as Mesopotamia- figure 7), encompassing several distinct cultures and spanning a period from the 10th
millennium BC, when the first permanent structures were built, to the 6th century BC. Among the Mesopotamian
architectural accomplishments are the development of urban planning, the courtyard house, and ziggurats. Figures
8-9 show two types of prehistoric and historic Mesopotamian structures.
Fig. 7-Map of Mesopotamia in about 3500 BC Fig. 8 Fig. 9
The Mesopotamians regarded ‗the craft of building‘ as a divine gift taught to men by the gods. Sumerian people
were of the first Mesopotamian populations. Their masonry usually lacked mortar although bitumen was
sometimes used. They also used sun-baked bricks which varied greatly over time. Based on the form and
dimension, three types of bricks have been categorized. As sun baked bricks are much less durable than oven-
baked ones buildings eventually deteriorated. They were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same
spot. This process gradually raised the level of cities, so that they came to be elevated above the surrounding
plain. The resulting mounds are known as tells, and are found throughout the ancient Near East. Civic buildings
slowed decay by using cones of colored terracotta/stone, terracotta panels, and clay nails driven into the adobe-
brick to create a protective sheath that decorated the façade (figs. 10-11). Special building materials such as cedar
were imported from Lebanon, diorite from Arabia, and lapis lazuli from India.
Fig. 10- The Ur ziggurat Fig. 11- A part of an ancient Mesopotamian wall, covered by terra-cotta cones
Babylonian temples are some other Mesopotamian massive structures made of crude brick, supported by
buttresses. The rainwater of these structures was carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead.
The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles. The
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walls were brilliantly colored, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Assyria, imitating
Babylonian architecture, also built its palaces and temples of brick, even when stone was the natural building
material of the country. As time went on, however, later Assyrian architects began to shake themselves free of
Babylonian influence, and to use stone as well as brick. The walls of Assyrian palaces were lined with sculptured
and coloured slabs of stone, instead of being painted as in Chaldea.
Questions:
1- What do you know about Mesopotamia?
2- When were the first permanent settlements of Mesopotamia built?
3- Mention some Mesopotamian achievements in architecture!
4- How was architecture considered by the Mesopotamians?
5- How did Sumerians do masonry?
6- Which kind of building materials were used in ancient Mesopotamia?
7- What do you know about different kinds of the ancient bricks?
8- Why did early Sumerian buildings deteriorate?
9- What did raise the height of the Sumerian city sites?
10- What are ‗tells‘?
11- How did Sumerian slow the decadence process of the civic buildings?
12- What were the characteristics of the Babylonian temples?
13- What is a ―buttress‖?
14- Did Babylonians use metal in making drainage systems?
15- What do you know about Babylonian architectural decorations?
16- What was/were the main building material(s) of the Babylonians and Assyrians?
17- What do you know about the Assyrian architecture?
Lesson 4: Ziggurats
The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats, large layered platforms which
supported temples. Ziggurats are huge pyramidal temple towers from early Mesopotamia which were first built in
Sumerian City-States (figure 12) and then developed in Babylonia and Assyrian cities as well.
Fig. 12- A reconstruction of a Sumerian ziggurat
There are 32 ziggurats known in, or near, Mesopotamia—28 in Iraq and 4 in Iran. Notable ziggurats include the
Great Ziggurat of Ur near Nasiriyah, Iraq, the Ziggurat of Aqar Quf near Baghdad, Iraq, Chogha Zanbil in
Khūzestān, Iran (the most recent to be discovered), and the Sialk near Kashan, Iran. Ziggurats were built as
monuments to local religions. The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Uruk
period during the fourth millennium BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC. The top of the ziggurat was
flat, unlike many pyramids. Some scholars have theorized that these structures might have been the basis of the
Tower of Babel described in Genesis. Sumerian cylinder seals also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those
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built by the Marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq until as recently as 400 AD. The Sumerians also developed the arch,
which enabled them to develop a strong type of roof called a dome.
Questions:
18- How can you explain a ―ziggurat‖?
19- Mention some of the most famous ziggurats.
20- When were the most ancient simple ziggurats built?
21- What do scholars believe about ziggurats?
22- How can we infer similarity between Sumerian architecture and that of Marsh Arabs?
23- What is an ‗arch‘?
Lesson 5: Architectural Style
An architectural style is characterized by the features that make a building or other structure notable or
historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building materials,
and regional character. Most architecture can be classified within a chronology of styles which changes over time
reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which
make new styles possible. Styles therefore emerge from the history of a society. They are documented in the
subject of architectural history. At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually
does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. The new style is sometimes only a rebellion against
an existing style, such as post-modernism (meaning ‗after modernism‘), which has in recent years found its own
language and split into a number of styles which have acquired other names. Styles often spread to other places,
so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist.
For instance, Renaissance ideas emerged in Italy around 1425 and spread to all of Europe over the next 200 years,
with the French, Belgian, German, English, and Spanish Renaissances showing recognizably the same style, but
with unique characteristics. A style may also spread through colonialism, either by foreign colonies learning from
their home country, or by settlers moving to a new land. One example is the Spanish missions in California,
brought by Spanish priests in the late 18th century and built in a unique style. After a style has gone out of
fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur. For instance, classicism has been revived many times and
found new life as neoclassicism. Each time it is revived, it is different. The Spanish mission style was revived 100
years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival. Vernacular
architecture works slightly differently and is listed separately. It is the native method of construction used by local
people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural
cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, and takes little account of national styles or
technology. As western society has developed, vernacular styles have mostly become outmoded due to new
technology and to national building standards.
Questions:
1- How is an architectural style defined?
2- Can we consider an architectural style as a historical phenomenon?
3- How does an architectural style change?
4- What was ―Renaissance‖?
5- How can an architectural style spread through space?
6- What is ―vernacular architecture‖?
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Lesson 6: Concrete History

Throughout human history, cementing materials have played a vital role and were used widely in the ancient
world. The time period during which concrete was first invented depends on how one interprets the term
‗concrete‘. In the broad sense, concrete dates back to at least 6500 BC, when the Nabatea of what we know now
as Syria and Jordan used a precursor of modern-day concrete to build structures that survive to this day. Over
thousands of years, these materials were improved upon, combined with other materials and, ultimately, morphed
into modern concrete. The precursor to concrete was invented in about 1300 BC when Middle Eastern builders
found that when they coated the outsides of their pounded-clay fortresses and home walls with a thin, damp
coating of burned limestone, it reacted chemically with gases in the air to form a hard, protective surface. This
wasn‘t concrete, but it was the beginning of the development of cement. The Egyptians used calcined gypsum as a
cement and the Greeks and Romans used lime made by heating limestone and added sand to make mortar, with
coarser stones for concrete. Then the Romans found that a kind of cement could be made which set under water
and this was used for the construction of harbours. This cement was made by adding crushed volcanic ash to lime
and was later called ―pozzolanic‖ cement, named after the village of Pozzuoli near Vesuvius. In places where
volcanic ash was scarce, such as Britain, crushed brick or tile was used instead. The Romans were therefore
probably the first to manipulate systematically the properties of cementitious materials for specific applications
and situations. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect and engineer in the 1st century BCE wrote his ―Ten
books of Architecture‖ - a revealing historical insight into ancient technology. He has written notes and
instructions about concrete. After the Romans, there was a general loss in building skills in Europe, particularly
with regard to cement. Mortars hardened mainly by carbonation of lime, a slow process. The use of pozzolana
was rediscovered in the late Middle Ages.
From today`s view, concrete is a material used in building construction, consisting of a hard, chemically inert
particulate substance known as an aggregate (usually made from different types of sand and gravel), that is
bonded together by cement and water. Aggregates can include sand, crushed stone, gravel, slag, ashes, burned
shale, and burned clay. Fine aggregate (fine refers to the size of the aggregate particulates) is used in making
concrete slabs and smooth surfaces. Coarse aggregate is used for massive structures.
Questions:
1- When was concrete invented?
2- What are the constituents of modern concrete?
3- Explain what aggregate is!
4- What is ‗mortar‘ and how is it made?
5- How did Egyptians make mortar? What about Greeks and Romans?
6- Which people did use ―pozzolanic‖ cement?
7- Who was ‗Marcus Vitruvius Pollio‘?
8- After Romans, what did happen to building skills?
Lesson 7: Cement and the Industrial Revolution
Cement in its broad sense is thought to be older than humanity itself, having formed naturally 12 million years
ago, when burnt limestone reacted with oil shale. However, artificially making modern cement has a much more
recent history. The Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment brought new ways of thinking which led to the
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Industrial Revolution. In eighteenth century Britain, the interests of industry and empire coincided, with the need
to build lighthouses on exposed rocks to prevent shipping losses. The constant loss of merchant ships and
warships drove cement technology forward. Much later, in 1759, a person so called Smeaton, while building a
lighthouse off the coast of Cornwall in Southwestern England, found that a mix of lime, clay and crushed slag
from iron-making produced a mortar which hardened under water. Several decades later, Joseph Aspdin took out
a patent in 1824 for ―Portland Cement‖, a material he produced by firing finely-ground clay and limestone until
the limestone was calcined. He called it ‗Portland Cement‘ because the concrete made from it looked like Portland
stone, a widely- used building stone in England.
While history usually regards Aspdin as the inventor of Portland cement, Aspdin's cement was not produced at a
high-enough temperature to be the real forerunner of modern Portland cement. Nevertheless, his was a major
innovation and subsequent progress could be viewed as mere development. A few years later, in 1845, Isaac
Johnson made the first modern Portland cement by firing a mixture of chalk and clay at much higher
temperatures, similar to those used today. At these temperatures (1400C-1500C), clinkering occurs and minerals
form which are very reactive and more strongly cementitious. While Johnson used the same materials to make
Portland cement as we use now, three important developments in the manufacturing process lead to modern
Portland cement: development of rotary kilns, addition of gypsum to control setting, and the use of ball mills to
grind clinker and raw materials. From the turn of the 20th century, rotary cement kilns gradually replaced the
original vertical shaft kilns, used originally for making lime. Rotary kilns heat the clinker mainly by radiative heat
transfer and this is more efficient at higher temperatures, enabling higher burning temperatures to be achieved.
Also, because the clinker is constantly moving within the kiln, a fairly uniform clinkering temperature is achieved
in the hottest part of the kiln, the burning zone. The two other principal technical developments, gypsum addition
to control setting and the use of ball mills to grind the clinker, were also introduced at around the start of the 20th
century.
Questions:
1- When did ‗natural‘ cement form?
2- Mention the cause/causes of developing cement industry during the Industrial Revolution!
3- How did ‗shipping‘ drive forward cement technology?
4- What did Smeaton do about making cement?
5- How did Joseph Aspdin contribute to cement technology?
6- According to the history, who did initially make Portland cement?
7- Why can`t Aspdin's cement be regarded as a real modern Portland cement?
8- What was the main difference between the Aspdin`s approach and Johnson`s in making Portland cement?
9- What were the three main developments which led to the emergence of modern Portland cement?
10- What is a ―kiln‖ and which kind of kiln is used to produce cement?
11- What do you know about ‗clinkering‘ process?
Lesson 8: A Few Architectural Terms, Types and …

Here some well known architectural terms and structures will concisely be reviewed as below:
a- Acropolis-An acropolis (meaning ‗city on a hill‘) was a settlement type in ancient Greek cities that evolved
into a religious sanctuary. The high site provided natural defences as a citadel and the mountain itself contributed
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to its religious significance by the presence of sacred springs. If the city was attacked, citizens could congregate in
the acropolis where all the important buildings were. In Greek colonies, the acropolis is often a fortified citadel.
As the city grew and expanded beyond this high area, the site became the most sacred space in the city. The
Acropolis in Athens is the best-known example. It achieved its form in the fifth century BC and is currently an
archaeological site. It is on a hill 300 feet high with easy access only from the west, which made it into a natural
fortress. It contains a temple to the city goddess, Athena, called the Parthenon (447–432 BC), an elaborate
entrance to the religious precinct called the Propylaea (437–432 BC), and other temples such as Erechtheum
(420–393 BC) and the Temple of Athena Nike (426 BC). These buildings are considered models of Greek
architecture due to their outstanding designs. The Acropolis is located south of the agora, the multi-purpose city
centre.
Questions:
1- What is the meaning of ―acropolis‖?
2- Mention the purposes of constructing acropolises!
3- How can you describe an ancient Greek acropolis?
4- What are the main characteristics of the Athens acropolis?
5- Where is Parthenon located?
6- What is Propylaea?
7- Mention a few main parts of the Athens Acropolis!
b- Citadel- A citadel (from the French ‗citadelle‘ or small city) is a fortified settlement or stronghold, sometimes
located on higher ground, built to protect its people from attack. In some cases, the citadel is the city itself with
one system of defence. In others, the citadel is a separate, fortified unit next to a walled suburb developed by
those who had remained next to their protective stronghold. In this case, the citadel becomes an administrative
centre, or a religious centre, to the residential town. In the citadel, the functions of the police and the army were
developed as well as the army barracks. It also served as a granary for the food supplies of the city. The citadel
may also be located within the fabric of the city as a fortified unit. Lewis Mumford states that the citadel has the
marks of a sacred enclosure originally built to honour the gods which was much stronger than was required for
protection. Over time, this strength was helpful as protection against enemies. Citadels have been found in every
culture. Early evidence was found in the Harappan cities (2154–1864 BC), such as Mohenjo-Daro (today located
in Pakistan) which had a citadel separate from the city. In mainland Greece, the citadel in Mycenae (from 3000
BC) was surrounded by walls, and, during its peak period (2200–1600 BC), was occupied by the royal families
and maybe craftsman. The acropolis in Athens was originally a citadel where people could find refuge from
attack. In medieval times, citadels became heavily fortified. During the Renaissance, elegant citadels were first
built next to the city, such as the one in Mannheim in Germany, which was then rebuilt in 1697 as a continuous
defensive system that included the city grid.
Questions:
1- What is a ―citadel‖ and what`s the meaning of the word?
2- How can you fortify a building?
3- Mention some different functions of a citadel!
4- What does Lewis Mumford say about the citadel?
5- What do you know about Harrapan cities?
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6- How did citadels change during medieval times?

