SIR KEN

TOPIC 1 - ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

What is Organizational Development?

- Is a planned systematic change in the values or operations of employees to create
overall growth in a company or organization.

SEVERAL GOALS THAT COMPANIES USUALLY HAVE IN MIND DURING

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS:
● ONGOING IMPROVEMENT - Changing company culture to view new strategies as a
positive growth opportunity allows for ongoing improvement & encourages employees to
become more open to change and new ideas.
● BETTER OR INCREASED COMMUNICATION - Organizational development that leads
to increased feedback and interaction in the organization aligns employees with the
company's vision.
● EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT - Employees must constantly adapt to changing products,
platforms, and environments.
● PRODUCT & SERVICE IMPROVEMENT - OD leads to innovation, which can help
improve products and services.
● INCREASED PROFIT - OD helps increase profits by optimizing communication,
employee processes, and products or services.

THE GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:

● Continuous improvement
● Better communication
● Individual employee development
● Product & service enhancement
● Increased profit

THE PROCESS OF OD:

● Identifying an area of improvement - Companies should ask themselves what they
want to change, and why that change is necessary.
● Investigating the problem - companies conduct an investigation to learn why the
problem exists, what the barriers to improvement are, and what solutions have
previously been attempted.
● Creating an action plan - the company creates a plan with allocated resources and
clearly defined employee roles.
● Creating motivation & a vision - Leaders must motivate their employees to share in a
vision.
● Implementing - Support employees during the transition with mentoring, training, and
coaching. Management should consider what new skills employees will need & what
delivery methods will be most effective.
● Evaluating initial results - Leaders may create space for shared reflection, asking
themselves & their employees if the change effectively met the business goals.
 ● Adopting or continuing - Depending on the evaluation of the initial results, the
company may choose to adapt or continue its plan.

CHALLENGES TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE & DEVELOPMENT:

● Fear of the unknown - Some employees are afraid to implement new plans because
they're afraid of failure or reluctant to enter uncharted territory.
● Conflicting goals - Conflict often pertains to finances & allocation of resources,
sometimes stemming from poor communication between management branches.
● Burnout - Change can be exhausting, and employees may experience burnout if proper
support is lacking.
● Lack of leadership - Key leaders may leave an organization, forcing the remaining
employees to scramble to fill the gaps.
● Lack of understanding of planned changes - Employees expect well-planned &
predictable changes, so when surprises or missteps occur, they can lose faith in the
process.
● Difficulty changing the mission or values - Some employees may feel that the
company's mission doesn't align with the new initiatives.

TYPES OF OD INTERVENTIONS:
1. INDIVIDUAL - Individual interventions relate to individual responsibility, habits, vision,
improvement, or workflow.
2. GROUP - Group interventions relate to a core team or branch, but not the entire staff.
Group interventions may be necessary because one part of a company is changing how
it develops a product.
3. ORGANIZATIONAL - Organizational interventions involve an entire organization or
business. They may be necessary if a company is rolling out new strategies, vision, or
protocols that affect every employee.

OD MODELS:
● LEWIN'S THREE-STEP MODEL
1. UNFREEZE - Companies work to loosen current norms & procedures to prepare
for change.
2. CHANGE (TRANSITION) - Companies introduce new strategies and implement
it. Management support and communication are critical to keep employees
motivated and focused.
3. FREEZE (REFREEZE) - Solidifies the “new normal” and encourages reflection
on how to sustain the change.

● ACTION RESEARCH MODEL

1. Research on Problems and Theorizing Solutions - involves data collection,
focus groups, & often hiring an outside consultant or specialist. The goal is to
identify a problem with an actionable, results-focused solution.
 2. Action Phase - involves implementing the change. This step is impossible
without clear communication from leadership & strong support in place for
employees.
3. Input and Results Phase - involves gathering data to assess the strategy’s
impact on the problem. This step involves analysis & reflection & can lead back
to step one if the action was ineffective.

● BUSINESS PROCESS REENGINEERING - much more radical & can involve

completely reimagining parts of a company.
1. Map the Current State of the Organization's Processes - leadership
documents current processes & procedures in preparation for analysis.
2. Analyze the Processes - using the process map, committees or individuals
analyze procedures to identify what's working & what's not.
3. Identify Improvement Opportunities - teams identify areas of need &
brainstorm solutions.
4. Design a Process Map for Future Improved Processes - employees and
management work together to plan changes.
5. Implement Changes to Attain Improved Processes - the initiatives are rolled
out, and employees receive training & support.

● McKinsey 7-S Framework - to implement this framework, companies analyze each of

the seven S's -shared values, strategy, structure, systems, style, skills, and staff-
and come up with solutions for improvement. The key factor is shared values, which are
the organization's main priorities.
Hard S's
● Strategy: the company's overall direction.
● Structure: the company's organization, specifically regarding job descriptions &
responsibilities.
● Systems: the processes & procedures that currently guide the company.
Soft S's
● Style: the leadership style of upper management.
● Skills: the company's capabilities, including those of individuals as well as the
company as a whole.
● Staff: the company's employee.

TOPIC 2 - MANAGING CHANGE

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
● PLANNED CHANGE - change resulting from a deliberate decision to alter the
organization.
● UNPLANNED CHANGE - change that is imposed on the organization & is often
unforeseen.

EXTERNAL FORCES FOR CHANGE

 ● GLOBALIZATION - Organizations must rethink the most efficient ways to use resources,
disseminate/gather information, and develop people.
● WORKFORCE DIVERSITY - majority of new workers will be female, workforce will grow
in diversity which means more Hispanics & African Americans, and workforce is aging
which means less young workers, more middle-aged.
● CHANGING TECHNOLOGY - Changes in work relationships, and changes in
organizational structure
● ETHICAL BEHAVIOR - ethical treatment to the society, environment, customers, and
other organizations.

