IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-94, no.

3 , May/June 1975

!f!OKYO, JAPAN. "SI, JAPAN KCBE, JAPAN.

ABSTRACT
A new power flow model has been developed f o r t h e The new power flow model being discussed w a s de-
steadJ state behavior of large complex power systems, veloped t o cope withthefollowingconstraints which
i t a l l o w s t h e s h e of power flow under abaomal con- a f f e c t power flow calculation:
d i t i o n s a8 well aa normal conditions.
It is necessarytotakeaccount ofmetem
It i e a l s o &own how Newton's method can be e f f i -
c i e n t l y a p p l i e d t o t h e model to provide exact and pra-
1.
freauenm deviation .
cticable solutions for a new steady state folloving While system frequency i s maintained r e l a t i v e l y
the disturbance. constant under n o d conditions,changes will occur in
the event o f supply-demand unbalance r e d t i n g from a
Advanced applicationsareintroduced which s h o w major supplyoutage or tie-linetripping. It i s thus
how t h e s t e a d y s t a t e model can be combined with a dy- necessary to establish new steady state values by
namic simulation program. checking f o r t h e m w t u d e of frequency deviation, the
existence
of
overload, the
feasibility of
cascade
INTRODUCTION tripping, and t h e e d s t a n c e o f supply outages.
Power flow calculations for deterncining the stea- 2. Demaud-mmly unbalance must be d i s t r i b u t e d
dystateof power systems haveconventionallybeen BpK)np: all generators.
solved by assuming that system frequency remains con-
s t a n t , t h a t supply-demand unbalances would be regulat- If the whole unbalance i s absorbed by a s i n g l e
ed by an idealgenerator,calledslack bus1 andby swing bus, t h e r e may be major d i s t o r t i o n s in load flow
neglecting the voltage characteristics of loads. Since d i s t r i b u t i o n , and t h e model f a i l st o match reality.
this method ofsolutionneglectsfrequencydiscrepan- Thus i t is necessary to develop a model which distri-
c i e s and voltagecharacteristics, i.e., thecontrol butes and absorbstheunbalance on t h e basis ofthe
Characteristics of various generators and system load governor characteristics, load
characteristics, and
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i t is notsuitedtoanalyzing a new Apc c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f each generator.
steady state following a distrubance, or a major supp-
l y outage. 3. Voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the system cannot
be nealected .
It is necessary, however, from thepointof view
of the security of increasingly large and complex pow- Load usually depends on voltage, and system vol-
e r systems, t o be able to determine the frequency, vol- tages a r ec o n t r o l l e d by generators,capacitors,reac-
tage, presence or absence of overload, and l o c a l supp- tors,transformers,etc.
ly bottlenecks following a suddenmajor supplyoutage
ortrippingoftie-linebreakers. Thus t h e need is Generator Models
c l e a rf o r a calculation model that takesaccountof
generatorcontroleffects, and thevoltage and f r e Under normal conditions, system frequency is
quency c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of load. maintainedconstant and generatorsareoperated at a
scheduledvoltage and output. When system load chang-
The present model, besidessatisfyingthe above es, however, outputofgenerators is varied by inst-
requirements,alsoincorporatestheeffectsof AFC, ruction from the AFC.
Governor s e t t i n g i s changed
load shedding, generationshedding, and systea s p l i t - BO that operationreturnsto a point on t h e governor
ting enabling automatic analysis of the above system load-speed curve corresponding to system operating f r e
characteristics during atmormal conditions and p e m i t - quency, When t h e system is disturbed by l o s so f g+
ting detailed clarification of cascading fault condi- neration or t i e line support,thegovernorrestores
tions. balanceautomatically,whilegenerator terminal vol-
tage is kept to a reference voltage within the limits
Calculationswithin this model employ t h e New- oftheexciter rating, and Borne generatorsare con-
t o n ' s method 2, 3, widelyused in power flow calcula- trolled automatically by t h e i r r e a c t i v e power output.
tion.
Generator Real Power Outvut:
Generator r e a l power output is adjusted by the
s t a t i c responseofthe prime mover (see Fig. 1).
This may be expressed as:

Paper T 74 0174, recommended and approved by the IEEE Power System

Engineering Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at
the IEEE PES WinterMeeting,New York, N.Y., January 27-February 1, 1974.
Manuscript submitted January 17, 1973; made available for printing October 25,
1973.