7- Mention a citadel built during the Renaissance!
c- Wattle and daub- Wattle and daub is a composite building material used for making walls, in which a woven
lattice of wooden strips called wattle is daubed with a sticky material usually made of some combination of wet
soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw (figures 13-14).
Fig. 13 Fig. 14-Wattle and daub in wooden frames
Wattle and daub has been used for at least 6000 years and is still an important construction material in many parts
of the world. Many historic buildings include wattle and daub construction, and the technique is becoming
popular again in more developed areas as a low-impact sustainable building technique.
Questions:
1- Describe wattle and daub!
2- How wattle is daubed?
3- When does the application of wattle and daub date back?
d- Arch- It is the shape that spans an opening, usually curved. Arch as an architectural feature has been used
since prehistoric periods in the western Asia. There are all types of arches, from those with little or no curve to
pointed arches. Traditional materials for making architectural arches were mud, mud- brick, burned brick, mortar,
etc. Today many modern materials such as GFRC (glass fiber reinforced concrete) are applied to make arches.
GFRC and GFRP (architectural fiberglass) may be used in arch cladding, wrapping a structural member, to
provide the appearance of the arch. Occasionally, the GFRC actually functions as an arch to support the GFRC
above it. Some types of arches can be seen in the figures 15-31.
Figs. 15-31- Some types of arches
Questions:
1- What is an ‗arch‘ in architecture?
2- What does ‗GFRC‘ stand for?
3- When was ‗arch‘ invented?
4- What are the traditional materials for making arches?
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d- Anchor- A fastener used to secure pieces of stone, metal, GFRC or GFRP to a structure. Anchor types for
GFRC include dowels, weld plates, straps, dovetails, threaded inserts, screws and Z clips. Some types of GFRC
and cast stone anchors are illustrated below (figures 32-38):
Figs. 32-38
When metal frames are used with GFRC, flex anchors are bent metal rods, used to connect the GFRC face, to a
metal frame. The flex anchors, which are typically stainless steel or galvanized steel, allow for variations in
thermal expansion and contraction, between the GFRC and the steel frame. The anchor must carry gravity
loads, wind loads, seismic loads, etc and transfer them from the GFRC to the structure.
Questions:
1- What is an ‗anchor‘ in architecture?
2- Mention some types of anchors!
3- Where thermal fluctuations occur, which kinds of anchors are suitable?
4- What is/are the anchor task(s) in a structure?
e- Baluster- One of the short, vertical support members of a balustrade (figures 39- 55). Traditional balusters are
made up of stone, wood, metal, etc. Today, balusters of GFRC and GFRP offer a relatively light, durable
balustrade. In areas where the balustrade protects from a fall off, such as on the balcony, code requires minimum
spacing of the balusters. The word baluster (sometimes called banister or bannister) is derived from the Italian
balaustra which means ―pomegranate flower‖ from its resemblance to the flowers vase like shape.
Figs. 39-55- some types of balusters and a part of a balustrade
The baluster dates back to ancient Assyria where it was used in windows. In later times balusters and balustrade
were used in several renaissance palaces and balconies in Venice and Verona. Famed sculptor, painter and
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architect Michelangelo is reported to have designed the first simple vase shaped baluster and used balustrade on
several of his works. Balusters and balustrade can be found in almost all architectural styles.
Questions:
1- What is a ‗baluster‘?
2- Which materials are used in making balusters?
3- What is the origin of the word ‗baluster‘
4- When were early balusters used in architecture?
5- What has been said about Michelangelo in relation with making balusters?
f- Cornice- A molded horizontal projection that crowns the top of a wall where it meets with the edge of a roof.
The term cornice is also used to refer to the top section of an entablature (resting on the frieze) or to refer to the
ornamental molding at the top of a door or window surround. In Iran, among some traditional architects cornice
also refers to the horizontal stone or ceramic bands in the lowest part of the internal walls. Such as other cases
mentioned above, today, GFRC cornices offer architects a number of design possibilities and, shape selection is
virtually unlimited. Stone textures, acid washed concretes, colors, terra-cottas, and even metallic are all possible
finish options. Cornices can be designed in traditional or contemporary styles. Custom shapes can be used, or you
can select a stock profile from the extensive collections. Dentils, reveals, cantilevered projections, carved details,
can all be incorporated into the cornice. The light weight and strength of Stromberg GFRC and Architectural
Fiberglass, combined with modern technology and repetitive casting techniques makes it affordable to use
complex shapes and profiles. Because of the relatively light weight and strength of GFRC and Architectural
Fiberglass, the cornice can cantilever beyond the buildings structure without costly additional support. Wind and
other loads are transferred back to the building‘s structure. Cornices provide the visual finishing touch to the roof
line.
Questions:
1- What is a ‗cornice‘?
2- How is cornice defined among some traditional architects of Iran?
3- What are the advantages of the modern cornices?
4- Mention some shapes of cornices!
5- Physically, how is a cornice supported in a building?
g- Necropolis- This is an archaeological term of Greek origin, meaning city of the dead. The term was borrowed
from the name of a suburb of ancient Alexandria in Egypt, which was out of the peninsula and there were many
gardens, graves and places where the dead were worshipped. Ancestor worship was practiced in Egypt from as
early as the third millennium BC. It was later also adopted by the Greeks and the Romans. The size of a tomb and
its degree of decoration in a necropolis were determined in part by the owner‘s wealth. Similarly, a tomb‘s
position relative to the centre of the necropolis correlated with the owner‘s resources, as the larger and more
lavishly decorated tombs were located there. The tomb façades in a necropolis generally faced eastwards towards
the rising sun, an arrangement that is traced back to Pharaonic times. In ancient Greece, the necropolis was
located outside the city walls along the roads leading into the city and the graves were decorated with little
temples, statuettes, sculptures and ana-glyphs with information about the social status of the dead. The most well-
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known necropolises are the necropolises of Thebes and of Sakkara in ancient Egypt, the necropolises of the royal
graves in the acropolis of Mycenae and of Ceramikos in ancient Greece, and the Roman necropolis in Pompeii.
Questions:
1- Explain ‗necropolis‘ and its etymology!
2- What did influence the size and decorations of a tomb?
3- What do you know about necropolises in ancient Greek?
4- Where are the most famous necropolises located in?
5- What do you know about Pompeii?
Lesson 9: Emergence of Urban Planning
The construction of cities was the end product of trends which began in the Neolithic Revolution. The Sumerians
were the first society to construct the city itself as a built form. They were proud of this achievement as attested in
the Epic of Gilgamesh which opens with a description of Uruk, its walls, streets, markets, temples, and gardens.
Uruk itself is significant as the center of an urban culture which both colonized and urbanized western Asia.
The growth of the city was partly planned and partly organic. Planning is evident in the walls, high temple
district, main canal with harbor and the main street. The finer structure of residential and commercial spaces is the
reaction of economic forces to the spatial limits imposed by the planned areas resulting in an irregular design with
regular features. Because the Sumerians recorded real estate transactions it is possible to reconstruct much of the
urban growth pattern, density, property value, and other metrics from cuneiform text sources. The typical city
divided space into residential, mixed use, commercial, and civic spaces. The residential areas were grouped by
profession. At the core of the city was a high temple complex always sited slightly off of the geographical center.
This high temple usually predated the founding of the city and was the nucleus around which the urban form
grew. The districts adjacent to gates had a special religious and economic function. The city always included a
belt of irrigated agricultural land including small hamlets. A network of roads and canals connected the city to this
land.
Questions:
1- Which process did lead to city construction?
2- Who were the first city makers?
3- How can we get information about the Sumerian cities?
4- What were the main parts of a Sumerian city?
5- Spatially, how was a Sumerian city divided?
6- Where were Sumerian temples located?
7- What do you know about the roles of areas near city gates?
Lesson 10: Building Materials in Iran during the Islamic Period
Building materials vary from place to place and according to the period although certain materials and techniques
tend to remain predominant. For most of the Islamic period the shortage of suitable stone in Iran has meant that
brick (baked or unbaked) has been the main construction material. Unbaked mud brick or pisé is generally the
cheapest building material and has been used for most Iranian houses since early times. In many buildings mud
brick is used in conjunction with baked brick which is employed for the more important parts of the structure.
Baked (or fired) bricks were used for more important monuments in the early Islamic period although later they
were adopted for a wider range of building types. In the earliest monuments brickwork is undecorated with large
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expanses of plain wall in the Sassanian tradition. In later buildings decorative patterns are introduced which reach
their culmination under the Seljuks with complex geometric patterns and inscriptions (figures 56-58).
Figs. 56-58
Two techniques of brickwork decoration (hazarbaf) are used, one employing bricks of standard size arranged in
simple patterns and the other using bricks specially cut or manufactured for the purpose. The latter technique was
more suitable for inscriptions and complex motifs. Also during the Seljuk period buildings began to be decorated
with glazed bricks and coloured ceramic tile inlays. During the Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods the preferred colours
were turquoise, light blue and dark blue. In the earlier buildings glazed tiles and bricks were set into the exterior
walls of buildings to enliven the uniform earth colours of the brick and dark blue; however, during the fourteenth
century the technique of tile mosaic was developed whereby large areas would be covered by tiles specially cut or
shaped to form geometric and floral designs. Under the Timurids new colours were introduced including green,
yellow and terracotta. The technique of tile mosaic was perfected in the fifteenth century by the dynasty. During
the sixteenth century the Saffavids introduced overglaze painted panels using a technique known as ‗haft-rang‘
(i.e. seven colours). The advantage of this technique was that it was possible to cover large areas fairly cheaply,
although the quality of the colours was inferior to that produced in tile mosaics.
Cut stone architecture is rare in Iran and there is no tradition of ashlar masonry to compare with that of the eastern
Mediterranean. There are, however, several notable exceptions to this such as the Khuday Khaaneh of the Friday
mosque in Shiraz built in 1351. However, most stone buildings in Iran were made out of rubble stones set within a
thick mortar and covered with plaster. The lack of a stone carving tradition in Iran led to the development of
decorative plasterwork or stucco. The technique of stucco decoration was developed under the Sassanians, but
achieved its definitive Islamic form at the Abbasid capital of Samarra in Iraq. Subsequently stucco decoration in
Iran developed its own form (figures 59-61) and was used in particular for decorating mihrabs.
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Figs. 59-61 Figs. 62-63
Wood is rarely used in Iran except in the northwest region on the borders of the Caspian Sea. Unfortunately few
wooden structures survive from the earlier periods although there are several notable examples from the Saffavid
period. The most famous example of wooden architecture is the porch of the Ali Qapu Palace (figures 62-63) in
Isfahan which consists of a flat roof supported on huge wooden columns with muqarnas capitals. Although fairly
unique because of its size the porch of the Ali Qapu Palace represents a traditional form in Iranian architecture.
Questions:
1- What do you know about building materials of Iran during the Islamic period?
2- Why brick (baked or unbaked) has been the main building material in Iran?
3- What is ‗pisé‘?
4- When was the peak of brick decorations in Iran?
5- Explain the two types of brick decorations during the Seljuk period!
6- Mention some other architectural decorations of the Seljuk period!
7- During the Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods, which colours were most used?
8- Why did architects set glazed tiles in the exterior walls?
9- When did the technique of tile mosaic culminated?
10- Explain the advantage and disadvantage of the over-glaze painted panels!
11- What can you say about cut stone architecture in Iran during the Islamic period?
12- Mention a cut stone made building of the Islamic period in Iran!
13- What did the lack of stone carving tradition lead to in Iran?
14- Describe the process of formation of stucco decorations in Iran and its neighborhood!
15- What do you know about Samarra stucco styles? Who did introduce these styles?
16- What can be said about the application of wood in Iran during the Islamic period?
Lesson 11: Environmental Design
Environmental design seeks to create spaces that will enhance the natural, social, cultural and physical
environment of particular areas. It has become increasingly allied to the need for producing a sustainable urban
form. The relationship of people to place, their identification with specific neighbourhoods and their use of
particular spaces for social, political and cultural activities may be influenced by design and urbanism as a way of
life. Designers must understand social psychology, human behaviour and ecology. Culturally vibrant street life,
pedestrianized shopping precincts, crime prevention and community safety through natural surveillance, the
construction of children‘s play areas, accessible street furniture and resting places for the elderly and infirm, and
open public spaces that support the practice of social and political democracy are all aspects of good
environmental design as they promote and support social sustainability. Some areas, buildings or monuments may
14
have significant symbolic importance. Environmental design is therefore about helping fashion human experience
through a created physical space.
Architects and engineers may exploit solar and wind power, choose environmentally sound building materials,
recycle old brick and concrete as aggregate, install double or triple glazing, insulate effectively, use natural
ventilation to provide thermal comfort and healthy air circulation, design roof gardens or even turf roofs, allow for
the recycling of grey water, minimize noise pollution through effective sound absorption and be open to
unconventional built forms. Without cooperation between architects, engineers and planners, a great deal of
environmental design will never be seen. Environmental urban design may also aim to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions through energy-efficient buildings, combined heat and power systems, water recycling, and waste
minimization. The implications for politicians, architects, planners, urban designers and ordinary city dwellers are
immense. Politicians will need to develop long-term strategies that impact upon voters‘ lifestyles and consumer
preferences.
Questions:
1- What is the environmental design`s purpose?
2- What may affect different relationships of people?
3- Why must designers understand social psychology, human behaviour and ecology?
4- Mention some socio- cultural considerations of a good environmental design!
5- Mention some physical- technical aspects of a good environmental design!
6- Why should architects, engineers and planners cooperate with each other?
7- How can environmental design influence politicians` situations?
Lesson 12: Monuments
A monument is a building or structure to which cultural, historical or artistic values are attributed. Its
conservation, maintenance or rehabilitation is justified because of these values. Historically, the idea of a
monument was associated with constructions dedicated to commemorate something such as an arch of triumph or
the columns built by imperial Romans. This rigid definition has broadened over time, however, and has come to
include the area immediately surrounding the structure as an integral part of the monument. Within cities,
monuments have become landmarks, reference points to identify or characterize a certain place. Monuments have
also been given educational and political identity functions, to exalt the established regime for example, as well as
commemorative and artistic values, such as in the case of the Statue of Liberty, the White House, or the Arc de
Triomphe in Paris. There is a net relation between the expansion of nationalistic ideas and the construction of
urban monuments at the end of the nineteenth century and up until the first third of the twentieth century.
Representative examples of this abound in European cities.
The concept of monument, or monumentality, has evolved through the ages. The deeper significance of the word
is associated with the idea of remaining or remembering. Thus, some of the first monuments were dolmens or
menhirs, megalithic constructions built for religious or funerary purposes. In early history, the idea of erecting
immense structures that would dominate the landscape can be associated with the concept of monument.
Examples are the pyramids of Egypt or the ziggurats of Mesopotamia. During the Renaissance, the idea of
permanence through time was reaffirmed, and themes from the classical period were recuperated in the numerous
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palaces that proliferated in cities such as Florence, Venice and Rome. During the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, a passion for collecting art objects was ignited, and monumental buildings were erected to house such
collections, the forerunners of museums (Louvre, Hermitage, El Prado). The influence of Baroque tastes for
monumentality in urban constructions can be seen in cities such as Paris, St Petersburg and Vienna, where the
construction of palaces and great churches flourished. In the nineteenth century, the contemporary notion of a
monument as a special structure that preserves the memory of the past came into fashion. Hence, the cities of
Washington and Philadelphia were monumentalized. This concept was also taken into consideration in the
reconstruction of Paris, and in Berlin monuments recalled the power of the newly installed Prussians. This notion
remained relevant to twentieth century architecture, and can be evidenced in structures such as government
buildings, sports stadiums, modern museums, commercial and office buildings, as well as in plazas and open
spaces in urban centres.
Questions:
1- What is a monument?
2- Why are monuments conserved and rehabilitated?
3- How did the idea of a monument emerge?
4- Intellectually, how can monuments impact their cities?
5- Explain the relation(s) between monuments and policy!
6- What do you know about the concept of ‗monument‘ and its probable origins?
7- Mention some early types of monuments!
8- What happened to the idea of permanence during the Renaissance?
9- How did the first museums appear?
10- Where can architectural influence of Baroque be observed clearly?
11- Concisely, explain the process of monumentality from the 19th century on!
Lesson 13: Modernism
Modernism includes the modes of artistic representation emergent in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries that sought to give formal expression to experiences of capitalist modernity. Modernist artists and
writers sought to shatter the formal limitations of the prevailing artistic mode of expression, realism, and
introduced a number of innovative techniques to capture the exhilarating, yet chaotic, modern urban experience.
The period broadly between 1850 and 1920 witnessed a series of profound economic, political, technological,
cultural and geographical transformations that engendered a series of wide-ranging changes in the nature of
everyday life in certain key sites. These changes included the restructuring of European capitalism, the rise of the
industrial factory system and the implications of this in the massive growth of urban areas, new building
technologies and architectural forms, such as the first skyscrapers, technological changes that gave rise to new
forms of transport, communication and media, such as photography, film and advertising, and a heightened
heterogeneity to social configurations such as the crowd and to urban social and cultural life more generally.
The imprint of modernity was uneven and its impacts were felt most acutely in the great cities of Europe and
North America such as London, Paris, Berlin, St Petersburg and New York. As a consequence, much modernist
art and literature was explicitly concerned with exploring and representing the development of a distinctly modern
urban consciousness in these cities. The cities of modernity were spaces where few, if any, of the settled
certainties of the pre-modern world remained. Commentators have argued that everyday experience in these cities
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was dualistic, being both exhilarating yet frightening, dynamic yet precarious, liberating yet disturbing. This led
to a crisis of representation among artists and writers, as the formal limitations of realism precluded its being able
to give artistic form to this experience. As partly a response to, and partly a critique of, the changes capitalist
modernity was undergoing, a number of avant-garde artistic movements emerged that embodied the major
aesthetic concerns of modernism and which engaged directly with, and frequently took as their subject, the
profound transformations of urban space, both physical and social.
Modernism produced many examples of avant-garde artists who, during the early twentieth century, took the
modern urban experience as their subject.1 One of the most potent symbols of modernity was new technology and
numerous artists took this as their subject. Modernist representations of urban space have been criticized as being
highly gendered. It has also been identified as an architectural style based upon the writing and plans of architects
such as Le Corbusier, which sought a form of purity by eschewing decoration and ornamentation. High
modernism, as it was titled, became a dominant architectural style for commercial building and public housing
projects during the 1950s and 1960s. However, it is difficult, if not impossible, to trace any connections between
the philosophies and concerns that underpinned this and those underpinning the modernist artistic repertoire.
Commentators have recognized three distinct phases of aesthetic modernism. The emergence of modernism has
been mapped broadly from 1850 to 1910 and was characterized by a crisis of representation among artists. The
period roughly from 1910 to 1945 has been characterized as the period of ‗heroic modernism‘ during which
avant-garde artistic representations of modernity took shape; it was also a time of political engagement and of
critiques of bourgeois culture. The post-war period until around 1968 has been referred to as ‗high modernism‘,
during which the modernist aesthetic entered the mainstream and was seen in commercial architecture, film and
advertising, and by which time few connections with the conditions within which aesthetic modernism was born
remained.
Questions:
1- How is ‗modernism‘ described?
2- What did modernist artists tend to do?
3- During 1850- 1920, what did happen to the European life?
4- Mention some of the changes occurred between mid 19th to the early 20th century in Europe!
5- How was the imprint of modernity throughout the world?
6- What about the modernist art and literature during the period?
7- Describe the characteristics of the cities of modernity!
8- What have writers argued about the urban life of that period?
9- What did cause the crisis of representation among artists and writers?
10- Mention one of the most effective symbols of modernity!
11- Why have modernist representations of urban space been criticized?
12- Architecturally, what did modernist artists look for?
13- Mention the phases of aesthetic modernism!
14- What can be said about so called ‗heroic modernism‘?
15- What is ‗bourgeois culture‘?
16- Explain ‗high modernism‘ briefly!
1
- Works from this period include Robert Delauney‘s The City of Paris (1912), Ludwig Meidner‘s I and the City (1913) and Berlin (1913), George Grosz‘s
The Big City (1916–17), and Fernand Leger‘s The City (1919).
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Lesson 14: Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a concept used in virtually all disciplines, namely in architecture, archaeology, the visual and
plastic arts, literature, as well as in philosophy and the social sciences. It seems to have been the French
philosopher Lyotard who introduced the term ‗postmodernism‘ firmly into the philosophy discourse. It is often
thought to have been Charles Jencks who did the same in architecture, first in England, with his book The
Language of Post-Modern Architecture (1977). The vision passed from there to the United States and later to the
rest of Europe, in the 1980s, although other authors had used the term before in the architecture context. 2 In his
book, Jencks claims that the death of modernism occurred in 1972 when a group of buildings, built according to
Congrès Internationaux d‘Architecture Moderne (CIAM) principles, was imploded after being considered
unsuitable for living. It is not only difficult to define, due to the fluidity of postmodernism`s boundaries, but also
difficult to locate temporally, because it is not clear exactly when postmodernism began, but certainly in different
moments in each of the various fields. Nevertheless, in spite of its eclectic nature and semantic difficulties, it is
possible to identify certain common ideas and procedures and, therefore, to talk about a postmodern discourse,
embracing a whole range of subjects. And this will depend upon one‘s prior definition of modernism, as this, as
well as postmodernism, are polysemic terms applied either to define historical periods or to refer to different
philosophies, social theories, architecture styles or developments in urbanism.
For some, the prefix ‗post‘ suggests that postmodernism emerged chronologically after modernism; for others,
postmodernism is more a way of thinking than a period and therefore they can coexist temporally as different
attitudes; from another point of view, such as the one expressed by David Harvey or Fredric Jameson, it is no
more than the adaptation to the reindustrialization of urban and metropolitan areas in the framework of an
emerging global economy of flexible accumulation; from yet another perspective, postmodernism should also be
distinguished from postmodernity, as the latter refers to the new socioeconomic, political and cultural conditions
in the developed world, associated with the rise of the post-industrial service oriented global economy.
In architecture, postmodernism developed as a reaction against the academization of modern architecture and
against the ‗international style‘ (1920–70) and its ideology of regularity, rationalization, right angles, hygiene,
purism, standardization, etc. It was a reaction against the inhuman scale of modern architecture, seeking instead to
reintroduce a sense of community and place, recognizing again the local or regional characteristics, therefore
incorporating a variety of styles and influences. It was a reaction against stylistic uniformity, and against, for
example, the idea of Adolph Loos that ornament was to be avoided. Important in this process were the books of
American architect Robert Venturi (Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966), and, as co-author,
Learning from Las Vegas (1972)), a manifesto of postmodern architecture, although without using the term, in
which he argues in favour of vulgar architecture.
Postmodern trends in contemporary urbanism follow closely those in architecture and consist explicitly in an
effort to recreate a sense of continuity with the city‘s history, reemphasizing aesthetics, aiming to improve the
2
-e.g. Joseph Hudnut, in 1949, and Nikolaus Pevsner, in 1967.
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physical landscape by attacking the inhuman scale and sense of urban desolation in most twentieth-century cities.
Postmodern urbanism is coherent with postmodern architecture because both mix eclectically elements and styles
from the past and both combine traditional aesthetics with modern improvements in technology, without being
revivalist. ‗Postmodern urbanism‘ is therefore the term used to group those processes that aim to re-urbanize the
contemporary city, in what some critics see as no more than an act of nostalgia, a shift towards concerns which
are more related to symbolic issues than to social and political concerns.
Questions:
1- How do you define ‗postmodernism‘?
2- Who is said to have introduced the term ‗postmodernism‘ to architecture?
3- What is the Jencks` claim about the destiny of modernism?
4- Why is it difficult to define ‗postmodernism‘?
5- What is David Harvey`s and Fredric Jameson`s idea about postmodernism?
6- From another perspective, how is ‗postmodernism‘ different from ‗postmodernity‘?
7- Why did postmodernism developed in architecture?
8- What was Adolph Loos` idea about architectural decorations?
9- What is the postmodern approach in urbanism?
10- Why is postmodern urbanism coherent with postmodern architecture?
Lesson 15: Sense of Place