INTERNAL FORCES FOR CHANGE

● DECLINING EFFECTIVENESS
● COMPANY CRISIS
● CHANGING WORK CLIMATE
● CHANGING EMPLOYEE EXPECTATIONS

SCOPE OF CHANGE
● INCREMENTAL CHANGE - change of a relatively small scope, such as making small
improvements
● STRATEGIC CHANGE - change of a larger scale, such as organizational restructuring
● TRANSFORMATIONAL CHANGE - change in which the organization moves to a
radically different, and sometimes unknown, future state.

THE CHANGE AGENT'S ROLE

Change Agent - the individual or group who undertakes the task of introducing & managing a
change in an organization.
INTERNAL CHANGE AGENTS
● Advantages
- know past history, political system, and culture
- Must live with results of change so will move carefully
● Disadvantages
- May be associated with factions, accused of favoritism
- May be too close to the situation to be objective
EXTERNAL CHANGE AGENTS
● Advantages
- Outsider's objective view
- Impartiality
● Disadvantages
- Limited knowledge of organization's history
- May be viewed with suspicious

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
● Fear of the unknown
● Fear of loss
 ● Fear of failure
● Disruption of interpersonal relationships
● Personality conflicts
● Politics
● Cultural assumptions and values

DEALING WITH RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

● COMMUNICATION
- Details
- Rationale
● PARTICIPATION IN THE PROCESS
- Ownership
- Commitment
● EMPATHY AND SUPPORT

REACTIONS TO CHANGE & MANAGERIAL INTERVENTIONS

APPLYING LEWIN'S MODEL TO THE ORGANIZATION

● UNFREEZING: the organization eliminates rewards for current behavior
● MOVING: the organization initiates new options & explained their rationale
● REFREEZING: organizational culture & formal reward systems encourage the new
behaviors

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS CYCLE

● Problem Identification - problems can be identified in a
wide-range of ways including reports from employees, data
gathering, etc.
● Situational Assessment - this can be done by
reviewing documentation, holding focus groups, interviewing, or
surveying.
● Action Planning - this should be done by incorporating
input from all impacted parties so that a solution that addresses
the specific problem at hand can be found.
● Implement Plan - take the plan made in the previous
step and put it into action. This may include training and other
steps needed to ensure the action plan is put in place correctly.
 ● Gather Data - this should be done with a focus on identifying where the changes made
are having a positive impact on the problem at hand.
● Analyze Results - look at the gathered data to see if the plan has improved the
problem, eliminated the problem, did nothing to the problem, or made the problem
worse.
● Get Feedback - Gathering feedback from all impacted parties.
● Repeat - if necessary, the process will be repeated.

THE CORE VALUES FOR ORGANIZATIONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Workers must be treated as people rather than resources to create a productive process.
2. Opportunities must be provided for each organization member and the organization itself
to reach its full potential.
3. Seeking improvement must always be happening to reach the organization’s goals.
4. Create an environment that produces work that is both exciting and challenging.
5. Provide worker opportunities that influence the ways they relate to tasks, the business,
and the environment around them.
6. Realizing that every worker has a unique set of needs that are all important for their lives
and how they work.

THE ESSENTIAL OD OBJECTIVES

1. Improve interpersonal trust among employees
2. Increase satisfaction and commitment
3. Confront problems immediately instead of ignoring them
4. Manage conflict effectively
5. Improve cooperation and collaboration
6. Increase the rate of problem-solving
7. Consistently establish processes that assist in improving the continuing
operation of an organization

DIAGNOSIS & NEEDS ANALYSIS

OD INTERVENTION METHODS: ORGANIZATIONAL/GROUP TECHNIQUES

● SURVEY FEEDBACK - a widely used method of intervention whereby employee
attitudes are solicited by questionnaire.
- Anonymous
- Group reporting format
- No repercussions
- Clear purpose
- Follow up
 ● MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE - an organization-wide intervention technique of joint
goal setting goals between employees and managers.
- Initial objectives
- Periodic progress reviews
- Problem solving to remove obstacles to goal achievement
● QUALITY PROGRAM - a program that embeds product & service quality excellence into
the organizational culture.
- Raise aspirations about product/service quality
- Embed product/service quality excellence in the organizational culture.
● TEAM BUILDING - an intervention designed to improve the effectiveness of a work
group.
- Seek feedback
- Discuss errors
- Reflect on successes & failures
- Experiment with new ways of performing
- Climate of psychological safety
● LARGE GROUP INTERVENTIONS - events that bring all of the key members of a group
together in one room for an extended period of time.
- Outside consultants determine participants & goals
- Participants = critical mass supporting change
● PROCESS CONSULTATION - an OD method that helps managers & employers improve
the processes that are used in organizations.
Outside consultant:
- Enters organization
- Defines the relationship
- Chooses an approach
- Gathers data
- Diagnoses problem
- Intervenes
- Leaves organization

OD INTERVENTION METHODS: INDIVIDUAL-FOCUSED TECHNIQUES

● SKILL TRAINING - increasing the job knowledge, skills, and abilities that are necessary
to do a job effectively.
● SENSITIVITY TRAINING - an intervention designed to help individuals understand how
their behavior affects others.
● MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT TRAINING - a host of techniques for enhancing
managers’ skills in an organization.
- Verbal information
- Intellectual skills
- Attitudes
- Development
● ROLE NEGOTIATION - a technique whereby individual meet & clarify psychological
contract
 Outcomes:
- Better understanding of what each can be expected to give & receive
- Less ambiguity
● JOB REDESIGN - an OD intervention method that alters jobs to improve the fit between
individual skills & the demands of the job.
- Realign task demands & individual capabilities
- Redesign jobs to fit new techniques or organization structures
● HEALTH PROMOTION PROGRAMS
- Stress reduction education, employee assistance
● CAREER PLANNING - match individual's career aspirations with organizational
opportunities.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN OD:

● Selection of the OD method
● Voluntary participation
● Confidentiality
● Potential for manipulation by the change agent

LONG-TERM OD PROGRAMS:
● EMPLOYEE TRAINING - workers need to stay competent and productive.
● PRODUCT RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT - the development of new services,
products, and ideas can change the nature of a business.
● CULTURAL CHANGE CAMPAIGNS - Aligning culture with an organization's mission is
often a long-term, continual effort

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE PROGRAMS ARE OFTEN VIEWED AS:

● SHORT-TERM - Organizational change can take weeks, months, or years. At a certain
point, the lines between organizational development & organizational change will blur.
● TRANSFORMATIVE - OD projects are often gradual & less obtrusive.
● DISRUPTIVE - Disruption can be difficult for many employees, which frequently results
in employee resistance.

SHORT-TERM OD PROGRAMS:
● MERGERS & ACQUISITIONS - when two businesses join forces, there are often
drastic, overnight changes.
● REBRANDING - to stay modern & relevant, many businesses will engage in rebranding
efforts.
● DIGITAL ADOPTION - a company that adopts new digital technology will often make a
quick transition to a new set of tools.

DRIVERS OF CHANGE:
● Competitive pressure
● Changing industry paradigms
● Customer demand
● Growth opportunities
TEAM 2
HUMAN PROCESS INTERVENTIONS

PROCESS CONSULTATION - is a general framework for carrying out helping relationships.

PROCESS CONSULTANT - works to help managers, employees, and groups assess & improve
human processes, such as communication, interpersonal relations, decision making, & task
performance.

SCHEIN’S TEN PRINCIPLES TO GUIDE THE PROCESS CONSULTANT’S ACTIONS:

● Always try to be helpful
● Always stay in touch with the current reality
● Access your ignorance
● Everything you do is an intervention.
● The client owns the problem and the solution.
● Go with the flow
● Timing is crucial
● Be constructively opportunistic with confrontive interventions.
● Everything is information; errors will always occur and are the prime source for
learning.
● When in doubt, share the problem

GROUP PROCESS
● Communications
● The functional roles of group members.
● Group problem solving and decision making.
● Group norms
● The use of leadership and authority

BASIC PROCESS INTERVENTIONS

● INDIVIDUAL INTERVENTIONS - these are designed primarily to help people be more
effective in their communication with others.
● GROUP INTERVENTIONS - these are aimed at the process, content, or structure of the
group.
● CONTENT INTERVENTIONS - help the group determine what it works on.
● STRUCTURAL INTERVENTIONS - help the group examine the stable & recurring
methods it uses to accomplish tasks & deal with external issues.

THIRD PARTY INTERVENTIONS - Focus on conflicts arising between two or more people
within the same organization.

AN EPISODIC MODEL OF CONFLICT - a psychological model that explains how conflicts

unfold over time & the stages they typically go through.
1. LATENT CONFLICT - this is the initial stage where the potential for conflict exists, but it
hasn't yet become visible.
 2. PERCEIVED CONFLICT - at this stage, individuals or groups involved in the conflict
become aware of it.
3. FELT CONFLICT - involves the emotional response to the perceived conflict.
4. MANIFEST CONFLICT - the stage where the conflict becomes more visible to others.
5. CONFLICT AFTERMATH - period of reflection & evaluation. Individuals or groups may
assess the impact of the conflict on relationships & outcomes.
6. CONFLICT RESOLUTION OR ESCALATION - depending on how the conflict aftermath
is managed, it can either lead to resolution or escalation.

TEAM BUILDING - refers to a broad range of planned activities that help groups improve the
way they accomplish tasks, help members enhance their interpersonal and problem solving
skills, and increase Tam performance.

TEAM - a group of interdependent people who share a common purpose, have common work
methods, & hold each other accountable.

ACTIVITIES RELEVANT TO ONE OR MORE INDIVIDUALS:

● COACHING
● 360-DEGREE FEEDBACK
● ASSISTANCE WITH CONFLICT

A CLASSIFICATION OF TEAM BUILDING

ACTIVITIES ORIENTED TO THE GROUP’S OPERATION AND BEHAVIOR:

● Team-building activities - often focus on improving both task performance and group
dynamics.
● Diagnostic activities - establish a framework for further work.
● Developmental activities - aim to enhance the group's processes and functioning.
● French and Bell - define team development as self-reflection by the team to eliminate
dysfunctional behaviors and enhance functional ones.

ACTIVITIES AFFECTING THE GROUP’S RELATIONSHIP WITH THE REST OF THE

ORGANIZATION:
● Diagnostic activities - aim to comprehend the group's organizational role, its alignment
with the organization's goals, and its interactions with other groups.
 ● Developmental activities - involve actions that enhance the group's contributions to the
organization.

ORGANIZATION PROCESS APPROACHES:

1. ORGANIZATION CONFRONTATION MEETING - an intervention to mobilize an
organization’s resources to identify problems, set priorities, & work on them.
2. INTERGROUP RELATIONS - it consists of two interventions: the intergroup conflict
resolution meeting & microcosm group.
3. LARGE-GROUP INTERVENTION - has received considerable attention recently and is
one of the fastest-growing areas in OD.