1042
 had m e 1
'Gset n 1

I 1 I =-/-I had norrdlly depend on voltage and frequency,

end study
of emergency system control .ust take
/
m i
fr&en-cyi d voltage characteristics
Af -f - PG
accountofthe
of t h e load. hade .PJ be e%preesed
by:

I n t h i s new model, fourtypes of generator kises Frequency fluctuations due t o chenges in load
are considered. Usually,real power output and terminal are monitoredcontinuously, and t h e frequency i s
voltage of generator; PG and VG are specified. A t some maintained constant by ue- a governor motor or
generator,real and r e a c t i v e power output; PG and QG, limit tocontrol
generator
output. AFC does this
may be specified. automatically, and t h e models considered here may ale0
involve flat frequen control (FFC),and/or flat
1. &S m e 1: tie-linecontrol (&3, and/or flat t i c b e frequ-
ency biaa control (TBC)on interconnected 8ystem.s.
This type of generator bus is s p e c i f i e d t h e i r
PG and (&,or operated under canstant power factor Other Control Eauiment
(AQR). And i s adjustedaccordingtothe & a rc
a c t e r i s t i c a s ahoun i n Fig. 2 . %e model also incorporatee other control equi-
p e n ti,n c l u d i n g on-load tapchanging tranafomers
and automatic phase s h i f t e r e .

wmm
In o r d e rt o study power f l o w , taking account
of system frequancydeviation, it is neceseargto
introducefrequencycharacteristiceintotraditional
power flow equations.2, 3
These .aj then be solved by Newton's method.

I 'Gset
I
System Eauations

In considering
balance
the of real and reactive
Fig. 2 Characteristic of Generator
Reactive Power ~w~ at node i*the quations develo-
Ped.

2. Bus k e 2 : pG and VG a r e s p e c i f i e d , and t h e bos

is operated
under
constant terminal
voltage. fpi g Pi - F&, + P L i = o
Line drop colapensation ( U Z ) can beappliedto
t h e Am, and e x c i t e r capability can be taken in- fQ;G Qi - %;+Q; = 0
to account.
The model f o r this bus can be expressed by: where

3. Bus m e 3 : Same ae Type 1, withtheadditionofKinds of Bus Known Unknown

excitationcapability.% is ae in Eqe. (3) and node type variable variable
(4); E as in qs. (6) and (7). n
'Gset
4. Bus b e 4 : Same aa 'Pgpe 2 withtheaddition of 2 or 4
r e a c t i v e power generation limits. is aa in Generators 'Gset
q J . f
Eqs. (3) end (41, and

1043
 In a load flow study, i t is necessarytosolve
a s e t of simultaneous, nonlinear equations represent-
ed by Eqs. (ll)and (12) f o r t h e unboun variable
shown in Table 1 at each node.

In t r a d i t i o n a l load flow studiee, a s i n g l e node

or bus is considered to be a slack bus t o make up f o r
the difference between scheduled load and generation.
I n the new model, howevm, systerafrequency chsnges
accordingtotheapply-deaanddifference so that a
balance anong load, generation and systsm loss is ob-
t a i n e da n t m a t i c a l l y , and there is no need for a
slack bus. It is, however, necesearytospecifythe
voltage phaee augle of one reference node i n order to
find the voltage angles1 of the other nodes. where . -
11 a r et h e numbers of
which voltage is notspecified, and Sn i s
nodes for
taken
for the phase reference bus.
h l i c a t i o n of Newton's Hethod
Thenumber of v a r i a b l e s i n %. (x))is : (a)
Besic Eouations: one v a r i a b l ef o r systera frequency Af, which is
t h e same throughoutthe system; (b) (n-a) varia-
We a n represent the bus voltage of node i ( v i ) bles for voltage, which renains fixed at m nodes;
as: a d (C) (n-1) variablesforangle 8 , because is
fixed for the reference node. lbus t h e t o t e l num-
ber of variables in Eq. (to) is ( a - m ) .