Sense of place is a multidimensional, complex construct used to characterize the relationship between people and
spatial settings. Sense of place can be established at different geographic scales: the neighbourhood, city or
country. The term unites two related meanings of sense: (1) understanding and (2) feeling and sensation, such as
smell, taste and sight. As a concept, sense of place acknowledges that places are not merely points in space, but
locations that assume the meanings that people are assigned to them based on experiences, memories and feelings.
Having a sense of place, thus, means to know a place, not necessarily just its spatial structure, but also its
functions, users, ownership, and so forth.
The notion of sense of place is related to the Roman concept of genius loci, spirit of place. However, while in
Roman times each place was thought to ‗own‘ a special character (genius loci), waiting to be revealed, modern
thought conceives sense of place as a social construct dependent on human interpretation of the place setting.
Hence, for the same location, sense of place will vary from person to person and over time. Scientifically, sense of
place serves as a meta-idea or attitude that subsumes related concepts such as place attachment, identity
formation, dependence, security and belonging. People have various means to gain place knowledge. Social
networks, relationships, and length and status of residency are key factors influencing a person‘s development of
sense of place. Short-term, transient residents, therefore, rarely develop feelings of attachment and belonging to a
place akin to those felt by long-term or native residents. Yet travelers and immigrants often derive some sense of
place of their destination prior to arrival from secondary information. In addition, having a (strong) sense of a
place does not inevitably imply a feeling of belonging and security inasmuch as knowing a place can also entail
the feeling of being ‗out of place‘ or excluded.
Studies in environmental behaviour and psychology have developed quantitative measures of sense of place that
equate the level of a person‘s cognition and emotional attachment to a place with different levels of sense of
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place. A sense of place increases with a person‘s knowledge and place attachment. Levels of sense of place appear
positively correlated with people‘s willingness in terms of personal intervention or sacrifice to maintain, protect
or preserve a place‘s condition. Thus, enhancing people‘s sense of place could become an important policy to
foster environmental stewardship and protection. Architecture and urban design can contribute significantly to the
development of a recognizable character of the built environment, which in turn can invoke a sense of place.
While ethnic communities tend to employ architectural elements, materials, and ornaments reminiscent of their
country of origin to create a sense of home away from home, the new urbanism movement aims to recreate the
look and feel of traditional neighbourhoods to instill a sense of place, security and community in new urban
developments.
Questions:
1- How can you describe ‗sense of place‘?
2- Why are places more than points in space?
3- What is the difference between Roman`s attitude and today`s about the concept ‗sense of place‘?
4- What is the scientific function of ‗sense of place‘?
5- How do people gain place knowledge?
6- Does ‗sense of place‘ necessarily create the feeling of belonging and security?
7- What are the consequences of the environmental behaviour and psychological studies?
8- How can architecture and urban design play role in relation with ‗sense of place‘?
9- Compare the ethnic communities` approach to the ‗sense of place‘ with the new urbanism movement`s!
Lesson 16: Vernacular Architecture

Vernacular architecture usually describes buildings created by individuals or groups not trained in formal
(Western) design principles. Vernacular architecture represents the majority of buildings and settlements created
in pre-industrial societies and includes a very wide range of buildings, building traditions, and methods of
construction. Terms such as ‗unselfconscious‘, ‗common‘, ‗folk‘ and ‗indigenous‘ are often used interchangeably
to describe vernacular architecture, but each of these terms does not individually capture its essential qualities.
Some of the more pejorative connotations surrounding vernacular architecture (e.g. provincial, primitive) appear
to have been eroded over time. However, the tendency to describe vernacular architecture in sole contrast to the
‗other architecture‘ (high-style design) still endures. Examples of vernacular architecture abound in almost every
continent.
Vernacular architecture evolves over time through a process of trial and error. These buildings and settlements
can be recognized by their integration into the socio-cultural landscape within which they are set. Therefore,
scholars argue that it is impossible to understand vernacular architecture in terms of its form qualities alone.
Vernacular buildings hold great perceptual and associational meaning for their users. For example, religious or
sacred buildings in traditional cultures are organized to conform to divine cosmologies that structure space and to
rigorous guidelines that direct building construction. The organization of these spaces is understandable only in
terms of the underlying sacred meanings. It is imperative that vernacular architecture study occurs within the
cultural context within which it was created.
20
Vernacular architecture has responded to changes in availability of building materials and construction
technologies, and socio-cultural transformations. For example, in the United States, in the last fifty years,
demographic shifts, suburbanization and the advent of the automobile have collectively contributed to the
development of new utilitarian buildings that cannot be considered ‗architecture‘ in an elite sense. These include
new building types such as gas stations, supermarkets, fast food outlets and even mass-produced housing. These
building types are now distinctive and enduring elements of the American landscape. Some architects argue that it
is important to understand these emergent architectural forms and the meanings they hold for present-day society.
To capture this complexity, scholars have introduced an intermediate category called ‗popular architecture‘ that is
primarily urban and postindustrial. Popular architecture mediates between high-style architecture and vernacular
architecture.
Vernacular architecture studies is now a multidisciplinary field that integrates concepts and methodologies from
disciplines such as anthropology, archaeology, geography and history in addition to the traditional fields such as
architecture, landscape architecture and art history.
Questions:
1- What is ‗vernacular architecture‘?
2- Mention some examples for vernacular architecture in Iran!
3- What are the other names of vernacular architecture?
4- What do scholars argue about vernacular architecture?
5- Why have scholars introduced a category so called ‗popular architecture‘?
Lesson 17: The Persian/Islamic Architecture

Iran is recognized by UNESCO as being one of the cradles of civilization. Architecture in the Iranian plateau has
begun from prehistoric times some 8000 thousand years ago or more. However the architectural remains of the
historical/ Islamic periods have occupied the most volume of the related literature to itself. The pre-Islamic styles
includes 3-4 thousand years of architectural development from various civilizations of the Iranian plateau. Each of
the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that over the
ages has spread wide and far to other cultures being adopted. Although Iran has suffered its share of destruction,
including Alexander`s decision to burn Persepolis, there are sufficient remains to form a picture of its classical
architecture.
The Achaemenids built monuments on a grand scale. The artists and materials they used were brought in from
practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. Pasargadae set the standard: its city was
laid out in an extensive park with bridges, gardens, colonnaded palaces and open column pavilions. Pasargadae
along with Susa and Persepolis expressed the authority of The King of Kings, the staircases of the latter recording
in relief sculpture the vast extent of the imperial frontier.
The emergence of the Parthians and Sassanids coincided with the appearance of new forms. Parthian innovations
fully flowered during the Sassanid period with massive barrel-vaulted chambers, solid masonry domes, and tall
columns. This influence was to remain for years to come. The roundness of the city of Baghdad in the Abbasid
era for example, points to its Persian precedents such as Firouzabad in Fars. The ruins of Persepolis, Ctesiphon,
21
Jiroft, Sialk, Pasargadae, Firouzabad, Arg-é Bam, and thousands of other ruins may give us merely a distant
glimpse of what contribution Persians made to the art of building.
The fall of the Sassanid Empire to invading Islamic forces led to the creation of remarkable religious buildings in
Iran. Arts such as calligraphy, stucco work, mirror work, and mosaic work, became closely tied with architecture
in Iran in the new era. Archaeological excavations have provided sufficient documents in support of the impacts
of Sassanid architecture on the architecture of the Islamic world. In fact, the Islamic architecture of Iran draws
ideas from its pre-Islamic predecessor, and has geometrical and repetitive forms, as well as surfaces that are richly
decorated with glazed tiles, carved stucco, patterned brickwork, floral motifs, and calligraphy. Many experts
believe the period of Persian architecture from the 15th through 17th Centuries to be the most brilliant of the post-
Islamic era. Various structures such as mosques, mausoleums, bazaars, bridges, and different palaces have mainly
survived from this period.
In the old Persian architecture, semi-circular and oval-shaped vaults were of great interest, leading Safavi
architects to display their extraordinary skills in making massive domes. In the words of D. Huff, a German
archaeologist, the dome is the dominant element in Persian architecture. Domes can be seen frequently in the
structure of bazaars and mosques, particularly during the Safavi period in Isfahan. Iranian domes are distinguished
for their height, proportion of elements, beauty of form, and roundness of the dome stem. The outer surfaces of
the domes are mostly mosaic faced, and create a magical view. In Isfahan, Safavids tried to achieve grandeur in
scale (Naghsh-i Jahan Square is the 6th largest square worldwide) and gained knowledge about building tall
buildings with vast inner spaces. However, the quality of ornaments was decreased in comparison with those of
the 14th and 15th centuries. The great mosques of Khorasan, Isfahan, and Tabriz each used local geometry, local
materials, and local building methods to express in their own ways the order, harmony, and unity of Islamic
architecture. And thus, when the major monuments of Islamic Persian architecture are examined, they reveal
complex geometrical relationships, a studied hierarchy of form and ornament, and great depths of symbolic
meaning.
Questions:
1- What is the meaning of ‗cradle of civilization‘?
2- When did architecture begin in the Iran plateau?
3- Mention the main pre-Islamic architectural styles of Iran!
4- Where did Achaemenids build their monuments?
5- Describe the architectural changes during the Parthian and Sassanid periods!
6- Mention two ancient cities with round plans!
7- Explain the artistic-architectural changes after the Sassanid decline!
8- What were the main elements of the Islamic architecture and its decorations?
9- What is the Huff`s opinion about Persian architecture?
10- What is a ‗dome‘?
11- What are the architectural characteristics of the Safavid period?
Lesson 18: Angkor Thom

Angkor Thom (Khmer: ;អង្គ រធំ
literally: ―Great City‖), located in modern Cambodia, was the last and most enduring
capital city of the Khmer empire (figures 64-66).
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Figs. 64-66 Map of Central Angkor Thom
It was established in the late twelfth century by King Jayavarman VII. One inscription found in the city refers to
Jayavarman as the groom and the city as his bride. Angkor Thom is in the Bayon style. This manifests itself in the
large scale of the construction, in the widespread use of laterite, in the face-towers at each of the entrances to the
city and in the naga-carrying giant figures which accompany each of the towers.
Fig- 67- Terrace of the Elephants
At the centre of the city is Jayavarman's state temple, the Bayon, with the other major sites clustered around the
Victory Square immediately to the north. The city lies on the west bank of the Siem Reap River, a tributary of
Tonle Sap, about a quarter of a mile from the river. It covers an area of 9 km², within which are located several
monuments from earlier eras as well as those established by Jayavarman and his successors. The south gate of
Angkor Thom is 7.2 km north of Siem Reap, and 1.7 km north of the entrance to Angkor Wat. The walls, 8 m
high and flanked by a moat, are each 3 km long, enclosing an area of 9 km². The walls are of laterite buttressed by
earth, with a parapet on the top. There are gates at each of the cardinal points, from which roads lead to the Bayon
at the centre of the city. As the Bayon itself has no wall or moat of its own, those of the city are interpreted by
archaeologists as representing the mountains and oceans surrounding the Bayon's Mount Meru. Another gate—the
Victory Gate—is 500 m north of the east gate; the Victory Way runs parallel to the east road to the Victory
Square and the Royal Palace north of the Bayon. Angkor Thom seems not to be the first Khmer capital on the site
as Yasodharapura, dating from three centuries earlier, was centred slightly further northwest, and Angkor Thom
overlapped parts of it. The most notable earlier temples within the city are the former state temple of Baphuon,
and Phimeanakas, which was incorporated into the Royal Palace. The Khmers did not draw any clear distinctions
between Angkor Thom and Yashodharapura: even in the fourteenth century an inscription used the earlier name.
This name, Angkor Thom—great city—was in use from the 16th century.
The last temple known to have been constructed in Angkor Thom was Mangalartha, which was dedicated in 1295.
Thereafter the existing structures continued to be modified from time to time, but any new creations were in
perishable materials and have not survived. The Ayutthaya Kingdom, led by King Borommarachathirat II, sacked
23
Angkor Thom, forcing the Khmers under Ponhea Yat to relocate their capital southeast. Angkor Thom was
abandoned some time prior to 1609, when an early western visitor wrote of an uninhabited city, ‗as fantastic as
the Atlantis of Plato‘. It is believed to have sustained a population of 80,000–150,000 people.
Questions:
1- Where is Angkor Thom located in?
2- Who did build Angkor Thom?
3- When was it built?
4- What is the content of the inscription found in Angkor Thom?
5- How tall were the Angkor Thom`s walls?
6- What does ‗flanking by a moat‘ mean?
7- What is the archaeologists` opinion about the Angkor Thom`s walls?
8- Mention another old city near Angkor Thom!
9- What do you know about the ‗Atlantis of Plato‘?
Lesson 19: Factory