2 OD INTERVENTIONS OF INTERGROUP RELATIONS:

1. MICROCOSM GROUPS - consists of a small number of individuals who reflect the issue
being addressed. It works through “parallel processes ”.
2. INTERGROUP CONFLICT RESOLUTION

PARALLEL PROCESSES - are the uncontrolled changes that take place in individuals when
two or more groups interact.

MICROCOSM GROUPS APPLICATION STAGES:

1. Identifying an issue
2. Convene the group
3. Provide group training
4. Address the issue
5. Dissolve the group

RESULTS OF MICROCOSM GROUP:

1. Improved the way meetings were conducted
2. Developed a job posting
3. Career development
4. Promotion program
5. New-employee orientations

RESULTS OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT INTERVENTIONS:

1. Improved perceptions
2. Increased trust
3. Less stereotyping
4. Improves operational results

LARGE GROUP INTERVENTIONS - vary on several dimensions, including purpose, size,

length, structure, and number.

LARGE GROUP INTERVENTION APPLICATION STAGES:

1. Preparing for the meeting
 2. Conducting it
3. Following up on outcomes

PREPARING FOR THE LARGE GROUP MEETING:

1. Compelling meeting theme
2. Appropriate participants
3. Relevant tasks to address the conference theme

CONDUCTING THE MEETING:

1. The dilemma of voice
2. The dile of structure
3. The egocentric dilemma
4. The dilemma of emotional contagion

OPEN-SYSTEMS METHOD:
1. Map the current environment surrounding the organization.
2. Assess the organization’s responses to environmental expectations.
3. Identify the core mission of the organization.
4. Create a realistic future scenario of environmental expectations and organization
responses.
5. Compare the present with the ideal future & prepare an action plan for reducing
the discrepancy.

OPEN-SPACE METHODS - the second approach to large-group interventions characterized by

its minimal formal structure & emphasis on self-organization.

STEPS OF OPEN-SPACE METHODS:

1. Set the conditions for self-organizing
2. Create the agenda
3. Coordinate activity through information

POSITIVE METHODS - the final large-group intervention, these methods can increase
members’ energy for change and build a broad consensus toward a new future.

4-STEPS IN AN AI SUMMIT:
1. Discover the organization’s positive core.
2. Dream about & envision a more desired & fulfilling future.
3. Design the structural & systems arrangements.
4. Create the specific action plans that will fulfill the organization’s destiny.

RESULTS OF LARGE GROUP INTERVENTIONS:

● Enhanced Communication & Collaboration
● Increased Employee Engagement
● Innovation & Idea Generation
● Ownership & Accountability
● Improved Organizational Culture
● Identification of Barriers & Challenges
● Enhanced Change Readiness
TEAM 4
TECHNOSTRUCTURAL INTERVENTION

ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE - describes how the overall work of the organization is divided
into subunits & how these subunits are coordinated for task completion.

3 FORMS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:

1. FUNCTIONAL - departments that are task specialized
2. DIVISIONAL - units that are oriented to specific products, customers, or regions
3. MATRIX - structures that combine both functional specialization and self-containment.

FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE - the most widely used organizational structure in the world today.
- Tends to work best in small- to medium-size firms in environments that are relatively
stable & certain.

THE DIVISIONAL STRUCTURE - also known as a product or self-contained-unit structure,

groups organizational activities on the basis of products, services, customers, or geography.

3 TYPES OF DIVISIONAL STRUCTURE:

1. Market-based divisional structure
2. Product-based divisional structure
3. Geographic divisional structure
MATRIX STRUCTURE - every matrix organization contains three unique & critical roles:
● TOP MANAGER - who heads & balances dual chains of command
● MATRIX BOSSES - (functional, product, or area) who share subordinates
● TWO-BOSS - managers, who report to two different matrix leaders

3 IMPORTANT CONDITIONS OF MATRIX STRUCTURE:

1. There must be real outside pressures for a dual focus.
2. The organization must process a large amount of information.
3. There must be pressures for shared resources.

PROCESS-BASED STRUCTURE - emphasize lateral rather than vertical relationships.

FEATURES OF PROCESS BASED STRUCTURE:

● Processes drive structure.
● Work adds value.
● Teams are fundamental.
● Customers define performance.
● Teams are rewarded for performance.
● Teams are tightly linked to suppliers and customers.
● Team members are well informed and trained.
CUSTOMER-CENTRIC STRUCTURE - focuses subunits on the creation of solutions & the
satisfaction of key customers or customer groups.
- Work best in large organizations

NETWORK STRUCTURE - manages the diverse, complex, and dynamic relationships among
multiple organizations or units, each specializing in a particular business function or task.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NETWORK STRUCTURE:

● VERTICAL DISAGGREGATION - the breaking up of the organization’s business
functions into separate organizations performing specialized work.
● BROKERS - play a central role and subcontract for needed products or services, or it
may specialize in linking equal partners into a network.
● COORDINATING MECHANISMS - falls into three categories:
a. can depend heavily on interpersonal relationships among individuals who have a
well-developed partnership.
b. can be achieved through formal contracts, such as ownership control, licensing
arrangements, or purchase agreements.
c. ensure that all parties are aware of each other’s activities and can communicate
with each other.