Then Eq. (14)becomes

f o r which can be obtained by solving a sy tem of
1 earequatio s. The
new valuesfor 8 Tk+l)
Vg+l) and Af qk+l) are calculated from
6 C k + z sCk)+ 6 ~ C k )

....
be represented as fun-
, 1 vn, S",A f ,
Vck+l)= VCk)+ Ap-Ck)

A f 'k+')= d f C k ' S p(bf)ckl (211

T h i s process is repeated until two successive

s o l u t i o n s d i f f e r only bya specified tolerance.

New power flow problems t o be solved are repres- (22).

The elementsof Eq. (X)) aredefined in Eq.
ented as two sets of simultaneous nonlinear equa-
t i o n s as follows:
H;,= 3fp;/a 6' , Jij=afQL/a8s.
a) f o r nodes f o r which r e a l and reactive power
are specified: Nij = afpi/ay , Ly=af,/aT
F; = af,,,/a Af , Q=&(bAf
i22)

Terms of Eq. (22) a r e given in Appendix 1 .

b) for nodes f o r which real power and voltage Automatic Load-fieauency Control:
magnitude are specified:
1. E L : In responsetochanges in systemfrequency,
t h e power output of generators within a prescribed
area are automatically regulated t o maintainsche-
duled system frequency. Power outputforthe re-
gulating generators Ls
where 1 is t h e number of t h e node f o r which r e a l
and reactive power a r es p e c i f i e d and m is the
number ofthe node f o r which reel power and vol-
tage magnitude are specified.
where i represents the nodesof the regulat-
The well-known Newton's method i s applicable ing
generators, is the supply inaufficiency in
t o the solution of Eqs. (18) and (19). a given area, 6 is t h el o a dd i s t r i b u t i o nf a c t o r
among t h er e g u l a &g e n e r a t o r s m
, dIUi is 1.0.
Given a oldma e remilts f r t h e unlmown
variables Vffy, &), and AfTk) in Eqs. (18) Since system frequency remains constant(i.e.,
and (191, correctedvalues AV, A 6 , and A ( A f ) can A f = 0). A f is replaced by t h e new variable BQ,
be obtained from the matrix Newton's method can b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s o l u t i o n as

1044
 r

1
2. m: In responseto changes i n tie-lineloading,
t h e power outputofgeneratorswithin a prescribed
a r e a is automatically regulated so as to majntain
established interchange
withother
areas
within
prescribedlimits. For area T in Fig. 3, a c t u a l
n e t power interchange is
3. E : Power outputofgeneratorswithin a pres-
cribed area i s regulated in response t o changes i n
both frequency and the established interchange with
otherareas,expressed as

where t i i n d i c a t e s nodes f o rt i e l i n e s with-

in area T, end s i n d i c a t e s nodes for tie-lines out-
s i d e T. The purposeof flat t i e - l i n ec o n t r o l is
to regulate the difference between a c t u a l end sch-
eduled interchanges t o zero, or within certain where (P. U l4WP.U. Hz) is a constantfor
limits. area load-frequency characteristics.

The output of the regulating generator is

This is accomplirhed by d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e pow-

erinsufficiencywithin T (written % (TI) among
theregulatinggeneratorswithinthe
power output of the regulating generators
area.
is
%e where i i n d i c a t e s nodes of regulating genera-
t o r s w i t h i n T, Ti. i s the load-distribution factor
among generators, and IYi = 1.0
Then from Eq. (29) we can obtain

where i represents the nodes for the regulat-

ing generators within T, p i is t h e l o a d d i s t r i b u -
t i o n f a c t o r among generators, and I O i = 1.0.
Newton's method CBP be applied to the solution, as: The purposeof thecontrol is t o determine
those variables that will bring fpT in Eq.
(31) t o
zero. Newton's method can be applied to the solu-
t i o n , as:

The off-diagonalelements H' and N I T in Eq.