The history of the factory as a building type in the 20th century parallels that of architecture in general. However, as a new
typology, it has had a fluctuating status in the profession between that of ―building‖ and that of ―architecture.‖ For early
modern architects, the factory became the epitome of modernism both as a building type that signified the modern era and in
the technological innovations that were necessary to create these buildings for the production of goods. This was the building
type in which form truly necessitated following function because the buildings are directed by the manufacturing processes
inside, from automobiles to wartime machinery and computers. The increasing dominance and changes in methodologies for
mass production influenced the spatial and structural needs of the factories. These developments were translated into
innovations in building technologies with new uses for reinforced concrete, steel, large glass and metal curtain walls, open
floor space, lightweight suspension systems, tent structures, and prefabricated kits of parts.
In terms of form, early 20th-century factories sustained the look of the previous century‘s multistory buildings as a result of
the high cost of land that was often near the water‘s edge for easy shipping of products. In addition, before the advent of the
conveyor belt, moving goods vertically by cranes and gravity was still easier than pulling them horizontally. This is seen in
the multistory factory that Albert Kahn designed for Henry Ford in Highland Park near Detroit in 1909, a factory that then
influenced Giaccomo Matte-Trucco‘s design of the Lingotto Fiat Factory in Turin, Italy, in 1913.
Advances in the strength of concrete influenced factory design, such as in the Larkin Plant (1907) in Buffalo, New York,
built over 10 years by R.J.Reidpath & Son. This factory could withstand larger window spans to increase natural light in the
building compared with 19th-century brick-pier construction with small windows. Concrete improved fireproofing and
allowed for faster construction, especially when it could be prefabricated in pieces. Engineers played extremely important
roles in the development of new building systems for factories, such as Ernest Ransome‘s reinforced-concrete system, the
Ransome Bar. Ransome simplified the systems of the French engineer Francois Hennebique so that the floor slab continued
to the face of the building and became a stringcourse, with vertical pieces forming lintels and sills. Precast structural wall
units could be set in place and then cast as the floor in an early prefabricated system with in-fill in brick.
Later, prefabricated systems were developed in concrete, metals, and glass curtain wall systems, emphasizing the use of the
factory building as a testing ground for new technologies. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 818 In Berlin Peter
Behrens designed the AEG Turbine Factory (1908–09) with Mies van der Rohe and developed a new curtain wall system of
glass and steel that allowed light into the vast open space. Unusual at the time, the steel pier is exposed and the skeleton
revealed, creating a monumentality and a heroic metaphor for industry. The recessed glass facade influenced the later curtain
24
wall systems. Factories were experimental not only in terms of structure and form but also in terms of the management of the
workers inside. Ford, who adopted the ideas of Frederick Taylor on employee performance, believed that by providing a
decent workplace, workers would be more productive. Paternalistic in his attitude, Ford desired light and air in the factories,
encouraging Albert Kahn to use skylight monitors for daylighting.
Throughout the Great Depression, Ford influenced other factory owners to consider the well-being of the workers because it
affected their morale. Ford eventually paid workers well enough for them to be able to afford his own product, which gave
rise to a working class with expendable income. These American industrial buildings and the work of Behrens influenced the
designs of numerous European modern architects of the early 1920s and 1930s, such as Le Corbusier, Gropius, and
Mendelsohn. Walter Gropius, with Hannes Meyer, designed a new building in 1913 for the Fagus Shoe Last company in
Alfeld an-der-Liene, Germany. The primary feature, the glazed workshop block, was a departure from the heavier, piered
structures and was based on the Bauhaus ideology in its lightness and transparency.
During World War II, Kahn and others designed primarily factories with one story, which had many advantages. They were
faster to build, distributed power horizontally, and allowed more light into the building. The one-story shed-type building
allowed for larger machines and more flexible and open floor plans for the new horizontal assembly line production, which
could then be shifted easily to the truck- and train-based transportation systems, with train lines running close to or even
through a manufacturing plant. The placement of the administration buildings was also a focus in the layout of a factory
complex. Early in the century, the administration buildings were usually in a separate head house away from the plant. Alvar
Aalto designed two paper mills in Finland; one, the Toppila Pulp Mill (1930–33) in Oulu, was a design primarily for the
director‘s buildings and outbuildings, whereas the Sunila Pulp Mill (1936–38) at Lotka also included housing. Aalto also
influenced the placement of the mill on the existing bedrock and incorporated the forms of technology in his design.
In the 1950s postwar era, steel was still in high demand, so factories had to be built in concrete. One of these was the
Brynmawr Rubber Ltd. South Wales, Architects‘ Co- Partnership, which achieved the largest shell dome structure at its time
in order to have huge open floor. The increasing automation and mass production dictated open floors, wide bays, and day
lighting to reach the inner factory. The single story continued to solve this problem best. Both Richard Rogers‘ factory for
Inmos in England and Nicholas Grimshaw‘s factory for Igus in Germany exemplify the high-tech prefabricated kit of parts
and repetitive modules that became widely used in the 1980s. The Financial Times Printing Plant in London, designed by
Grimshaw, with large windows into the processing area, brought printing into the public view. In the 1950s workers‘
satisfaction and their motivation became a focus of corporate executives, so that architects improved the quality of places for
socialization, such as Entries A–F 819 workers‘ lounges, cafeterias, and athletic facilities, and the Japanese influenced the
concept of teamwork, leading to different spatial arrangements. The head offices became a part of the main building
structure, so that the entire factory was under one roof for easy communication between research teams and the production-
line workers. With the advent of computer-directed manufacturing, the need for flexible, adaptable, and expandable spaces
became increasingly dominant. Factory buildings throughout the 20th century have become an innovative system in which
architects to explore new aesthetic issues, combined with practical building function, technological systems, and rapid
construction, that are profitable for the client while attending to the worker.
Lesson 20: Strength of materials

Strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials, is a subject which deals with the behavior of solid
objects subject to stresses and strains. The complete theory began with the consideration of the behavior of one
25
and two dimensional members of structures, whose states of stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and
was then generalized to three dimensions to develop a more complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of
materials. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen Timoshenko.
The study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in
structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods employed to predict the response of a
structure under loading and its susceptibility to various failure modes takes into account the properties of the
materials such as its yield strength, ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in addition the
mechanical element's macroscopic properties (geometric properties), such as its length, width, thickness,
boundary constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.
In materials science, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic
deformation. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that result from their acting on
a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal forces within the member called stresses
when those forces are expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the
material in various manner. Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed
on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or shear. The stresses and strains that
develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the load capacity of that member. This
requires a complete description of the geometry of the member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member
and the properties of the material of which the member is composed. With a complete description of the loading
and the geometry of the member, the state of stress and of state of strain at any point within the member can be
calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load carrying capacity) of
that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability to maintain its original configuration)
can be calculated. The calculated stresses may then be compared to some measure of the strength of the member
such as its material yield or ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a
deflection criteria that is based on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may be
compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be used to
calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic environment in which it will be used.
Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stress–strain curve (yield stress) beyond which the
material experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed upon removal of the loading and as a
result the member will have a permanent deflection. The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering
stress–strain curve corresponding to the stress that produces fracture.
A concise terminology of architecture ‫هعٌی برخی ّاژگاى ّ اصطالحات هعواری‬
abacus: )ْٛ‫ (ثبالتؽیٓ ثطم قؽ قت‬the top part of a column capital.
adobe: )‫ (ضهت‬sun-dried, unburned brick of clay and straw.
aesthetics: )‫ (ؾیجبیی نٕبقی‬a particular theory or conception of beauty or art.
altar: )‫ ػطؽ‬ٚ ‫ؼ‬ٛ‫ؾأعْ ثط‬ٛ‫ ِسً تمعیُ ٘عایب یب ق‬-ٖ‫ (لؽثبٔگب‬a usually raised structure or place on which sacrifices are offered or incense
is burned in worship.
altar frontal: decoration of the front of an altar table, often either a relief sculpture or inlay. Usually made of marble but
precious materials such as ivory or silver may also be used. Sometimes called antependium.
altar panel: large painting of a religious subject, situated above an altar in a church.
26
ancon: )ْٛ‫ یک ثطم تؿئیٕی ظؼ قؽ قت‬-ْٛ‫ (آٔک‬a decorative or scroll bracket that supports a cornice or entablature over a mantle,
door or window.
anchor: ‫بؼ‬ِٙ
anchorage: ْ‫بؼ وؽظ‬ِٙ -‫بؼي‬ِٙ

arcade: )‫ (گػؼگبٖ طبق ظاؼ‬vaulted passage.
arch: )‫ طبق‬-‫ـ‬ٛ‫ (ل‬a typically curved structural member spanning an opening and serving as a support (as for the wall or other
weight above the opening).
architect: ‫ «آکی تکت») ِؼّبؼ‬:‫(تٍفظ‬
architectural: ‫ط ثٗ ِؼّبؼی‬ٛ‫ «آکی تکچؽاي») ِؽث‬:‫(تٍفظ‬
architecture: ‫ «آکی تکچؽ») ِؼّبؼی‬:‫(تٍفظ‬
architrave: )ْٛ‫ (ثطم تستبٔی قؽقت‬the lowermost part of an entablature in classical architecture that rests directly on top of a
column.
armature: ‫ؼ‬ٛ‫ آؼِبت‬-‫ِیً گؽظ‬
armed concrete: ‫ْ ِكٍر‬ٛ‫ثت‬
‫ًوًَْ ای ازیک آًکْى‬ ‫برخی از اًْاع قْضِا در هعواری ّ اجسای قْش‬

Arches:1-round: imp (impost), sp (springer), v (voussoir), k (keystone), ext(extrados),
int (intrados); 2-horseshoe; 3-lancet; 4-ogee; 5-trefoil; 6-basket-handle; 7-Tudor
arris: the external angle intersection between two flat or curved faces, as between two flutes
of a column, or the flat raised area between the columns concave flutes.
atlas: male version of a caryatide, a sculpted figure used instead of a column to support an entablature. Also called telamon.
ashlar: ‫ل‬ٛ‫بؼ گ‬ٙ‫ػي قٕگ قبضتّبٔي چ‬ٛٔ -‫ قٕگ ثبظثُؽ‬the term for rectilinear, squared-off blocks of stone used in building.
attic base: a column base with two rings (An upper and lower torus).
axis: )‫ؼ‬ٛ‫ (ِس‬a straight line about which a body or geometric object rotates or may be conceived to rotate.
balconet: )‫ (ثبٌکٓ کبغة‬a false balcony, in front of a window.
balcony: )ٓ‫ (ثبٌک‬platform that projects from the wall of a building and is surrounded by a railing, balustrade, or parapet.
baluster: )‫يؽازی‬ ُ -ٖ‫ْ ٔؽظ‬ٛ‫ (قت‬one of the short, vertical support members of a balustrade.
balustrade: )ٖ‫ ٔؽظ‬-‫ (طبؼِی‬the complete railing system consisting of the Baluster, top rail and sometimes bottom rail.
Balustrade is typically used at the edge of a patio, porch, balcony or roof.
baptismal font: usually made of stone or marble and of various shapes, containing the holy water used during the
ritual of baptism (baptistery).
baptistery: religious building of circular design where the baptismal font is housed. Usually built beside or in front of a
church or cathedral.
baroque: )‫ک‬ٚ‫ (قجک ثبؼ‬the style of architecture and decoration first developed in 17th-century Italy. Characterized by the
conspicuous use of decoration, sculpture and decorative elements.
barrel vault: )‫ طبق ضؽثی‬-‫أٗ ای‬ٛ‫ (طبق اقت‬a semi-cylindrical, arched ceiling element. GFRP (architectural fiberglass) barrel
vaults may be smooth or coffered.
27
base or basement: )ٖ‫ظ‬ٌٛ‫ نب‬-ٗ‫ پبی‬-‫ ( ِپی‬the lower part of a wall, pier, or column considered as a separate architectural feature.
basilica: in ancient Rome the basilica was a public building which served several purposes of an institutional nature, both
civil and religious. The building was generally rectangular and was divided by colonnades. The wall at one end formed a
semi-circular or rectangular apse. The term later came to mean a Christian church which adopted the same design as the
Roman basilica
bas-relief: )ٗ‫ (ٔمم ثؽخكت‬a sculpted or carved work that extends slightly from the plane of its background.
baths: Roman baths consisted of a complex of buildings which were used as public baths and meeting place. They usually
consisted of a series of rooms containing basins, baths and pools with warm, tepid and cold water (known as the calidarium,
the tepidarium and the frigidarium); there was also a laconicum (a steam bath) and a apodyterium (changing room).
‫ًوًَْ ای از آریص یا بر آهذگی‬ ashlar ‫پاًلِای آشلی‬ attic base ‫تَ ضتْى یا پایۀ آتیک‬
‫هیاى دّ شیار تسئیٌی ضتْى‬
‫ ًوًَْ ای از براکت یا طاقچۀ تقْیتی‬bracket ‫ ًردٍ یا طارهی ّ اجسای آى‬Balustrade

battlements: a form of indented parapet around the top of castles and towers which may either be defensive or decorative. a
Guelf battlement was rectangular while the solid upright blocks (merlons) of a Ghibelline battlement were further indented
with a 'V' shape.
bay: Space limited by two adjacent weight-bearing structures (columns, pilasters etc.). In churches the bay is also an area of
the nave defined by four adjacent columns or pilasters in facing pairs. Here, the bay generally has a cross vault.
beam: )ٓ٘‫ تیؽ آ‬-‫ (تیؽ قبضتّبٔی‬a squared-off log or a large, oblong piece of timber, metal, or stone used especially as a horizontal
support in construction.
bed: ‫وف‬
bell tower: (campanile). Structure in the shape of a tower, often incorporated into the outer wall of a church, though it may
also be free-standing. The church bells are housed in the upper section.
block: ‫ن‬ٍٛ‫ث‬
bond: ‫چكجٕعگي‬
bottega: derived from the Latin apothèca, in turn derived from the Greek term apothèke. Room or rooms inside a building,
opening onto the street and used for either a commercial activity or as an artist's or craftsman's workshop.
bracket: )‫ة‬ٛ‫اؼک‬ٛ‫ ظی‬-‫یتی‬ٛ‫ (طبلچۀ تم‬support that carries or appears to carry the weight of the cornice, eave or balcony.
buttress: )‫ نّک‬-‫اؼ‬ٛ‫ (پهتیجبْ ظی‬a structure, usually brick or stone, built against a wall for support or reinforcement.
byzantine art: figurative art which came into being around the 4th century A.D. in the eastern
Roman empire. The name derives from Byzantium, another name for Constantinople, the eastern capital.
camber window: )....( window that has a slight arch at the top.
campanile: bell tower.
capital: )ْٛ‫لبٔی قت‬ٛ‫ (ثطم ف‬the uppermost member of a column or pilaster crowning the shaft and taking the weight of the
entablature.
cardo: Latin term for the main road running in a north-south direction through a town or city and crossing the decumanus
which ran from west to east.
casting: ‫ؼیطتٗ گؽي‬
28
cathedral: the main church of a bishopric. The bishop officiates at the religious ceremonies and practices his spiritual
teachings here.
càvea: semicircular area of a Roman theatre or amphitheatre occupied by rows of seats for the public.
cavity wall: ‫لٗ اي‬ٚ‫اؼ يٕع‬ٛ‫ظی‬
cement: )ْ‫ (قیّب‬made from heated limestone and shale, Portland cement when combined with aggregate, glass fibers and
polymers is cast to create GFRC (glass fiber reinforced concrete).
chapter house: large room in a cathedral or monastery where the chapter (governing body) met to discuss and decide on
matters concerning the religious community.
choir: section of a church situated behind the main altar, furnished with stalls and intended for members of the choir.
chimney: )‫ظکم‬ٚ‫ (ظ‬a vertical structure incorporated into a building and enclosing a flue or flues that carry off smoke;
especially : the part of such a structure extending above a roof.
civic structure: )‫ؽی‬ٙ‫ (ثٕبی ن‬a structure of or relating to a citizen, a city, citizenship.
clinch: ‫پؽچ وؽظْ ِیص‬
cloister: internal courtyard of a monastery or convent with a portico of slender columns supporting a roof and resting on a
low wall.
closer: ‫بي ثٕع‬ٙ‫ أت‬-‫تٗ ثٕع‬
coffered (caissoned) ceiling: Square or polygonal panels set into a ceiling and often decorated with ornamental motifs.
colonnade: )....( a structure composed of columns placed at regular intervals.
column: )ْٛ‫ (قت‬a supporting pillar; especially : one consisting of a usually round shaft, a capital, and a base.
composite: ‫ِطتٍط‬
composite order: an order of Roman architecture characterized by a capital - much used in triumphal arches - consisting of
acanthus leaves and large volutes. It is a combination of elements of both the Ionic and the Corinthian orders.
compound: ‫ تؽویجي‬-‫ِؽوت‬
compression bar: ‫ِیً گؽظ فهبؼي‬
concave joint: ‫ثٕعوهي ِمؼؽ‬
concept: )َٛٙ‫ (ِف‬something conceived in the mind.
cornice: )‫ (لؽٔیؿ‬a horizontal molded projection that crowns or completes a building or wall. The uppermost part of an
entablature.
course: ‫ ؼظیف‬-‫ؼج‬
cover: ‫نم‬ٛ‫پ‬
cross vault: vault.
cross window: divided into four sections by a mullion and a transom.
crypt: underground chamber or vault, usually beneath the presbytery of a church and used for burial or sometimes as an
oratory.
cupola: dome- small dome.
curtain wall: )‫اؼ کبغة‬ٛ‫ (ظی‬a nonbearing wall, often of glass and steel, fixed to the outside of a building and serving especially
as cladding.
29
←‫اًْاع قْش‬
Balustrade with rough travertine texture
datum: )‫ ٔمطۀ ِؽخغ‬-‫ (ٔمطۀ ِجٕب‬a point, line, or surface used as a reference, as in surveying, mapping, or geology.
deformed bar: ‫ِیً گؽظ آخعاؼ‬
dentils. a series of small rectangular blocks, similar to a row of teeth, decorating Corinthian, Ionic and Composite cornices.
diagonal tension: ‫وهم لطؽي‬
dome: )‫ (گٕجع‬a large hemispherical roof or ceiling.
dormer (window): )‫أی یب قمف نیجعاؼ‬ٚ‫ی نیؽ‬ٚ‫ظی ؼ‬ّٛ‫ػ‬ ِ ‫ (پٕدؽۀ‬an upright window built in a sloping roof.
dressing: stone surface of a building, worked to a finish, whether smooth or moulded. Also the decorative stonework around
any of the openings.
drop arch: arch.
drop panel: ْٛ‫ي یه قت‬ٛ‫ٔي ز‬ٛ‫ ثطهي اؾ یه ظاي ثت‬-ٕٗٙ‫پ‬
drum: dome.
eaves: )‫ (پیم آِعگی ٌجۀ ثبَ یب قمف‬the underside of the part of the roof that projects beyond the exterior wall. GFRC (glass fiber
reinforced concrete) and GFRP (architectural fiberglass) eaves may be coffered or plain.
entablature: )......(the upper section of a classical building, resting on the columns and constituting the architrave, frieze, and
cornice.
extrados: outer curve of an arch with a structural or purely decorative function arch).
façade: )‫ (ّٔب‬the face of a building, especially the principal face.
field: ‫ظٕ٘ٗ ي وبؼ‬
finial: )‫ؼی‬ٛ‫ی قؽ ظؼ یب ثؽج یب قٕت‬ٚ‫ (لطؼۀ تؿئیٕی ؼ‬an ornament that tops a gate pier, pinnacle, spire or pediment.
five points of architecture: )‫ (پٕح خؿء ِؼّبؼی‬piloty, roof terrace, free façade, free plan, strip windows.
flamboyant Gothic: style of Gothic architecture which came into being at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th
centuries. It developed in similar fashion in many European countries and was characterized, especially in painting and the
applied arts, by an extremely linear decorative style and a purity of colour. Flamboyant Gothic may have derived from the
influence of Simone Martini's later work on French artists during his period in Avignon.
flat- joint pointing: ‫ ثٕعوهي ُ٘ پؽ‬-‫ثٕعوهي ُ٘ قطر‬
flat plate: ‫اضت‬ٕٛ‫ت ثب ضطبِت یى‬ٙ‫ٔي ِكٍر ظؼ خٕع خ‬ٛ‫ػي ظاي ثت‬ٛٔ -‫ظاي تطت‬
flush joint: ‫ثٕع ُ٘ قطر‬
folly: )‫ يؽفب ً تؿئیٕی‬ٚ ‫ (ػّبؼت ثی کبؼثؽظ‬building that serves no need, only built for ascetics. It can be of any size.
fresco: a technique of painting which consists of applying diluted paint to fresh, damp lime plaster. This method creates a
chemical reaction which, in drying, transforms the lime of the plaster into calcium carbonate. The result is a smooth and
resistant surface which incorporates the pigment with the material of the wall.
frieze: )‫ زبنیۀ آؼایهی‬-ٗ‫ (کتیج‬a plain or decorated part of an entablature between the architrave and cornice.
gallery: a long room or corridor, usually on the upper floor and extending the full length of a building. In church architecture,
an open upper storey over an aisle.
30
gazebo: )‫ ػّبؼت تبثكتبٔی‬-‫چک تؿئیٕی‬ٛ‫ (ثبغچۀ ک‬a small garden house, normally round or polygonal in plan, designed for providing
a view.
↑ Entablature↑ highly ornamented eaves