FOUR PRINCIPLES OF TOTALPLANT INITIATIVES:

1. PROCESS MAPPING
2. FAIL-SAFING
3. TEAMWORK
4. COMMUNICATION
EIGHT MAJOR STAGES OF PROCESS MAPPING:
● Select the process to be reviewed
● Identify all customers
● The team developed an “as is” map
● The “as is” map was used by the team to calculate cycle times, the elapsed times
between the start of a process and the conclusion of a process, as well as the
distance the product travels during that cycle.
● The team identified areas of improvement that did not require additional costs or
resources. Non-value-added steps, extended approval processes, and processes
with highly variant cycle times were analyzed and either streamlined or completely
eliminated.
● Direct the team to develop a process implementation plan, establish confirmation
from a steering committee, and then implement it. New goals were established and
results tracked for each of the process steps.

FAIL-SAFING - a five-step process intended to create a product that is defect free by identifying
and analyzing defects, and understanding their root causes.

THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF ROOT CAUSE:

1. it is defined as being the cause of the defect;
2. it is possible to change the cause; and
3. if eliminated, the defect will be eliminated or at least significantly reduced.
4.
PDCA - Plan, Do, Check, Act
DOWNSIZING - refers to interventions aimed at reducing the size of the organization.

APPLICATION STAGES OF DOWNSIZING:

1. CLARIFY THE ORGANIZATION'S STRATEGY - organization leaders specify corporate
and business strategy and communicate clearly how downsizing relates to it
2. ASSESS DOWNSIZING OPTIONS & MAKE RELEVANT CHOICES - Once the strategy
is clear, the full range of downsizing options can be identified and assessed.
3. IMPLEMENT THE CHANGES - implementing methods for reducing the size of the
organization
4. ADDRESS THE NEEDS OF SURVIVORS & THOSE WHO LEAVE - involves reduction
in the size of the workforce, and it is important to support not only employees who
remain with the organization but also those who leave.
5. FOLLOW THROUGH WITH GROWTH PLANS - involves implementing an organization
renewal and growth process.

EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT - variously referred to as “empowerment”, “participative

management”, “engagement”, “work design”, “high involvement”, “industrial democracy”,
and “quality of work life”.
- process of allowing employees to give their opinion on decisions that affect their work.
QUALITY OF WORK LIFE (QWL) - was used to stress the prevailing poor quality of life at the
workplace.

ENGAGEMENT - refers to an organization member’s work experience.

KEY ELEMENTS OF EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT THAT PROMOTE WORKER

INVOLVEMENT:
● POWER
● INFORMATION
● KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS
● REWARDS

PARALLEL STRUCTURES - known as “collateral structures”, “dualistic structures”, or “shadow

structures”.
- involves members in resolving ill-defined, complex problems and building adaptability
into bureaucratic organizations.

STEPS IN IMPLEMENTING COOPERATIVE UNION-MANAGEMENT & QUALITY CIRCLE

PROGRAMS:
● Define the Purpose and Scope.
● Form a Steering Committee
● Communicate with Organization Members
● Create Forums for Employee Problem Solving
● Address the Problems and Issues
● Implement and Evaluate the Changes

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT(TQM)

- also known as “continuous process improvement”, “continuous quality”,” lean”, and
“six-sigma”,
- is a holistic approach that focuses on achieving quality in all aspects of an organization's
activities.
- TQM originated from Deming and Juran's WWII work in Japan.

THE FOURTEEN POINTS

1. Create a constancy of purpose
2. Adopt a new philosophy
3. End the practice of purchasing at lowest prices
4. Institute leadership
5. Eliminate empty slogans
6. Eliminate numerical quotas
7. Institute on-the-job training
8. Drive out fear
9. Break down barriers between departments
 10. Take action to accomplish the transformation
11. Improve constantly and forever the process of production and service
12. Cease dependence on mass inspection
13. Remove barriers to pride in workmanship
14. Retrain vigorously

THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS

1. Lack of constancy of purpose
2. Emphasizing short-term profits and immediate dividends.
3. Evaluation of performance, merit rating, or annual review
4. Mobility of top management
5. Running a company only on visible figures
6. Excessive medical costs
7. Excessive costs of warranty

APPLICATION STAGES OF TQM

1. Gain Long-Term Senior Management Commitment
2. Train Members in Quality Methods
3. Start Quality Improvement Projects
4. Measure Progress
5. Rewarding Accomplishment

HIGH-INVOLVEMENT ORGANIZATIONS (HIOS) - characterized by a comprehensive approach

to employee involvement, creating conditions that foster extensive employee participation.

LIST OF COMPATIBLE DESIGN ELEMENTS CHARACTERIZING HIOS:

● Flat, lean organization structures
● Job designs
● Open information systems
● Career systems
● Selection
● Training
● Reward systems
● Personnel policies
● Physical layouts

THE ENGINEERING APPROACH - It proposes that the most efficient work designs can be
determined by clearly specifying the tasks to be performed, the work methods to be used, and
the work flow among individuals.

FREDERICK TAYLOR - father of scientific management

- He developed methods for analyzing and designing work and laid the foundation for the
professional field of industrial engineering.
-
SEVERAL BENEFITS OF WORK DESIGN:
● Learn tasks rapidly
● Permit short work cycles
● Reduce costs
●
THE ENGINEERING APPROACH'S TWO KINDS OF WORK DESIGN:
1. TRADITIONAL JOBS - When the work can be completed by one person, such as with
bank tellers and telephone operators, traditional jobs are created.
2. TRADITIONAL WORK GROUPS - When the work requires coordination among people,
such as on automobile assembly lines, traditional work groups are developed.

THE MOTIVATIONAL APPROACH - Explains that certain job dimensions, such as skill, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback, all provide psychological benefits in
employees that lead to motivation.