(32) a r e t h e same as in Appendix I?. Diagonal ele-
The elements HIT and NIT i n Eq. (28) a r e given ments may be assumed t o be zero,sincethe power
i n Appendix 11. insuffiencywithinarea T is supplied by regulat-
ing generators within T.

1045
 measures should be taken t o guard again& seconaarp
aad cascading failures. This makes necessary a si-
mulation model which incorporates aukmatic meamre6
t o prevent fault proliferation, including overload
interruption, system isolation,generationshedding
Calculation in and loadshedding. Such acontrol system consists,
\orma1 Conditionf a s shown in Fig. 5 of main relayelements,logic
I
sequences, and objects of control.

+tima1
Ordering
hergency
Control,
of Nodes CB T r i p , Load and
Generation Shedding,
c System S p l i t t i n g
Form Node
Admittance Matrix
+
Set Variables
for s t a r t i n g
+
Preparation f o r
Making Jacobian
U.friV

Fig. 5 OrganizationofBergencyControl &st-

Relay Flenents:
Less ThanRough
Tolerance? Ihe basic operating characteristics
equations
f o r t h e main re- can be developed b;r the appmpria-
t o s e l e c t i o n o f c o e f f i c i e n t s in
Calculate Elements L e s s Than
f o r Jacobian Matrix Emec ted
k,X + k2r( l a 2+ ka A? > k4 (33 1

Q t h e baais of coefficient selection, undervol-

tage, overvoltage, and under-irequenq relays can be
Solve for Correc- considered.
tions, ~ , A ,VA ( A ~ > , When theconditions i n q. (33) are s a t i s f i e d ,t h e
main r e 1 4 trips, generating a '1' ( o r TXE) signal.
stop h m c Seauences:
Make Adjustments
Ihe addition of logic sequences for specified
operatione provides a t a a t i c e p t m operation under
Fig. 4 S i m p l i f i e dA l g o r i t h abnonral conditions. 'Ehe logic sequences are subject
to the following constraints:
I t e r a t i v e Algorithm
a) lkcpressiona are formed from free combinations of
Fir. 4 shows the basic algorithm for
e r flow problens using Newton's method.
solving pow- AAD, OR, and NOT.
b) Ihe number of inputs and outputs of each logic is
as shown in Table 4.
ADAPTATION c) Feedback loop muatnot beincluded.
Considerablestudy must be applied to emergency d) There can be more than one inptlt to t h e l o g i c se-
operationalprocedurestopreventblackouts,includ- quence (output from t h e .sin relajr).
i n g io& shedding , generationshedding and wstm
s p l i t t i n g ,e t c . Thus thefunctionof emergency system e)mere canbe more than one output from t h e l o g i c
operation w a s incorporatedinto this new p o w e r flow sequence to the object of control.
model.
Fig. 6 is a scheaatic of t h e l o g i c sequence.
Bus-Tie (or Bue-Section)
Table 2 Ihe h b e r ofInputs and Outputsof &eh
A bus-tie (or bus-section) model is necessary logic
for the purposes of evaluating changes i n systm con-
s t i t u t i o n and bus constitutionunder normal condi-
tions, and proceduresforfaultpreventionunder ab- Operation 1 Inputs I atpusts
normal conditions. This bus-tie is connected between
buses pt zero impedence t o a l l o w measurment of power
flow throu& the bua-tie.
RaerRency Control Systm
I n the
event of major disturbance,requisite

1046
 Logic
sequence b) In State 1 ( & o r a d , after l o s s ofgeneration,
Relay elemen the output of each generator uae automatically
Objecta
controlled in accordance
with i t s frequency cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c s mad load ale0 varied with its fre-
Control quency
and voltage
characteristics.