Gothic architecture: )‫تیک‬ٛ‫ (ِؼّبؼی گ‬of or relating to an architectural style reflecting the influence of a type of medieval
architecture. the architectural style of the high middle ages in Western Europe. Typified by the great cathedrals, characterized
by their flying buttresses, ribbed vaults, tracery, pointed arches, rose windows, etc.
graffiti: a decorative design made by scratching the plaster of a wall, or the surface of a stone, metal, ceramics or layer of
painting, to reveal the contrasting colour of the background. Alternatively the outline made may be filled with a material of a
different colour.
green: ‫ظ ؼا گؽفتٗ اقت‬ٛ‫ِالتي وٗ تبؾٖ ض‬
grezzo: The base, raw material to be used in producing an item; also painting, sculpture etc. in unfinished, 'roughed out'
stage.
grid organization: )‫ (ٔظُ نجکٗ ای‬identical units distributed evenly.
grotto: )‫ (غبؼ ّٔب‬an artificial recess or structure made to resemble a natural cave.
grout: ‫ ِالت قیبي‬-‫غبة‬ٚ‫ظ‬
half column: )ْٛ‫ (ٔیُ قت‬column that is engaged to wall projects from the wall by about one half its diameter.
hearth: )ٖ‫ؼ‬ٛ‫ ت ِٗ ک‬-‫ (اخبق‬the part of the fireplace floor that extends into the room.
hierarchy: )‫ (قٍكٍٗ ِؽاتت‬series in which each element is graded or ranked.
horseshoe arch: )‫ـ ٔؼً اقجی‬ٛ‫ (ل‬a rounded arch consisting of more than half a circle, so that the widest span of the arch is
larger than the opening at the bottom of the arch.
indigenous: )‫ ِسٍی‬-‫ِی‬ٛ‫ (ث‬having originated in and being produced, growing, living, or occurring naturally in a particular
region or environment.
hood: )‫ظکم‬ٚ‫ کال٘ک ظ‬-‫ (قبیٗ ثبْ تؿئیٕی‬horizontal element or covering above a door or window that provides shade or shelter or a
decorative element. Above a fireplace or cooking area, the hood is a covering over the fireplace or grill that diverts smoke up
the chimney.
icon: religious image painted on a panel, typical of Byzantine religious and artistic culture (* Byzantine). The Russian church
later adopted these as items of worship and devotion.
impost: block or slab from which an arch springs.
inlaid work: technique of inlaying pieces of stone or wood (marquetry) of different colours to create a design or picture.
intrados: The inner curve or underside of an arch. Also known as a soffit.
Ionic Capital: )‫ٔی‬ٛ‫ْ ای‬ٛ‫ (قؽ قت‬the column capital of the Ionic order. The volutes on this column capital resemble a stylized
form of rams‘ horns or nautilus shells.
Ionic Order: )‫ٔی‬ٛ‫ (قجک ای‬one of the five orders of classical architecture. The Ionic Order takes its name from Ionia, the Greek
name for those parts of Asia Minor which were settled by people of Greek origin (now modern day Turkey).
31
jamb: )‫ظی کٕبؼ ظؼ‬ّٛ‫ تیؽ ػ‬-‫ة‬ٛ‫ (چبؼچ‬jamb is the name for one of the vertical members on either side of a door, window or
fireplace surround.
keystone: )‫ قٕگ ِیبْ طبق‬-‫ (قٕگ قؽ طبق‬The wedge-shaped block at the top center of an arch. GFRC and architectural
fiberglass keystones may be plain or embellished.
kneeling windows: Typical feature of Renaissance buildings, the window is framed by columns, entablature and tympanum,
all resting on two corbels or brackets.
lancet arch: )‫ـ یب طبق تیؿٖ ای یب ٔیؿٖ ای یب نبش ثؿی‬ٛ‫ (ل‬a pointed, Gothic style arch.
lancet window: )‫ـ ٔیؿٖ ای ظانتٗ ثبنع‬ٛ‫ (پٕدؽۀ ثبؼیکی کٗ ثبالی آْ ل‬a narrow window shaped like a lancet arch.
lantern: crowning element of a dome, usually circular or polygonal, admitting light to the interior of the building.
ledger beam: ‫ٔي‬ٛ‫تیؽ پبنٕٗ ظاؼ ثت‬
lesene: pilaster-strip.
lime: ‫آ٘ه‬
limestone: ‫قٕگ آ٘ه‬
linear organization: )‫ (ٔظُ ضطی‬schemes that tend to collect themselves around or on some sort of a major axis.
lintel: outer edge of an arch which may be purely decorative or structural in function.
lobby: )‫ الثی‬-‫ (قبٌٓ أتظبؼ‬hall, foyer, or waiting room near the front entrance of a building.
loggia: part of a building, or sometimes an entire structure, open on one or more sides, with a roof supported by pilasters or
columns. Often used as a meeting place or market.
lunette: semi-circular space decorated with frescoes or mosaics usually situated above doors or windows where the vault
joins the walls. Also used to describe a semicircular section above a painting or bas-relief.
‫اجساء هختلف یک ضتْى‬ ‫ًوًَْ ای از هعواری گْتیک‬ ‫ًوًَْ ای از یک پاگْدا‬

marquetry: technique consisting of the inlay of ornamental woods, metals, ivory and other decorative materials, arranged to
form designs and patterns.
masonry: )‫ آخؽ کبؼی‬-‫ (قٕگ کبؼی‬something constructed of materials used by a skilled worker who builds by laying units of
substantial material (as stone or brick).
minaret:)ٍ‫ (هٌار‬a tall slender tower of a mosque.
modular system: )‫ی یب ثطم ثطهی‬ٚ‫ (قیكتُ تمكیُ ثٕعی ِكب‬constructed with standardized units or dimensions for flexibility and
variety in use.
molding: ‫لبٌت گیؽي‬
monolithic column: A column made from a single block of stone, rather than in several sections.
mortar: ‫ِالت‬
mosaic: )‫ ِؼؽق‬-‫ ضبتُ کبؼی‬-‫ؾائیک‬ِٛ( a surface decoration made by inlaying small pieces of variously colored material to form
pictures or patterns; also : the process of making it.
moulding: decorative feature added to an architectural element which may be simple or enriched in design.
mullion: window divided into two vertical parts by a small column or pilaster. Frequently found in Romanesque, Gothic and
Renaissance buildings.
nail: ‫ِیص‬
nave: )‫ (نجكتبْ کٍیكب‬the main part of the interior of a church. :‫ضتًِْا ّ ضر ضتْى ُای‬
32
lancet window Doric Ionic Corinthian Tuscan Composite

‫دّریك‬ ‫ایًْی‬ ‫کْرًتی‬ ‫تْضکاًی‬ ‫ترکیبی‬
neoclassical style: )‫کالقیک‬ٛ‫ (قجک ٔئ‬reinterpretation of classical Greek and Roman architecture. Neoclassical style includes
classical revival style, Greek revival style and Federal style. Characteristics of the neoclassical style include large porticos
and columns of the Greek and Roman orders. Columns and pilasters of the Corinthian, Ionic and Doric order.
niche: aedicule.
nut: ٖ‫ؽ‬ِٙ
obelisk: )‫ل‬ٛ‫بؼگ‬ٙ‫ْ قٕگی ثب قطر ِمطغ چ‬ٛ‫ (قت‬tall, four-sided shaft of stone, usually tapered and monolithic, that rises to a pointed
pyramidal top.
oculus: oval or circular opening or window in a wall or dome.
opus tassellatum: type of floor made entirely from small square-shaped pieces of marble and stone, usually of different
colours.
order: )ُ‫ ٔظ‬-‫ (قجک‬there are five orders to classical architecture; Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite. In classical
Greek architecture the orders are Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The Romans added the Tuscan and Composite. Each order
carries its own entablature, column and base.
ovulo: a convex moulding in the shape of a quarter circle which forms a horizontal band: usually a decorative member in a
Corinthian or Doric cornice.
pagoda: )ٚ‫ظایی یب ٕ٘ع‬ٛ‫ ِؼجع یب ثؽج ث‬-‫ظا‬ٛ‫ (پبگ‬a far Eastern tower usually with roofs curving upward...
palm capital: )‫ْ ٔطٍی‬ٛ‫ (قؽ قت‬a type of column capital that resembles the crown of a palm tree.
panel: decorative element of various shapes and material (marble, stone, bronze, wood) which has been sculpted, carved or
painted with figures or scenes and used on doors, walls or cornices.
parapet: )ٖ‫ ٔؽظ‬-‫اؼک ِسبفظ‬ٛ‫ (ظی‬low protective wall or railing along the edge of a raised structure such as a roof or balcony.
partitioin: )‫ فبيٍٗ أعاؾ‬-‫ (خعاؼ‬something that divides; especially : an interior dividing wall.
pavillion: )‫ کالٖ فؽٔگی‬-‫ (قبضتّبْ تؿئیٕی تکی‬a part of a building projecting from the rest. An ornamented structure in the garden. a
detached or semi detached structure used for specialized activities or entertainment, at a park, a fair or event. a pronounced
structure projecting from the building facade.
pediment: )‫ؼی ظؼ ِؼّبؼی‬ٛ‫ (آؼایم قٕت‬a low-pitched triangular gable on the front of some buildings in the Grecian or Greek
Revival style of architecture.
penny: ‫ي ِیص‬ٛ‫ازع ط‬ٚ
perspective: technique of representing three-dimensional space on a flat or relief surface giving a sense of depth. Linear
perspective foreshortens objects as they recede into the distance with lines converging to a vanishing point. Aerial
perspective is based on contrasts of colour and shade, which are stronger in the foreground and fainter in the distance.
piazza: )‫ (ِیعاْ ایتبٌیبیی‬plural piazze , an open square especially in an Italian town.
pier: )ْٛ‫ قت‬-ٗ‫ (پبی‬any of various vertical supporting structures.
pilaster: )‫ل‬ٛ‫بؼگ‬ٙ‫ْ چ‬ٛ‫ (قت‬an upright architectural member that is rectangular in plan and is structurally a pier but
architecturally treated as a column and that usually projects a third of its width or less from the wall.
pilaster-strip: flat column, slightly projecting from a wall. Has a purely decorative function.
pillar: vertical structural member which bears a load - arches, architraves or vaults. It may be square, oblong or polygonal in
shape. Romanesque pillars are usually cruciform with a column on each of the four sides; Gothic pillars generally consist of a
'cluster' of columns.
pinnacle: )َ‫ی پهت ثب‬ٚ‫ (ثؽج ثبؼیک ؼ‬a tapered upright structure rising from the roof of a building or used as a finial.
plain concrete: ‫ْ غیؽ ِكٍر‬ٛ‫ثت‬
plan: )ٗ‫ ٔمه‬-ْ‫ (پال‬drawing or diagram drawn on a plane: as a top or horizontal view of an object.
plane: )‫ی یب تؽاؾ‬ٛ‫ (قطر ِكت‬a surface of such nature that a straight line determinants joining two of its points lies wholly in the
surface- a flat or level surface.
plasticizer: ٖ‫اْ وٕٕع‬ٚ‫ ؼ‬-‫اْ قبؾ‬ٚ‫ؼ‬
plaza: )‫ؽ‬ٙ‫ (ِیعاْ ن‬a public square in a city or town.
plinth: )ْٛ‫ تٗ قت‬-ْٛ‫ (پب قت‬the bottom, most square or rectangular base of a column, pilaster pedestal or pier.
pointed arch: a type of arch, ‫ک تیؿ یب تیؿٖ ای‬ٛٔ ‫ـ‬ٛ‫ ل‬،‫ـ‬ٛ‫ػی ل‬ٛٔ (‫ع کٕیع‬ٛ‫طٗ ؼخ‬ٛ‫بی ِؽث‬ٍٙ‫)ثٗ نک‬.
pointing: ْ‫ثٕعوهي وؽظ‬
33
polychrome: item made with, or decorated in several colours.