HERZBERG and of HACKMAN and OLDHAM

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory proposes that two sets of factors influence job
satisfaction:
1. HYGIENE FACTORS - such as company policies, working conditions, pay, and
supervision, do not produce satisfaction but rather prevent dissatisfaction
2. MOTIVATION - proposed that certain attributes of work, such as opportunities for
advancement and recognition, which he called motivators, help increase job satisfaction.

THE CORE DIMENSIONS OF JOBS

HACKMAN AND OLDHAM MODEL OF JOB DESIGN

BARRIERS TO JOB ENRICHMENT:

● THE TECHNICAL SYSTEM - The technology of an organization can limit job enrichment
by constraining the number of ways jobs can be changed.
● THE HUMAN RESOURCE SYSTEM - Human resources systems can constrain job
enrichment by creating formalized job descriptions that are rigidly defined and limit
flexibility in changing people’s job duties.
● THE CONTROL SYSTEM - Control systems, such as budgets, production reports, and
accounting practices, can limit the complexity and challenge of jobs within the system.
 ● THE SUPERVISORY SYSTEM - Supervisors determine to a large extent the amount of
autonomy and feedback that subordinates can experience.

SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS APPROACH (STS) - currently the most extensive body of

scientific and applied work underlying employee involvement and innovative work designs.

2 FUNDAMENTAL PREMISES OF SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS/STS THEORY:

1. SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS - whenever human beings are organized to perform
tasks, a joint system is operating—a sociotechnical system. This system consists of two
independent but related parts:
Social part, including the people performing the tasks and the relationships among
them.
Technical part, including the tools, techniques, and methods for task performance.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONSHIP - The second major premise underlying STS theory
is that such systems are open to their environments.

SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS

- The most prevalent application of the STS approach.
- Alternatively referred to as self-directed, self-regulating, or high-performance work
teams.

TEAM TASK DESIGN - self-managed work teams are responsible for performing particular
tasks.

TEAM PROCESS INTERVENTIONS - teams may develop ineffective social processes that
impede functioning and performance.

ORGANIZATION SUPPORT SYSTEMS - the extent to which the larger organization is

designed to support self-managed work teams.

PROBLEMS TRYING TO FULFILL THE COMPLEX DEMANDS OF LEADING

SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS:
● ambiguity about responsibilities and authority
● lack of personal and technical skills and organizational support
● insufficient attention from higher management
● feelings of frustration in the supervisory job

ATTEMPTS TO OVERCOME THESE PROBLEMS HAVE BEEN MADE IN THE FOLLOWING

AREAS:
● RECRUITMENT & SELECTION - Recruitment has been directed at selecting team
leaders with a balanced mixture of technical and social skills.
● TRAINING - Extensive formal and on-the-job training in human relations, group
dynamics, and leadership styles has been instituted for leaders of self-managed work
teams.
 ● EVALUATION & REWARD SYSTEMS - Leaders prepare developmental plans for
individual workers and the team as a whole, and set measurable benchmarks for
progress.
● LEADERSHIP SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Leaders of self-managed work teams have been
encouraged to develop peer support groups.
● USE OF FREED-UP TIME - Team leaders have been provided with a mixture of
strategies to apply their talents beyond the immediate work team.

SIX STEPS OF STS APPLICATIONS:

1. Sanctioning the Design Effort
2. Diagnosing the Work System
3. Generating Appropriate Designs
4. Specifying Support Systems
5. Implementing and Evaluating the Work Designs
6. Continual Change and Improvement

2 DIMENSIONS OF TECHNICAL FACTORS:

1. TECHNICAL INTERDEPENDENCE - the extent to which cooperation among workers is
required
- When interdependence is LOW and there is little need for worker cooperation,
work can be designed for INDIVIDUAL jobs.
- When interdependence is HIGH and employees must cooperate, work should be
designed for GROUPS composed of people performing interacting tasks.
2. TECHNICAL UNCERTAINTY - the amount of information and decisions employees
must do
- When technical uncertainty is LOW and little information has to be processed by
employees, work can be designed for EXTERNAL CONTROL.
- When technical uncertainty is HIGH and people must process more information
and make decisions, work should be designed for high levels of EMPLOYEE
SELF-CONTROL.

2 TYPES OF PERSONAL-NEED FACTORS:

1. SOCIAL NEEDS - the desire for significant social relationships;
- People with LOW needs for social relationships are more likely to be satisfied
working on INDIVIDUALIZED JOBS than in interacting groups.
- People with HIGH social needs are more likely to be attracted to GROUP WORK
than to individualized jobs.
2. GROWTH NEEDS - the desire for personal accomplishment, learning, and development;
- People with LOW growth needs generally are more satisfied performing
ROUTINE WORK that do not require high levels of decision making.
- People with HIGH growth needs are satisfied with work offering COMPLEXITY
AND CHALLENGE.
TEAM 3
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT - is an integrated process of defining, assessing, and

reinforcing employee work behaviors and outcomes.

GOAL SETTING - managers and subordinates in jointly establishing and clarifying employee
goals. Generates goals in several defined categories, at different organizational levels, to
establish clear linkages with business strategy.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOAL SETTING

1. Establishing Challenging Goals - establishing goals that are perceived as challenging
but realistic which there is a high level of commitment.
2. Clarifying Goal Management - specific goals reduce ambiguity about expectations and
focus the search for appropriate behaviors.