Fig. 6 Schematicofthelogicalsequence
Objects of control:
1. Circuit breakers on t h e lines or b t i e s a r e
automatically tripped by l o g i c sequence outputs.

2. had shedding is carried on a f t e r a major loss

ofgeneration or tie-linesupport in o r d e rt o
prevent cascade f a i l u r e . b ad sheddiag is based
on e i t h e r v o l t a g e magnitude or frequency at any
given bus, mad is automatic on t h e b d s of sig-
nals from t h e l o g i c sequence divided into three
blob.

3. Generationshedding is carried on after a mjor

l o s s of load or tie-line export, in order to pr+
vent a r i s e in system frequency.Operation is
d o g o u s to load shedding.

EI[IuIpL66

5 e r e e u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o no ft h e model ehovn 50 Hz
here, involving the sample system shown in Fig. 7 and Fig.7 Sample 10 - BUS System
thespecifiedconditionssetout in "able 3, a r e set
out i n Table 4.
Table 4 p o w e r Flow S o l u t i o n i n Normal and Abnormal
l h i s calculation shows conditions in w h i c h , in Conditions
a normally operating 9 Hz system under FFC, t h e r e is
a generation loss in BUS 9. I n i t i a l l y , frequency NOIMAL : A B N O W
begins t o drop, b u t below 49.8 Hz, 60 percent of the STATE 0 STATE 1 I STATE 2
load on 9US 4 w F l l be shed.
The problea vas solved to vithin the specified 3976 * 4' 3650.5
convergencetolerance of 0.001 per unit at thefour-
t h i t e r a t i o n in s t a t e 0 (normal)and at t h e t h i r d in B BUS2 500 572.9 515.1
s t a t e s 1 and 2 (abnormal).Ihe computing time of C.P. BUS3 200 206.2
U. using an IBM 370/165 was 3.4 seconds. 8 ~us6 1625
811.3
1e61.9
437 * 5
1675.1

As canbe seen from Table 4: 5 BUS9

BUS92 611.3 835.9

a) In S t a t e 0 (normal), generationfacilitiesunder - I
FFC, BUS 9 and BS 92 vere both
regulated
to 11.3 TOTAL LOADS 3750 MW 3790.6 3496.5
MU output, and frequency w a s maintained a t t h e
scheduled value of 9 Hz. In conventional treat-
ments, this regulatedoutput w a s concentrated at
SYSTM LQSS 197.9dW 1g.7 I 152.3
a s i n g l e (swing
generating
bus)
plant. CHANGES IN FLAT
CONDITION

Table 3 OperatingConditions of Power Station

TERMINAL TUR~TXE OUTPUT RFACTIVE POWER UJTPUT'DISTRIBU-
NAME OF j
TED
STATION 'Gset LOWER UPPER RE3JI.A- UPPW FACTOR FOR
VOLTAGE ~

LSMIT mIT FFC

BUS2 5mw - 15cMW 62YW 0.05Pu - -
BUS3 200 1.0 Pu EO 250 0.05 0 15CMvar
~us6 1625 1.0 500 2000 0.05 0 750
BUS9 800 1.0 225 875 0.05 -100 300 50%
BUS92 800 1.0 225 875 0.05 -100 300 50%