polyptych: painting or panel in more than three sections which are hinged together. Three paintings or panels are known as a
tryptych. These paintings often formed altar panels.
porch: )‫اق‬ٚ‫ ؼ‬-‫ (٘هتی‬a structure attached to the exterior of a building often forming a covered entrance.
portico: )ْ‫ا‬ٛ‫ (ای‬a porch or walkway with a roof supported by columns, often leading to the entrance of a building.
post tension: ‫پف وهیعگي‬
‫ًوًَْ ای از تْرّش ضبک تْضکاًی‬ pavilion ‫ًوًَْ ای از یک پاّیْى‬

precast- concrete: ٗ‫ْ پیم قبضت‬ٛ‫ثت‬
percentage: ‫ظؼيع‬
presbytery: area of a church around the main altar. Reserved for the clergy, it is separated from the central nave by a
balustrade.
pre- stressed concrete: ٖ‫ْ پیم تٕیع‬ٛ‫ثت‬
pre- tension: )ٖ‫ْ پیم تٕیع‬ٛ‫ؼظ ثت‬ِٛ ‫پیم وهیعگي (ظؼ‬
primary elements: )‫ (انکبي یب اخؿاء ايٍی‬the most basic of all shapes, Square, Circle, and Triangle.
projection: architectural element projecting from the wall of a building (frieze, balcony, bracket, butress etc.).
prototype: )ٗ‫ٌی‬ٚ‫ ا‬ٚ ‫ (ِعي ايٍی‬an original model on which something is patterned.
pulpit: elevated platform or reading desk in a church (occasionally also located externally) from which a sermon is preached.
quoin: ‫قٕگ ٔجم‬
racked joint: ٖ‫ثٕع اؼٖ نع‬
reinforced concrete: ‫ْ ِكٍر‬ٛ‫ثت‬
reinforcement: ‫ؼ گػاؼي‬ٛ‫آؼِبت‬
reinforcing bar: ‫ؼ‬ٛ‫ آؼٍِت‬-‫ِیً گؽظ‬
reliquary: urn or container for the relics of a saint or martyr.
Renaissance: )‫ؾایی‬ٛٔ -‫ (ؼٔكبٔف‬revival- the transitional movement in Europe between medieval and modern times.
ribbed vault: a form of cross vaulting in which the weight of the segments is evenly distributed over raised stone ribs.
rivet: ٓ‫ پؽچ و‬-‫پؽچ‬
Romanesque: a style of the figurative arts - especially sculpture - and of architecture which flourished throughout western
Europe from the end of the 10th century until the middle of the 12th century (in Italy until the early decades of the 13th
century). Typical features of the Romanesque style are: simple pillars often alternating with composite pillars; cross or barrel
vault ceilings; external pilaster strips and buttresses; bays separated by transverse arches supported by clustered columns.
rosette: a circular design or ornament which resembles a formalized rose; may be painted, sculpted or moulded.
rotunda: a round building often covered with a dome. A large round room or hall, generally in the centre of a building.
round arch: )‫ع ّٔبیع‬ٛ‫طٗ ؼخ‬ٛ‫بی ِؽث‬ٍٙ‫ـ گؽظ یب ٔیُ ظایؽٖ (ثٗ نک‬ٛ‫ل‬
rustication: a method of treating masonry. Large, rectangular blocks of stone project from the wall with deeply emphasized
joints. Lightly hewn blocks are known as 'boasted' or 'droved' ashlars.
sacristy. Room attached to a church for the storage of sacred vessels and vestments. Usually also a robing room for the
clergy.
sarcophagus. coffin in stone, marble or other material. Roman sarcophagi were decorated with bas-relief sculptures on the
sides, while Etruscan sarcophagi generally had a statue of the deceased, in a reclining position as though at a banquet, on top.
scale: ْ‫ؼلٗ نع‬ٚ ٗ‫ؼل‬ٚ
screw: ‫پیچ‬
segmental arch: )‫ع کٕیع‬ٛ‫ب ؼخ‬ٍٙ‫ـ (ثٗ نک‬ٛ‫ػی ل‬ٛٔ
seraph: angel belonging to the highest order in the celestial heirarchy, the seraphim. Often depicted surrounding the figure of
God in adoration.
shaft: )‫ؼ‬ٛ‫ ِس‬-‫ تیؽ‬-ْٛ‫ قت‬-ٗٔ‫ (ثع‬the cylindrical pillar between the capital and the base.
shutter: )ٖ‫ (کؽکؽ‬a usually movable cover or screen for a window or door.
skyscraper: )‫ (آقّبْ ضؽال‬a very tall building.
slab: ‫ٔي‬ٛ‫ يفسٗ ي تطت ثت‬-‫ظاي‬
34
spandrel: triangular surface between the vault of a dome and the supporting elements. Also the triangular surface, with
curved sides, between two adjacent arches and the horizontal moulding above.
splice: ٗ‫ لطؼ‬-ٍٗ‫ي‬ٚ
stained glass: coloured or stained glass used especially in church windows to form figures or decorations. The colour is
derived from metalllic oxide added during manufacture. Small pieces of the coloured glass are set into a framework to
compose the design or image.
stirrup: ‫ت ثؽني‬ِٛ‫ضب‬
strand: ‫وبثً پیم تٕیعگي‬
street bench: Stone seat built into the base of the external wall of some palaces and residences.
struck joint: ‫ٌي‬ٛ‫ثٕع نىكتٗ ي ط‬
structure: )‫ ثٕب‬-ٖ‫ قبؾ‬-‫ (قبضتبؼ‬the skeleton of something that is constructed.
stucco: )... ٚ ْ‫ قیّب‬ٚ ‫کبؼ قبضتّبْ اؾ گچ‬ٚ‫ (ؼ‬a durable finish for exterior walls, usually arts & crafts composed of cement, sand,
and lime, and applied while wet.
tabernacle: niche or aedicule in the shape of a small temple containing a sacred image. Also used for the ciborium,
receptacle in the centre of the altar for the Sacrament.
temple: )‫ (ِؼجع‬an edifice for religious exercises.
tendon: ‫الظ پیم تٕیعگي‬ٛ‫ف‬
tension bar: ‫ِیً گؽظ وههي‬
terra-cotta: )ٖ‫ گً ؼـ پطتٗ نع‬-‫تب‬ٛ‫ (تؽاک‬architectural terra-cotta is a Clay which is been molded and shape, fired in a kiln and
glazed.
tie: ‫ثكت‬
tied column: ‫ْ ت َٕگ ظاؼ‬ٛ‫قت‬
topography: )‫لغ ٔگبؼی‬ِٛ( graphic representation of the surface features of a place or region on a map, indicating their relative
positions and elevations.
torus: )ْٛ‫ؼ پب قت‬ٚ‫ ِسعة ظ‬ٚ ٗ‫ زٍمۀ ثؽخكت‬-‫ـ‬ٚ‫ؼ‬ٛ‫ (ت‬a projecting, convex molding, which forms the ―ring‖ at the base of a column.
tower: )‫ (ثؽج‬a building or part of a building that is exceptionally high in proportion to its width and length.
tower-house: a tall, fortified house which was quite common from the 11th to the 13th century. It provided protection and
defense for the head of important families and his supporters against enemies.
transept: transverse nave in a cruciform church, crossing the main nave at the level of the presbytery.
transformation: )‫ ايالذ‬-‫ (تغییؽ‬marked change, as in appearance or character, usually for the better.
trefoil: three-lobed opening or arch.
triangular arch: )‫ـ ِثٍثی‬ٛ‫ (طبق یب ل‬a simple arch with no curves, created by two diagonal elements meeting at a point.
tribune: area consisting of the presbytery and apse of a church. In a Roman basilica the tribune was the semi-circular area
where the judges sat; in early Christian churches it indicated the seats behind the main altar where the bishop and clergy sat.
tuck & pat pointing: ‫ثٕعوهي ِب٘یچٗ اي‬
tuck pointing: ٗ‫ ؼفت‬ٚ‫ثٕعوهي فؽ‬
Tuscan Order: )‫قکبٔی‬ٛ‫ (قجک ت‬the Tuscan Order was the simplest of the Classical Orders. It developed from Etruscan and
early Roman temples. The column capitals and bases are simpler than those of the other orders and the shaft is not fluted.
tympanum: vertical triangular space, plain or with relief decoration, between the slopes of a roof and the horizontal cornice
of a temple or other building with a pediment.
umbrella roof: )‫ (پهت ثبَ چتؽی‬a water collecting roof.
urban: )‫ؽی‬ٙ‫ (ن‬of, relating to, characteristic of, or constituting a city.
urn: the ashes of the deceased are kept in a funerary urn after cremation. Also a container for relics of a saint.
„V‟ joint: „V‟ ٗ‫یٗ اي نجی‬ٚ‫ ثٕع ثب ؾا‬-»‫ي‬ٚ« ً‫ثٕعوهي ثٗ نى‬
vault: )‫ـ‬ٛ‫ ل‬-‫ (طبق‬an arched structure of masonry usually forming a ceiling or roof.
veneer: ‫وم‬ٚ‫ ؼ‬-‫ قٕگ ّٔب‬-‫آخؽ ّٔب‬
vernacular: )‫ ِسٍی‬-‫ِی‬ٛ‫ (ث‬of, relating to, or characteristic of a period, place, or group.
Christ.
villa: )‫ؽ‬ٙ‫ ضبٔۀ تدٍّی ضبؼج اؾ ن‬-‫یال‬ٚ( the often large, luxurious country house of a well-to-do person.
washer: ‫انؽ‬ٚ
weathered joint: ْ‫ثٕع آثچىب‬
weld: ْ‫نىبؼي وؽظ‬ٛ‫خ‬
‫ًوًَْ ضؤاالت تطتي‬