APPLICATION STAGES TO GOAL SETTING

1. Diagnosis
2. Preparation for Goal Setting
3. Setting of Goals
4. Review

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT MODEL

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
- A common form of goal setting used in organizations
- A method that attempt to align personal goals with business strategy by increasing
communications and shared perceptions between the manager and subordinates, either
individually or as a group, and by reconciling conflict where it exists

EFFECTS OF GOAL SETTING AND MBO

- The impact of goal setting has been researched extensively and shown to be a
particularly effective OD intervention and a key part of an overall performance
management process.
- Goal setting appears to produce positive results over a wide range of jobs and
organizations
MBO HAS ITS ORIGIN IN TWO DIFFERENT BACKGROUNDS:
● ORGANIZATIONAL
● DEVELOPMENTAL

6 BASIC STEPS IN IMPLEMENTING AN MBO PROCESS

● Work-group involvement
● Joint manager-subordinate goal setting
● Establishment of action plan for goals
● Establishment of criteria, or yardsticks, for success
● Review and recycle
● Maintenance of record

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL - a feedback system that involves the direct evaluation of

individual or work-group performance by a supervisor, manager, or peers.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL PROCESS

APPLICATION STAGES:
1. Select the Right People
2. Diagnose the Current Situation
3. Establish the System's Purposes and Objectives
4. Design the Performance Appraisal System
5. Experiment with Implementation
6. Evaluate and Monitor the System

EFFECTS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

- impressively effective and has been supported by a large number of literature reviews
over the years.
- In a meta-analysis of performance appraisal interventions, feedback was found to have a
consistently positive effect across studies.

STRUCTURAL AND MOTIVATIONAL FEATURES OF REWARD SYSTEM

● Person/Job Based vs. Performance Based - The extent to which rewards and
incentives are based on the person in a job, the job itself, or the outcomes of the work.
● Market Position (External Equity) - The relationship between what an organization
pays and what other organizations pay.
● Internal Equity - The extent to which people doing similar work in an organization are
rewarded the same.
 ● Hierarchy - The extent to which people in higher positions get more and varied types of
rewards than people lower in the organization.
● Centralization - The extent to which reward system design features, decisions, and
administration are standardized across an organization.
● Rewards Mix - The extent to which different types of rewards are available and offered
to people.
● Security - The extent to which work is guaranteed.
● Seniority - The extent to which rewards are based on length of service.

Value Expectancy Model - posits that employees will expend effort to achieve performance
goals that they believe will lead to outcomes that they value.
Skill- and Knowledge-Based Pay Systems - The most traditional reward system is individual
and job based.

THE ABILITY OF REWARDS TO MOTIVATE DESIRED BEHAVIOR DEPENDS ON THESE

FIVE FACTORS:
● Ability - For rewards to reinforce desired performance, they must be not only desired but
also available.
● Timeliness - Like effective performance feedback, rewards should be given in a timely
manner.
● Performance contingency - Rewards should be closely linked with particular
performances.
● Durability - Some rewards last longer than others.
● Visibility - To leverage a reward system, it must be visible.

ADVANTAGES
● contribute to organizational effectiveness by providing a more flexible workforce
● by giving employees a broad perspective on how the entire plant operates
DISADVANTAGES
● the tendency to "top out,"
● the expense
● the lack of performance contingency

DEVELOPING A GAIN- SHARING PLAN REQUIRES MAKING CHOICES ABOUT THE

FOLLOWING ELEMENTS:
● Process of design - The success of a gain-sharing system depends on employee
acceptance and cooperation.
● Organizational unit covered - The size of the unit included in the plan can vary widely,
from departments or plants with less than 50 employees to companies with several
thousand people.
● Bonus formula - Gain-sharing plans are based on a formula that generates a bonus
pool, which is divided among those covered by the plan.
● Sharing process - Once the bonus formula is determined, it is necessary to decide how
to share gains when they are obtained.
 ● Frequency of bonus - Most plans calculate a bonus monthly.
● Change management - Organizational changes, such as new technology and product
mixes, can disrupt the bonus formula.
● The participative system - Many gain-sharing plans include a participative system that
helps to gather, assess, and implement employee suggestions and improvements.

1. PERFORMANCE-BASED PAY SYSTEMS - a type of compensation system that

rewards employees for achieving specific goals or outcomes, such as sales targets,
customer satisfaction, or quality standards
2. GAIN-SHARING SYSTEMS - involves paying employees a bonus based on
improvements in the operating results of an organization.
3. PROMOTION SYSTEMS - a system for advancing participants to higher-status
positions.
4. REWARD-SYSTEM PROCESS ISSUES - At least two process issues affect employees'
perceptions of the reward system: who should be involved in designing and
administering the reward system, and what kind of communication should exist with
respect to rewards.

DEVELOPING TALENT
Coaching interventions - attempt to improve an individual's ability to set and meet goals, lead
change, improve interpersonal relations, handle conflict, or address style issues.
Career planning and development interventions - address different professional needs and
concerns as members progress through their work lives.
Management and leadership development processes - are human resource interventions
that attempt to transfer knowledge and skills to many individuals.

WHAT ARE THE GOALS?

● Assisting an executive to more effectively execute some transition
● Addressing a performance problem
● Developing new behavioral skills

COACHING - involves working with organizational members, typically managers and

executives, on a regular basis to help them clarify their goals, deal with potential stumbling
blocks, and improve their performance.
MENTORING - is often more directive, with the mentor intentionally transferring specific
knowledge and skill and guiding the client's activities, perhaps as part of a career development
process

APPLICATION STAGES
● Establish the principles of the relationship
● Conduct an assessment
● Debrief the results
● Develop an action plan
● Implement the action plan
 ● Assess the results

CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS

- provide the appropriate resources, tools, and processes necessary to help organization
members plan and attain their career objectives.
CAREER PLANNING - is concerned with individuals choosing jobs, occupations, and
organizations at each stage of their careers.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT - involves helping employees attain career objectives.