Part One- Read the English texts below and choose the correct Persian translation in any case:
1- ―The word ―architecture‖ has also been adopted to describe other designed systems, especially in information
technology.‖
.‫ؼی اطالػبت ٔیؿ ثکبؼ اقت‬ٚ‫يب ً فٓ آ‬ًٛ‫ ض‬،ٖ‫بی طؽازی نع‬ّٙ‫يیف ظیگؽ قیكت‬ٛ‫اژۀ «ِؼّبؼی» ثؽای ت‬ٚ -‫الف‬
35
‫‪Specialized English‬‬ ‫‪English Texts of Architecture‬‬ ‫‪collected and edited by Yalvaee-2019‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬ایٓ ‪ٚ‬اژٖ‪ ،‬یؼٕی «ِؼّبؼی»‪ّ٘ ،‬چٕیٓ ثؽای ت‪ٛ‬يیف ظیگؽ قیكتّ‪ٙ‬بی طؽازی نعٖ‪ِ ،‬طً‪ٛ‬يب ً فٓ آ‪ٚ‬ؼی اطالػبت أطجبق یبفتٗ اقت‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ٚ -‬اژۀ «ِؼّبؼی» ٔیؿ‪ ،‬ثؽای ت‪ٛ‬يیف ظیگؽ قیكتّ‪ٙ‬بی طؽازی‪ِ ،‬طً‪ٛ‬يب ً فٓ آ‪ٚ‬ؼی اطالػبت التجبـ نعٖ اقت‪.‬‬
‫د‪ٚ -‬اژۀ «ِؼّبؼی» ّ٘چٕیٓ ِٕطجك ثب ظیگؽ قیكتّ‪ٙ‬بی طؽازی نعٖ‪ ،‬ث‪ٛ‬یژٖ فٓ آ‪ٚ‬ؼی اطالػبت‪ ،‬آٔ‪ٙ‬ب ت‪ٛ‬يیف ِیکٕع‪.‬‬
‫‖‪2- ―The construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan continued, in fits and starts, over several centuries.‬‬
‫الف‪ -‬قبضتّبْ ِكدع خبِغ ايف‪ٙ‬بْ لؽٔ‪ٙ‬ب پیم آغبؾ گؽظیع ‪ ٚ‬ظؼ اثؼبظ ِطتٍف اظاِٗ یبفت‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬قبضت ِكدع خبِغ ايف‪ٙ‬بْ ضّٓ ؼػبیت أعاؾٖ ٘ب ‪ ٚ‬تٕبقت ٘ب‪ ،‬ظؼ طی لؽٔ‪ٙ‬ب اظاِٗ پیعا کؽظ‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬قبضتٓ ِكدع خبِغ ايف‪ٙ‬بْ‪ ،‬ضّٓ ‪ٚ‬لفٗ ٘بیی ظؼ کبؼ‪ ،‬طی لؽٔ‪ٙ‬ب اظاِٗ ظانت‪.‬‬
‫د‪ -‬قبضت ِكدع خبِغ ايف‪ٙ‬بْ ظؼ أعاؾٖ ٘ب ‪ٔ ٚ‬كجت‪ٙ‬بی ِطتٍف‪ ،‬ظؼ لؽ‪ِ ْٚ‬تّبظی تعا‪ َٚ‬یبفت‪.‬‬
‫‪3- ―Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other‬‬
‫‖‪physical structures.‬‬
‫الف‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼی‪٘ ،‬ؽ ظ‪ ٚ‬ؼ‪ٔٚ‬ع ت‪ٌٛ‬یع ‪ ٚ‬طؽازی‪ٔ ٚ ،‬یؿ ٔمهٗ کهی ‪ ٚ‬قبضت ثٕب٘ب ‪ ٚ‬ظیگؽ قبؾٖ ٘بی فیؿیکی ؼا نبًِ ِیه‪ٛ‬ظ‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼی‪٘ ،‬ؽ ظ‪ ٚ‬فؽآیٕع ت‪ٌٛ‬یع‪ ،‬طؽازی ‪ ٚ‬قبضت ثٕب٘ب ‪ ٚ‬ظیگؽ قبؾٖ ٘بی فیؿیکی ؼا نبًِ ِیه‪ٛ‬ظ‪.‬‬
‫ج‪٘ -‬ؽ ظ‪ ٚ‬ؼ‪ٔٚ‬ع ِؼّبؼی‪ ،‬یؼٕی طؽازی ‪ ٚ‬قبضت ثٕب٘ب ‪ ٚ‬ظیگؽ قبؾٖ ٘بی فیؿیکی‪ ،‬خؿ‪ ٚ‬کبؼ٘بی ِؼّبؼی ِسك‪ٛ‬ة ِیه‪ٔٛ‬ع‪.‬‬
‫د‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼی ػجبؼت اقت اؾ فؽآیٕع ‪ ٚ‬فؽاُ٘ قبؾی طؽازی‪ٔ ،‬مهٗ کهی ‪ ٚ‬قبضت ثٕب٘ب ‪ ٚ‬ظیگؽ قبؾٖ ٘بی فیؿیکی‪.‬‬
‫‖‪4- ―When farming lands began, wandering to look for food became unnecessary, and villages began to develop.‬‬
‫الف‪ -‬کٗ کهت ؾِیٕ‪ٙ‬ب آغبؾ نع‪ ،‬قؽگؽظأی ثؽای خكتد‪ٛ‬ی غػا ضؽ‪ٚ‬ؼی ٔج‪ٛ‬ظ ‪ ٚ‬ؼ‪ٚ‬قتب٘ب نؽ‪ٚ‬ع ثٗ گكتؽل کؽظٔع‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬ؾِبٔی ‪ٚ‬لتی کٗ ؾؼاػت ؼ‪ٚ‬ی ؾِیٓ نؽ‪ٚ‬ع نع‪ ،‬تؼدجی ٔعانت کٗ خكتد‪ ٛ‬ثؽای غػا غیؽ ضؽ‪ٚ‬ؼی ن‪ٛ‬ظ‪ .‬ثٕبثؽایٓ ؼ‪ٚ‬قتب٘ب ٔیؿ پیهؽفت کؽظٔع‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬ثب آغبؾ کهت ؾِیٕ‪ٙ‬ب‪ ،‬خكتد‪ٛ‬ی غػا ثٗ یک اِؽ ضؽ‪ٚ‬ؼی تجعیً نع ‪ ٚ‬ؼ‪ٚ‬قتب٘ب گكتؽل یبفتٕع‪.‬‬
‫د‪ٕ٘ -‬گبِی کٗ کهب‪ٚ‬ؼؾی نؽ‪ٚ‬ع نع‪ ،‬ت‪ٙ‬یۀ غػای الؾَ اِکبْ پػیؽ گؽظیع ‪ ٚ‬ؼ‪ٚ‬قتب٘ب تس‪ٛ‬ي یبفتٕع‪.‬‬
‫‪5- ―The word "architecture" has also been adopted to describe other designed systems, especially in information‬‬
‫‖‪technology.‬‬
‫الف‪ٚ -‬اژۀ «ِؼّبؼی» ثؽای ت‪ٛ‬يیف ظیگؽ قیكتّ‪ٙ‬بی طؽازی نعٖ‪ ،‬ضً‪ٛ‬يب ً فٓ آ‪ٚ‬ؼی اطالػبت ٔیؿ ثکبؼ اقت‪.‬‬
‫‪6- ―Introductory studios provide a basic architectural design background and vocabulary and help undergraduates‬‬
‫‖‪decide whether they want to continue in architecture.‬‬
‫الف‪ -‬اقت‪ٛ‬ظی‪٘ٛ‬بی ِمعِبتی یک پف ؾِیٕۀ اقبقی اؾ ٔمهٗ کهی ‪ ٚ‬ايطالزبت ِؼّبؼی ت‪ٙ‬یٗ ِیکٕٕع ‪ ٚ‬ثٗ ظأهد‪ٛ‬یبْ فبؼؽ اٌتسًیً کّک ِیکٕٕع‬
‫تب ثٗ تسًیً ظؼ ِؼّبؼی اظاِٗ ظٕ٘ع‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ِ -‬ؼؽفی اقت‪ٛ‬ظی‪٘ٛ‬بی ِؼّبؼی ِ‪ٛ‬خت فؽاُ٘ نعْ یک پف ؾِیٕۀ اقبقی اؾ ٔمهٗ کهی ‪ ٚ‬ايطالزبت ِؼّبؼی ِیه‪ٛ‬ظ ‪ ٚ‬ثٗ ظأهد‪ٛ‬یبْ ٌیكبٔف‬
‫کّک ِیکٕع تب ظؼ ِ‪ٛ‬ؼظ اظاِۀ تسًیً ظؼ ِؼّبؼی تًّیُ ثگیؽٔع‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬اقت‪ٛ‬ظی‪٘ٛ‬بی ِمعِبتی یک پف ؾِیٕۀ اقبقی اؾ ٔمهٗ کهی ‪ ٚ‬ايطالزبت ِؼّبؼی ت‪ٙ‬یٗ ِیکٕٕع ‪ ٚ‬ثٗ ظأهد‪ٛ‬یبْ ٌیكبٔف کّک ِیکٕٕع تب ظؼ ِ‪ٛ‬ؼظ‬
‫اظاِۀ تسًیً ظؼ ِؼّبؼی تًّیُ گیؽی کٕٕع‪.‬‬
‫د‪ِ -‬ؼؽفی اقت‪ٛ‬ظی‪٘ٛ‬ب یک پف ؾِیٕۀ اقبقی اؾ ٔمهٗ کهی ‪ ٚ‬ايطالزبت ِؼّبؼی فؽاُ٘ ِیکٕع ‪ ٚ‬ثٗ ظأهد‪ٛ‬یبْ ف‪ٛ‬ق ٌیكبٔف کّک ِیکٕع تب ظؼ‬
‫ِ‪ٛ‬ؼظ اظاِۀ تسًیً ظؼ ِؼّبؼی تًّیُ ثگیؽٔع‪.‬‬
‫‖‪8- ―Architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the supernatural beings.‬‬
‫الف‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼي ‪ ٚ‬ن‪ٙ‬ؽ گؽایي‪ِٕ ،‬ؼىف ِیىؽظ ؼلبثت ِعا‪ َٚ‬ثؽاي خػة ِ‪ٛ‬خ‪ٛ‬ظات ِب‪ٚ‬ؼائي ؼا‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼي ‪ ٚ‬ن‪ٙ‬ؽ گؽایي‪ ،‬اؾ اظ‪ٚ‬اؼ ثبقتبْ ظؼ ثیٓ خّؼیت‪ٙ‬بي ؾِیٕي ‪ِ ٚ‬ب‪ٚ‬ؼائي ؼ‪ٚ‬اج ظانت‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼي ‪ ٚ‬ن‪ٙ‬ؽ ٔهیٕي‪ ،‬قؽ ‪ ٚ‬وبؼ ِعا‪ َٚ‬ثب ِ‪ٛ‬خ‪ٛ‬ظات ِب‪ٚ‬ؼائي ؼا ِٕؼىف ِیىؽظ‪.‬‬
‫د‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼي ‪ ٚ‬ن‪ٙ‬ؽ ٔهیٕي‪ِٕ ،‬ؼىف وٕٕعح ظضبٌت ِ‪ٛ‬خ‪ٛ‬ظات فؽا ؾِیٕي ظؼ اِ‪ٛ‬ؼ قبوٕبْ وؽح ؾِیٓ ث‪ٛ‬ظ‪.‬‬
‫‪9- ―The word ―architecture‖ has also been adopted to describe other designed systems, especially in information‬‬
‫‖‪technology.‬‬
‫الف‪ٚ -‬اژۀ «ِؼّبؼی» ثؽای ت‪ٛ‬يیف ظیگؽ قیكتّ‪ٙ‬بی طؽازی نعٖ‪ ،‬ضً‪ٛ‬يب ً فٓ آ‪ٚ‬ؼی اطالػبت ٔیؿ ثکبؼ اقت‪.‬‬
‫‪36‬‬
‫‪Specialized English‬‬ ‫‪English Texts of Architecture‬‬ ‫‪collected and edited by Yalvaee-2019‬‬
‫‖‪11- ―Symbolism is an important means of visual communication for architecture.‬‬
‫الف‪ّٔ -‬بظ یؼٕي ت‪ٛ‬أبیي ثؽلؽاؼ اؼتجبط ثًؽي ظؼ ِؼّبؼي‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ّٔ -‬بظ٘بي ِ‪ٛ‬ؼظ اقتفبظٖ ظؼ ِؼّبؼي‪ ،‬اؾ ٔظؽ ثًؽي ِ‪٘ ُٙ‬كتٕع‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ّٔ -‬بظ گؽایي اثؿاؼ ِ‬
‫ِ‪ ُٙ‬اؼتجبط ثًؽي ظؼ ِؼّبؼي ِیجبنع‪.‬‬
‫د‪ّٔ -‬بظ گؽایي ظاؼاي ِؼٕبیي ِ‪ ،ُٙ‬یؼٕي اؼتجبط ظیعاؼي ثب ِؼّبؼي اقت‪.‬‬
‫‖‪12- ―An architect is a person who designs buildings and other structures.‬‬
‫الف‪ -‬یه ِؼّبؼ ثؽاي تىّیً ثٕب٘ب ثٗ قبضتبؼ ت‪ٛ‬خٗ ِیىٕع‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼاْ ِؼتمعٔع وٗ تٕ‪ٙ‬ب ضالق ث‪ٛ‬ظْ ثؽاي تىّیً یه ثٕب وبفي ٔیكت‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ِ -‬ؼّبؼاْ فمط ثؼٕ‪ٛ‬اْ افؽاظ ضالق ظؼ قبضت ‪ ٚ‬تىّیً ثٕب٘ب نؽوت ِیىٕٕع‪.‬‬
‫د‪ -‬یک ِؼّبؼ‪،‬فؽظی اقت کٗ قبضتّبٔ‪ٙ‬ب ‪ ٚ‬ظیگؽ قبؾٖ ٘ب ؼا طؽازی ِیکٕع‪.‬‬
‫‖‪13- ―Many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture.‬‬
‫الف‪ -‬ثكیبؼی اؾ لعیّی تؽیٓ فؽٕ٘گ‪ٙ‬ب ثب ثدبی گػانتٓ یبظگبؼ٘بیی ظؼ ِؼّبؼی‪ّٔ ،‬بظ٘ب ‪ ٚ‬لعؼت قیبقی ض‪ٛ‬ظ ؼا ّٔبیم ِیعاظٔع‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬ثكیبؼی اؾ فؽٕ٘گ‪ٙ‬بی ثبقتبٔی ثٗ یبظِبٔی گؽایی ظؼ ِؼّبؼی ِت‪ٛ‬قً ِیهعٔع‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬ثیهتؽ فؽٕ٘گ‪ٙ‬بی ثبقتبٔی ثب اقتفبظٖ اؾ قبضتّبٔ‪ٙ‬بی یبظِبٔی ظؼ ِؼّبؼی‪ ،‬ثٗ ِطبٌفت ثب ّٔبظ٘بی قیبقی لعؼت زبکُ ِجبظؼت ِیکؽظٔع‪.‬‬
‫د‪ -‬تؼعاظ ؾیبظی اؾ فؽٕ٘گ‪ٙ‬بی لعیّی‪ِ ،‬طبٌفت ض‪ٛ‬ظ ثب لعؼت قیبقی ِ‪ٛ‬خ‪ٛ‬ظ اثؽاؾ ِیکؽظٔع‪.‬‬
‫‖‪14- ―Nature is a model for architectural forms and designs.‬‬
‫الف‪ -‬طجیؼت‪ ،‬ث‪ٙ‬تؽیٓ ِعي ثؽاي نىً ظاظْ ثٗ طؽز‪ٙ‬بي ِؼّبؼي اقت‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬طجیؼت‪ ،‬اٌگ‪ٛ‬یي ثؽاي انىبي ‪ ٚ‬طؽز‪ٙ‬بي ِؽث‪ٛ‬ط ثٗ ِؼّبؼي اقت‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬اؾ طجیؼت ِیت‪ٛ‬اْ ثؽاي تهىیً انىبي ‪ ٚ‬طؽز‪ٙ‬بي ِؼّبؼي ث‪ٙ‬ؽٖ ثؽظاؼي وؽظ‪.‬‬
‫د‪ -‬اٌگ‪ٛ‬ثؽظاؼي اؾ طجیؼت ثؽاي وبؼ ِؼّبؼي یه اِؽ ضؽ‪ٚ‬ؼي ِیجبنع‪.‬‬
‫‖‪15- ―Construction starts with planning, design, and financing.‬‬
‫الف‪ -‬آغبؾ قبضت ثب طؽازي ‪ ٚ‬تؿئیٓ ظاضٍي‪ٔ ،‬یبؾِٕع قؽِبیٗ گػاؼي ِیجبنع‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬قبضتّبْ ؼا ِیت‪ٛ‬اْ ثب طؽز‪ٙ‬ب ‪ ٚ‬تؿئیٕبت ِب٘ؽأٗ اؼتمبء ظاظ‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬نؽ‪ٚ‬ع قبضت ثع‪ ْٚ‬طؽزؽیؿي ‪ ٚ‬طؽازي ِٕبقت اِىبْ پػیؽ ٔیكت‪.‬‬
‫د‪ -‬قبضت‪ ،‬ثب طؽزؽیؿي‪ ،‬طؽازي ‪ ٚ‬تأِیٓ ث‪ٛ‬ظخٗ آغبؾ ِیه‪ٛ‬ظ‪.‬‬
‫‖‪16- ―These buildings served the caliphs as living quarters.‬‬
‫اٌف‪ -‬ایٓ ثٕب٘ب ِسً ؾٔعگي ضٍفب ث‪ٛ‬ظٔع‪.‬‬
‫ة‪ -‬ؼثغ ایٓ قبضتّبٔ‪ٙ‬ب ثٗ ضٍفب تؼٍك ظانت‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬ایٓ قبضتّبٔ‪ٙ‬ب ظؼ ضعِت ضطبطبْ ث‪ٛ‬ظٔع‪.‬‬
‫ظ‪ -‬ثٕب٘بي ِػو‪ٛ‬ؼ ثٗ أعاؾح یه چ‪ٙ‬بؼَ ِؽاوؿ ؾٔعگي ضٍفب ٔج‪ٛ‬ظٔع‪.‬‬
‫‖‪17- ―The preparatory processes for designing large buildings have become increasingly complicated.‬‬
‫اٌف‪ِ -‬معِبت طؽازي ظؼ ثٕب٘بي ثؿؼگ ؼا ِیت‪ٛ‬اْ ثٗ قؽػت فؽاُ٘ ّٔ‪ٛ‬ظ‪.‬‬
‫ة‪ -‬ثب افؿایم پیچیعگي ظؼ طؽازي قبضتّبٔ‪ٙ‬بي ثؿؼگ‪ ،‬ایٓ وبؼ ثبیع ت‪ٛ‬قط یه گؽ‪ ٖٚ‬ي‪ٛ‬ؼت گیؽظ‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬ؼ‪ٔٚ‬ع٘بي آِبظٖ قبؾي ثؽاي طؽازي قبضتّبٔ‪ٙ‬بي ثؿؼگ ثط‪ٛ‬ؼ فؿایٕعٖ اي پیچیعٖ نعٖ اقت‪.‬‬
‫ظ‪ -‬آِبظٖ قبؾي فؽآیٕع٘بي طؽازي ظؼ قبضتّبٔ‪ٙ‬بي ثؿؼگ‪ ،‬اؾ پیچیعگي وّتؽي ثؽض‪ٛ‬ؼظاؼ اقت‪.‬‬
‫‪Part Two- Read the Persian texts below and choose the correct English translation in any case:‬‬
‫‪ِ- 1‬ؼّبؼأی ّ٘چ‪« ْٛ‬فؽأک ٌ‪ٛ‬یع ؼایت» ثٗ ت‪ٛ‬قؼۀ ِؼّبؼی اؼگبٔیک‪ ،‬کٗ ظؼ آْ‪ ،‬نکً ت‪ٛ‬قط ِسیط ‪٘ ٚ‬عف تؼؽیف ِیهع‪ِ ،‬جبظؼت کؽظٔع‪».‬‬
‫‪a- Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright stopped Organic architecture in which the form was defined by‬‬
‫‪individuals.‬‬
‫‪b- Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed Organic architecture in which the form was defined by its‬‬
‫‪environment and purpose.‬‬
‫‪c- Frank Lloyd Wright is of those architects who want to develop Organic architecture in the world.‬‬
‫‪d- Frank Lloyd Wright was an architect who avoided developing Organic architecture in which the form was‬‬
‫‪defined by its environment and purpose.‬‬
‫‪« -2‬ثؽای ثب اؼؾل ّٔ‪ٛ‬ظْ ثطم ظؼ‪ٔٚ‬ی یک ثٕب‪ ،‬اؾ ضط ػؽثی اقتفبظٖ نعٖ ‪ٔ ٚ‬مً ل‪ٌٙٛ‬بیی اؾ لؽآْ اؼائٗ ِیه‪ٛ‬ظ‪».‬‬
‫‪a- In order to make valuable a building interior the Quran in the Arabic Calligraphy is used to represented words.‬‬
‫‪37‬‬
b- To enhance the interior of a building by representing Arabic Calligraphy from the Qur'an it is used to
quotations.
c- Arabic Calligraphy is used to enhance the Qur'an the by representing quotations from interior of a building.
d- Arabic Calligraphy is used to enhance the interior of a building by representing quotations from the Qur'an.
».‫ظ‬ٛ‫ی يفسۀ کبغػ یب پؽظۀ ّٔبیم تؽقیُ ِیه‬ٚ‫ ثؼعی ثؽ ؼ‬ٚ‫یؽ ظ‬ٚ‫ػٗ ای اؾ تًب‬ّٛ‫ ثٗ نکً ِد‬،‫تؽی‬ٛ‫ع طؽازی کبِپی‬ٛٔ ‫«زمیمت آٔكت کٗ ٘ؽ‬- 3
a- The reality is that any form of computer design is depicted in a series of two-dimensional images on a screen or
sheet.
b- In fact, all of the computers are planned in a series of two-dimensional images on a screen or sheet.
c- The fact is that every form of computer design can be displayed in three- dimensional images on a screen.
d- Really, any computer can plan a series of multi-dimensional images on a screen or sheet.
».ٗ‫ ُ٘ یک زؽف‬ٚ ‫ ُ٘ یک ؼنتٗ ظؼقی اقت‬،‫ٖ آْ اقت کٗ ِؼّبؼی‬ٚ‫ٔظؽ ایٓ گؽ‬- 4
a- The Department conceives of architecture as a discipline as well as a profession.
b- The attitude of this group of architects is both a course and a job.
c- This department accepts architecture neither a discipline nor a profession.
d- The attitude of the group is that architects can both study and work.
،‫اع ضبو ٔمهٗ ثکبؼ ثجؽٔع‬ٛٔ‫نٕی اؾ ِمیبقی کٗ ِیجبیع ثؽای ّٔبیم ا‬ٚ‫ؼ ؼ‬ًٛ‫ ٘یچ ت‬،‫ کبٌح‬ٚ ْ‫ؾاْ ظؼ قطر ظثیؽقتب‬ِٛ‫ثكیبؼی اؾ ظأم آ‬- 5
)ٖ‫ ّٔؽ‬1( .‫ٔعاؼٔع‬
a- Most students in high school and college level do have clear ideas of the scale they should be using to portray
the particular types of scheme.
b- Many students in high school and college level use clear scales about what is used to portray the particular
types of scheme.
c- Most students at the level of high school and college have bright ideas about what they should show for the
particular types of scheme.
d- Many students at high school and college level do not have any clear idea of the scale they should be using to
portray the particular types of scheme.
».‫ظٔع‬ٛ‫ثي ث‬ٛ‫ب چ‬ٙٔٛ‫ زتي اگؽ قت‬،‫ب اؾ قٕگ قبضتٗ ِیهعٔع‬ٙٔٛ‫ قؽقت‬ٚ ‫ب‬ٙٔٛ‫ « پب قت‬- 6
a- The bases of columns were wooden and sometimes made of stone.
b- Columns and capitals have never been made of wood.
c- Column bases and capitals were made of stone, even on wooden shafts.
d- Column bases and capitals can both be made of either wood or stone.
».‫ظ‬ٛ‫ـ آغبؾ ِیه‬ٛ‫قي ثب وهف ل‬ٛ‫«تىبًِ طبق ل‬- 7
a- The evolution of the vault begins with the discovery of the arch.
b- The evolution of the dome can be the same as discovery of the arch.
c- The discovery of arch made the construction of mosques possible.
d- The discovery of vault is the beginning of architecture.
»‫بقت کٗ تب قؽزع اِکبْ ِیً ثٗ ػعَ تمبؼْ ظاؼٔع‬ٙ‫ طؽازی ثبغ‬،ٗ‫ «یک اقتثٕبء لبثً ِالزظ‬- 8
a- One considerable expectation is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as
possible.
b- One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible.
c- A notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as symmetrical as possible.
d- A considerable expectation is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as symmetrical as possible.
Part Three (I)- Put the words in their correct places:

a-knowledge b-technical c-architecture d-prototypes f-concentrated g- architect
With the emerging ……….. in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, ………. and
engineering began to separate, and the ……….. began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often
at the expense of ………. aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the ―gentleman architect‖ who
usually dealt with wealthy clients and ………….. predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from
historical ………… .
(II)- a-resolved b-information c-designing d-Documentation e-social

f-specifications g-constructed h-light
38
Architecture has to do with planning, ………….and constructing form, space and ambience to reflect functional,
technical, ………., environmental and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and
coordination of materials and technology, and of ………and shadow. Often, conflicting requirements must
be……….. Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including
scheduling, cost estimation and construction administration. ……………..produced by architects, typically
drawings, plans and technical…………., defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or other kind of
system that is to be or has been……….. The word "architecture" has also been adopted to describe other designed
systems, especially in ……………. technology.
(III)- a-knowledge b-mass c-technical d-architecture

e-Scottish f-prototypes g-concentrated h- architect
With the emerging ……….. in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, ………. and
engineering began to separate, and the ……….. began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often
at the expense of ………. aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who
usually dealt with wealthy clients and ………….. predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from
historical ……….., typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or
…………. Baronial styles. Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for …….. production and
consumption.
(IV)- Put the words in their correct places: :‫ گسیٌَ ُاي صحیح را براي پر كردى جاُاي خالي عالهت بسًیذ‬-‫بخش چِارم‬
a- model b- arrangement c- instant d- planes f- advances g- student h- architecture i- integrated
In spite of the ..(14).. in computerization, scale models are still the most effective and ..(15).. way of completely
communicating a concept. Building a scale ..(16).. for a student project requires that the ..(17).. understand the full
three dimensional spatial ..(18).. and implications of the scheme, because all surfaces and ..(19).. must be fully
explained and ..(20).. with one another to form a cohesive entity.
9- a- model b- advances c- planes d- student
10- a- student b- arrangement c- instant d- architecture
11- a- integrated b- student c- planes d- model
12- a- architecture b- arrangement c- student d- advances
13- a- arrangement b- architecture c- instant d- architecture
14- a- instant b- planes c- advances d- integrated
15- a- model b- student c- integrated d- arrangement
Part Four- Choose the appropriate expression or meaning for any question:
16- ―tower‖ means: a- ‫ثؽج‬ b- ‫ِؼجع‬ c- ٗ‫پبی‬ d- ‫گٕجع‬
17- ―portico‖ means: a- ‫ک تیؿ‬ٛٔ ‫طبق‬ b- ‫ظی کٕبؼ ظؼ‬ّٛ‫تیؽ ػ‬ c- ْ‫ا‬ٛ‫ای‬ d- ‫ی طبق‬ٚ‫قٕگ ؼ‬
18- “pier” means: a- ْٛ‫ قت‬،ٗ‫پبی‬ b-‫نجكتبْ کٍیكب‬ c- ‫ ضبتُ کبؼی‬،‫ِؼؽق‬ d- ‫قبٌٓ أتظبؼ‬
19- ―dome‖ means: a- ‫ثؽج‬ b- ‫گٕجع‬ c- ‫ِؼجع‬ d- ٖ‫ِمجؽ‬
20-―pediment‖ means: a- ٖ‫ِٕبؼ‬ b-ٗ‫٘پبی‬ٛ‫ک‬ c- ٗ‫کتیج‬ d- ‫ؼی‬ٛ‫قٕت‬
21-―hearth” means: a- ُ‫ ٔظ‬،‫قجک‬ b- ٖ‫ؼ‬ٛ‫ ت ِٗ ک‬،‫اخبق‬ c- ‫اؼک ِسبفظ‬ٛ‫ظی‬ d- ‫اق‬ٚ‫ ؼ‬،‫٘هتی‬
22- “bas-relief‖ means: a- ‫ِؼجع ٔیبیم‬ b- ٗ‫ٔمم ثؽخكت‬ c- ْٛ‫پب قت‬ d- ٖ‫کؽکؽ‬
23-“folly” means: a- ‫ يؽفب ً تؿئیٕی‬ٚ ‫ػّبؼت ثی کبؼثؽظ‬ b- ‫ـ ِثٍثی‬ٛ‫طبق یب ل‬
c- ‫ل‬ٛ‫بؼگ‬ٙ‫ْ چ‬ٛ‫قت‬ d- ٗ‫گً ظقت‬
24-―eaves‖ means: a- ‫ؼي‬ٛ‫قٕت‬ b- ‫ِؼجع‬ c- ‫ثؽج ثبؼیه‬ d- ‫پیم آِعگي ثب یب قمف‬
25- ―compression bar‖ means: a- ْٛ‫ ثعٔٗ ي قت‬b- ‫وبؼ ثٕب‬ٚ‫ؼ‬ c- ‫ِجً گؽظ فهبؼي‬ d- ٖ‫ظؼة وؽوؽ‬
26- ―dome‖ means: a- ‫گٕجع‬ b- ْ‫ا‬ٛ‫ای‬ c- ْٛ‫پبقت‬ d- ‫ؽ‬ٙ‫ِیعاْ ن‬
27- ―composite‖ means: a- ‫ِطتٍط‬ b- ‫کٍیكب‬ c- ‫ظکم‬ٚ‫ظ‬ d- ‫ّٔب‬
28- ―capital‖ means: a- ٚ‫ؼا٘ؽ‬ b- ٗ‫قؽظاث‬ c- ْٛ‫لبٔي قؽ قت‬ٛ‫ثطم ف‬ d- ‫فبضالة‬
29- ―buttress‖ means: a- ‫اؼ‬ٛ‫پهتیجبْ ظی‬ b- ‫کالٖ فؽٔگی‬ c- ْٛ‫ػی قؽقت‬ٛٔ d- ‫ل‬ٛ‫بؼگ‬ٙ‫ْ چ‬ٛ‫قت‬
30- ―anchorage‖ means: a- ‫ٔی‬ٚ‫ظی ظؼ‬ٚ‫ؼ‬ٚ b- ٕٗ‫ِی‬ٛ‫ن‬ c- ‫کبؼ گچی‬ٚ‫ؼ‬ d- ‫بؼي‬ِٙ
31- ―armed concrete‖ means: a- ‫قبضتبؼ آؼَ ظاؼ‬ b- ‫ْ ِكٍر‬ٛ‫ثت‬ c- ‫ٔبٔی‬ٛ‫بی ی‬ٙٔٛ‫قت‬ d- ‫پٍکبْ ػؽیض‬
32- ―cavity wall‖ means: a- ‫ِؼجع‬ b- ‫لٗ اي‬ٚ‫اؼ يٕع‬ٛ‫ظی‬ c- ‫اتبق طبق ظاؼ‬ d- ‫اتبق ؾیؽ ؾِیٕی‬
33- ―arcade‖ means: a- ‫اؼ‬ٛ‫پهتیجبْ ظی‬ b- ‫ کالٖ فؽٔگی‬c- ْٛ‫ػی قؽقت‬ٛٔ d- ‫گػؼگبٖ طبق ظاؼ‬
34- ―architrave‖ means: a- ْٛ‫ثطم تستبٔی قؽقت‬ b- ٕٗ‫ِی‬ٛ‫ن‬ c- ‫کبؼ گچی‬ٚ‫ؼ‬ d- ‫ٔی‬ٚ‫ظی ظؼ‬ٚ‫ؼ‬ٚ
35- ―chimney‖ means: a- ْ‫پبگؽظ پٍىب‬ b- ‫ظکم‬ٚ‫ظ‬ c- ٖ‫اؾ‬ٚ‫ظؼ‬ d- ‫اؼ قٕگي‬ٛ‫ظی‬
36- ― to clinch‖ means: a-‫پؽچ وؽظْ ِیص‬ b- ٓ‫ْ ؼیطت‬ٛ‫ثت‬ c- ْ‫ِبٌٗ وهیع‬ d- ْ‫آخؽ چیع‬
39
37- ―concave joint‖ means: a-ْٛ‫ْ ثٗ پبقت‬ٛ‫اتًبي قت‬ b- ‫ٌي‬ٛ‫ ثٕعوهي ط‬c- ‫ثٕعوهي ِمؼؽ‬ d- ‫اتًبي آخؽي‬
38- ―vernacular” means:
a- relating to, or characteristic of a period, place, or group b- vertical
c-ornament that tops a gate pier, pinnacle, spire or pediment d- horizontal
39- The word ― temple” refers to .......................................
a- the upper section of a classical building.
b- an edifice for religious exercises.
c- identical units distributed evenly.
d- the part of the fireplace floor that extends into the room.
40- An ―obelisk” is .......................
a-a pointed arch based on a big stone b- a small monolithic
c- a tall, four-sided shaft of stone d- a pyramid
41- ―façade” is ................................
a- a pointed, Gothic style arch. b- the face of a building, especially the principal face.
b- the column capital of the Ionic order. d- is the name for one of the vertical members on either side of a door.
42- ―entablature‖ is …………………………….
a- stone surface of a building
b-the internal courtyard of a monastery
c- the upper section of a classical building,
d-a supporting pillar
43- ―datum‖ is ………………………….. a
a- the church outer curve of an arch
b- a point, line, or surface used as a reference
c- something conceived in the mind
d- a style of Gothic architecture
.‫ ِیجبنع‬.............. ‫اژٖ ي‬ٚ ،»ٖ‫اژٖ ي «ِمجؽ‬ٚ ‫ِؼبظي ِٕبقت أگٍیكي ثؽاي‬- 44

tomb -‫ ظ‬tower -‫ج‬ dome -‫ة‬ temple -‫اٌف‬
.‫ اقت‬............. ‫اژٖ ي‬ٚ ،‫اژٖ ي «ِؼّبؼي» ظؼ ؾثبْ أگٍیكي‬ٚ ‫ِؼبظي‬- 45
architecturally -‫ظ‬ architectural -‫ج‬ architecture -‫ة‬ architect -‫اٌف‬
A sample exam
Part 1- Word Translation A -Translate the below words into Persian: )ٍ‫ ًور‬3 (
1- construction 2- anchor 3- temple 4- preponderance 5- permanent 6- screw 7- concrete 8-
finely-ground 9- dwelling 10- sheath 11- reinforced 12- kiln
Part 2- Word Translation B- Translate the below words into English: )ٍ‫ ًور‬2 (
ْ‫ ُضؽظ کؽظ‬-8 ٖ‫ ِمجؽ‬-7 ‫ قٕگ گچ‬-6 ‫ ِالت‬-5 ٓ‫ ن‬-4 ٗ‫ ِبق‬-3 ‫ قٕگ‬-2 ٗ‫ لٍؼ‬-1
Part 3- Sentence Translation-Translate the sentences into Persian: )ٍ‫ ًور‬5 (

1- ―Houses and villages in other regions and continents appeared later.‖
2- ―Their masonry usually lacked mortar although bitumen was sometimes used.‖
3- ―Vernacular architecture works slightly differently and is listed separately.‖
4- ―Rotary cement kilns gradually replaced the original vertical shaft kilns, used originally for making lime.‖
5- ―A citadel also served as a granary for the food supplies of the city.‖
Part 4- Structural Reading-Put the words in their correct places: )ٍ‫ ًور‬3 (
:)‫ اضافَ اضت‬،‫ پر کردى جاُای خالی با اضتفادٍ از لغات دادٍ شذٍ (یکی از لغات‬-‫بخش چِارم‬
A- aggregate B- gravel C- precursor D- surfaces E- cement F- concrete G- consisting of

The time period during which ….1 …. was first invented depends on how one interprets the term ―concrete.‖
From today`s view, concrete is a material used in building construction, ….2 …. a hard, chemically inert
particulate substance known as an …. 3 …. (usually made from different types of sand and gravel), that is bonded
together by …. 4 …. and water. Aggregates can include sand, crushed stone, …. 5 ….,slag, ashes, burned shale,
and burned clay. Fine aggregate is used in making concrete slabs and smooth ….6 …..
40
Part 6- Grammar-Mark verb(s) with „V‟, subject(s) with „S‟ and objects with „O‟ in the text below:
)ٖ‫ ّٔؽ‬1/5( :‫یكیع‬ٕٛ‫ب ؼا ظؼ ثؽگۀ پبقطٕبِٗ ث‬ٙٔ‫ آ‬،ٖ‫ي(٘ب) ؼا ِهطى کؽظ‬ٛ‫ ِفؼ‬ٚ )‫ب‬ٍٙ‫ فبػً (فبػ‬،)‫ب‬ٍٙ‫ فؼً(فؼ‬،‫ ظؼ خّالت ؾیؽ‬- 1
―Rotary kilns heat the clinker mainly by radiative heat transfer. As the city grew and expanded beyond this high
area, the site became the most sacred space in the city.‖
― Joseph Aspdin took out a patent in 1824 for ‗Portland Cement‘.‖ )ٖ‫ ّٔؽ‬1/5( :‫ي تجعیً کٕیع‬ٛٙ‫ خٍّۀ ِمبثً ؼا ثٗ نکً ِد‬- 2
.‫ هعادل یک ضْم ًورۀ هٌفی دارد‬،‫ اًتخاب گسیٌۀ ًادرضت در ایي دّ بخش‬-‫ضؤاالت چِار گسیٌَ ای‬
.‫) بٌْیطیذ‬10 ‫ تا‬1 ‫لطفا ً پاضخِا را در برگۀ پاضخٌاهَ (ترجیحا ً در تطتِای شوارۀ‬
Part 7: Word translation „C‟- Choose the correct option: )ٍ‫ ًور‬1 (
1- ‗cupola‘ means: a- small dome b- aggregate c- gravel d- arch
2- „façade‘ means: a- glass b- cloth c- soil d- the face of a building
3- ‗gazebo‘ means: a- chimney b- a kind of window c- drain d- a small garden house
4- ‗urban‘ means: a- a type of canopy b- relating to a city c-a circular design d- limestone
Part 8- Comprehension-Read the text carefully and then choose the correct options: )ٍ‫ ًور‬3 ( ‫ درک هتي‬-‫بخش ُشتن‬
―An architectural style is characterized by the features that make a building or other structure notable or
historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building materials,
and regional character. Most architecture can be classified within a chronology of styles which changes over time
reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which
make new styles possible. Styles therefore emerge from the history of a society. At any time several styles may be
fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. The
new style is sometimes only a rebellion against an existing style, such as post-modernism (meaning "after
modernism"), which has in recent years found its own language and split into a number of styles which have
acquired other names. Styles often spread to other places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in
new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. For instance, Renaissance ideas emerged in Italy
around 1425 and spread to all of Europe over the next 200 years, with the French, Belgian, German, English, and
Spanish Renaissances showing recognizably the same style, but with unique characteristics. Vernacular
architecture works slightly differently and is listed separately. It is the native method of construction used by local
people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural
cottages.‖
Questions:
5- How is an architectural style defined?
a- By the features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable.
b-Only by the political events that affect architecture.
c- It is defined by powerful governments and famous architects throughout the world.
d- It is characterized only by architects.
6- According to the text, which sentence is ―not true‖?
a- Classifying architecture within a chronology of styles is not possible.
b- Elements such as form, method of construction, building materials, etc, can be included within a style.
c- A style may also reflect the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials
d- Over time, an architectural style changes and reflects changing fashions, beliefs and religions.
7- Which one is ―not true‖?
a- A style appears from the history of a society.
b-At any time there may be more than one style.
c-The history of a society cannot be considered as the origin of the architectural styles.
d-Styles do not usually change fast, so architects can understand and adapt to new ideas.
8- Which one is ―true‖?
a- Post-modernism has kept its original form and adapted itself to modernism.
b- Post-modernism was a rebellion against existing style.
c- The new style always agrees with other existing styles.
d- Styles often remain in their home country do not develop to other places,
9- Renaissance ideas ………………………
41
a- emerged and remained in Italy without spreading to elsewhere until the next 200 years.
b- were rejected by Belgian, German, English, and Spanish ideas.
c- in other European countries showed the same style and the same characteristics.
d-appeared about the first quarter of the 15th century.
10- About ‗vernacular architecture‘, which one is ―not true‖?
a-It is a little different and grouped separately.
b-It uses many workers and local materials.
c- It is the standard method of construction.
d-Local people use vernacular architecture.
Abbas Yalvaee - 2019
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Specialized English English Texts of Architecture collected and edited by Yalvaee-2019

English Texts for the Students of Architecture

2- What are the architectural characteristics of Göbekli Tepe?

Fig. 7-Map of Mesopotamia in about 3500 BC Fig. 8 Fig. 9

Fig. 12- A reconstruction of a Sumerian ziggurat

Lesson 6: Concrete History

Lesson 8: A Few Architectural Terms, Types and …

6- How did citadels change during medieval times?

Fig. 13 Fig. 14-Wattle and daub in wooden frames

Figs. 15-31- Some types of arches

Figs. 39-55- some types of balusters and a part of a balustrade

Figs. 59-61 Figs. 62-63

Lesson 14: Postmodernism

Lesson 15: Sense of Place

Lesson 16: Vernacular Architecture

Lesson 17: The Persian/Islamic Architecture

Lesson 18: Angkor Thom

Figs. 64-66 Map of Central Angkor Thom

Fig- 67- Terrace of the Elephants

Lesson 19: Factory

Lesson 20: Strength of materials

anchorage: ْ‫بؼ وؽظ‬ِٙ -‫بؼي‬ِٙ

‫ًوًَْ ای ازیک آًکْى‬ ‫برخی از اًْاع قْضِا در هعواری ّ اجسای قْش‬

‫ ًوًَْ ای از براکت یا طاقچۀ تقْیتی‬bracket ‫ ًردٍ یا طارهی ّ اجسای آى‬Balustrade

↑ Entablature↑ highly ornamented eaves

‫اجساء هختلف یک ضتْى‬ ‫ًوًَْ ای از هعواری گْتیک‬ ‫ًوًَْ ای از یک پاگْدا‬

lancet window Doric Ionic Corinthian Tuscan Composite

polychrome: item made with, or decorated in several colours.

‫ًوًَْ ای از تْرّش ضبک تْضکاًی‬ pavilion ‫ًوًَْ ای از یک پاّیْى‬

‫ًوًَْ ضؤاالت تطتي‬

Part Three (I)- Put the words in their correct places:

(II)- a-resolved b-information c-designing d-Documentation e-social

(III)- a-knowledge b-mass c-technical d-architecture

.‫ ِیجبنع‬.............. ‫اژٖ ي‬ٚ ،»ٖ‫اژٖ ي «ِمجؽ‬ٚ ‫ِؼبظي ِٕبقت أگٍیكي ثؽاي‬- 44

Part 3- Sentence Translation-Translate the sentences into Persian: )ٍ‫ ًور‬5 (

A- aggregate B- gravel C- precursor D- surfaces E- cement F- concrete G- consisting of

Abbas Yalvaee - 2019

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