4 DISTINCT CAREER STAGES

● THE ESTABLISHMENT STAGE
● THE ADVANCEMENT STAGE
● THE MAINTENANCE STAGE
● THE WITHDRAWAL STAGE

APPLICATION STAGES
● ESTABLISH A CAREER PLANNING MECHANISM
● ASSEMBLE AN APPROPRIATE SET OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES

CAREER DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS:

● REALISTIC JOB PREVIEWS
● ASSESSMENT CENTERS
● JOB ROTATION AND CHALLENGING ASSIGNMENTS
● PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
● WORK-LIFE BALANCE
● PHASED RETIREMENT
● CONSULTATIVE ROLES
● DEVELOPMENTAL TRAINING

THE RESULTS OF CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

● REALISTIC JOB PREVIEWS - These help reduce turnover and training costs, while
boosting organizational commitment and job satisfaction.
● ASSESSMENT CENTERS - When participants work on recommended areas of
improvement, they often experience career advancement.
● CHALLENGING ASSIGNMENTS AND JOB ROTATIONS - These benefit employees
who may not have many chances for vertical advancement (plateaued employees).
● GENERAL TRAINING PROGRAMS - These have shown returns on investment ranging
from 16% to 49%.
● WORK-LIFE BALANCE INTERVENTIONS - These interventions lead to positive
outcomes for both employees and organizations.

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION - is a comprehensive

and organized process or program within an organization designed to enhance the skills,
knowledge, and capabilities of individuals occupying managerial and leadership roles.
 1. PERFORM A NEEDS ASSESSMENT.
● STRATEGY
● ORGANIZATION
● INDIVIDUAL
2. DEVELOP THE OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN OF THE TRAINING.
3. DELIVER THE TRAINING.
4. EVALUATE THE TRAINING
● REACTION
● BEHAVIOR
● RESULTS
● LEARNING

THE RESULTS OF DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS REFER TO THE OUTCOMES OR

CHANGES THAT OCCUR AS A RESULT OF TRAINING OR DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS.
1. Improved Skills and Knowledge - Participants in development interventions often gain
new skills and knowledge relevant to their roles.
2. Behavioral Changes - Effective interventions can lead to changes in how individuals
behave in their work.
3. Organizational Benefits - Development interventions can also have positive effects on
the organization as a whole.
4. Personal Growth - Participants may experience personal growth.
5. Varied Results - It's important to note that the results can vary from person to person
and from one program to another.

MANAGING WORKFORCE DIVERSITY AND WELLNESS

- Increasing workforce diversity provides an especially challenging environment for human
resources management, and an attractive opportunity for line managers looking for a
source of innovation.

WORKFORCE DIVERSITY INTERVENTIONS

- Workforce diversity is more than a euphemism for cultural or racial differences. Diversity
results from people who bring different resources and perspectives to the workplace and
who have distinctive needs, preferences, expectations, and lifestyles.

WORK DIVERSITY DIMENSIONS AND INTERVENTIONS

 1. AGE - To address age diversity, organization development interventions, such as work
design, wellness programs (discussed below), career planning and development, and
reward systems must be adapted to these different age groups and demographic
cohorts.
2. GENDER - Work design, reward systems, and career development are among the more
important interventions for addressing issues arising out of the gender trend.
3. RACE/ETHNICITY - Race continues to be an important issue in diversity interventions,
especially as organizations work to increase diversity among top leadership and board
members.
4. SEXUAL ORIENTATION - Diversity in sexual and affectional orientation, including gay,
lesbian, and bisexual individuals and couples, increasingly is affecting the way that
organizations think about human resources.
5. DISABILITY - The organizational implications of the disability trend represent both
opportunity and adjustment.
6. CULTURE AND VALUES - Cultural diversity has broad organizational implications.
Different cultures represent a variety of values, work ethics, and norms of correct
behavior.

THE RESULTS FOR DIVERSITY INTERVENTIONS

- An internal evaluation of a diversity training program in a large manufacturing firm
showed positive attitudinal changes over a three month period with respect to emotional
reactions, making judgments, behavioral reactions, and organizational impacts.
ACCORDING TO THE DATA COLLECTED BY THE EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY
COMMISSION (EEOC) AND SURVEY DATA FROM ORGANIZATIONS, RESEARCHERS
DIVIDED DIVERSITY PROGRAMS INTO THREE CATEGORIES:
● STRUCTURES OF RESPONSIBILITY
● EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
● NETWORKING AND MENTORING PROGRAMS

EMPLOYEE STRESS AND WELLNESS INTERVENTIONS

- Stress management and wellness interventions, including EAPS have grown
organizations because they are interested in retaining a skilled workforce and concerned
for the welfare of their employees.

WHAT ARE THE GOALS?

- Health is a subcomponent of well-being and includes both mental/psychological and
physical/physiological factors. Well-being impacts personal and organizational
outcomes, including absenteeism, productivity. and health insurance costs

THE RESULTS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT AND WELLNESS INTERVENTIONS

- One study found that it reduced stress and role ambiguity and increased job satisfaction
- Another study reported that it improved interpersonal relationships among group
members and contributed to improved production and quality
ROLE CLARIFICATION - THE RESEARCH ON SUPPORTIVE RELATIONSHIPS SUGGESTS
THAT ORGANIZATIONS MUST BECOME MORE AWARE OF THEIR VALUE IN HELPING
EMPLOYEES COPE WITH STRESS.
SUPPORTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FITNESS PROGRAMS - REDUCE ABSENTEEISM AND
CORONARY RISK FACTORS

STRESS MANAGEMENT: DIAGNOSIS AND INTERVENTION