1047
 ADvANcm ApPucATIas It is suggested that this new power flow model
can serve as a powerflll t o o l in t h e study ofsystem
Although t h i s new model, by incorporating system planning and operations.
frequency,voltage at each nodeand power flow in
each l i n e under both nonml and a b n o d conditions,
is widelyapplicabletothe study ofloadshedding NCMEt?CLA!KfRX
logic,generationsheddinglogic, system s p l i t t i n g
logic, and o t h e rl o g i c emergency control, i t i s de- Generator model
signed for the determination of new s t a d y s t a t e va-
l u e s , and does not offer any information on dynamic f : system
frequency
deviation,
per
behavior.Following a mjor disturbance,the -stem unit Hz
w i l l bedynmnically swrmg. The f a u l tw i l l beauto-
matically detected by p r o t e c t i v e r e l a y s which w i l l R : speed regulation in per unit
effect recovery, and various control devices will be
actuated to bring about a new steady state. : rated outputofgenerator
PR
In order to study dyllgic response t o such dis-
turbances, a dynamic simulation program hae been PGv % : pawer output
of.
generator,
real
& reactive
developed, w h i c h incorporates a u t m t i c r e l a y i n g ws-
tePs, controldevices, and control syster~s. PGset1het : scheduled outputofgenerator
This dynamic simulation program can be linked Pmn,pQBax : power limits of generator
with the new p o w e r flow program as shown in Fig. 8,
to allow automatic follow-upof w i c phenomena %in, %mx
and t h e new steady state. This new model allows U s ,
as shown in Fig. 9, to obtain the following informa- : c o e f f i c i e n t s of r e a c t i v e genera-
a e v bQ
tion: tion control characteristics

1. Power flow i n t h e nomal operating

condition. VG : generator terminal voltage

2. Dynamic behavior following the fault. ‘Gset : scheduled

voltage

3. New
following
disturbance.
state
steady I : generator
terminal
current

4. New Steady s t a t e subsequent t o the

mergency ope- E : voltage
proportional
to
field
rating procedures undertaken on t h e b a s i s o f s t a t e voltage
3 above.
/

E-, Ernax : limits offieldvoltage

CONCLUSIONS
Xf : d i r e c t a x i s synchronous reactance
Thenew power flow model in which included fre-
quencydependent s p t m componentsand load frequency (2) h a d model
controls has been described. It providedexact and
practical solutions for the study of PL* PL : power input of load
1) power flow under no& conditions, Pket,bet : r a t e d power ofload

2) power flowunder abnormal or emergency conditions Pz,qz : portion of t o t a l l o a d propor-

following loss of generation, load or t i e - l i n e su- tional to constant impedance
pport, and load
3) t h ee f f e c t s of system controldevices. PC, qc : portion of total load propor-
tional to Nth power of voltage

SOLUTIONS

W
Fig. 8 Link Betueen New P o w e r Fiow and
Dynamic,SimulationProgram Fig.9 Change of States in Power System

1048
 : portion of total load propor-
PP' qP tional to constant power load (43)

'6,Q' : frequency characteristics of

load

VLB : normal operating

voltage at
load bus

(3) Bnergency control system

: settings-of relay (constant)
kl' k2' k3'
k4' n2

x, : input signal
relay
of
( 4 ) Solution method (c) for the tenns of F i and Gi:
fpi, fg : error
of p o w e r flowing
into
node i

vi : voltage at node i

Ii : current flowing i n t o node i

Yij : any element

admittance
of
matrix
8 : conjusnte
of complex
A
PmX
I I1
-(superbar) : complex quantity
ELMENTS ClF JACC3IAN MATRIX FOR FLAT -LINE; CONTROL
Si : voltage angle
Elements f c r t h e nodesconnected to the tie-line
are
n : the number
0.f nodes in the
network
APPmDIX I
ELPWTS OF JACCBIAN MATRIX

In polar coordinates, the admittance,voltage,

and current are expressed as follow:
yij = Gii + i B i j ($4)

5 = e;+ ifi (355)

7.
1
= ej + j fi (36)
- --
r.-\r!.o:=Ce.+jf.)(~..tjBij)=a,tibj
I - Ll i d d b1 (37)

The elementsoftheJacobianUatrixarecal-
culated from equations (23)and are,

(a) f o r t h e terms o f j k i ;

H..
y
= a.d f-
L
- bde; (38)
REFERENCES
J..=-(ajeLt b j f ; ) (39 1 (1) T.B. Ward, H.W. Hale, "Digital Computer Solution
L1 of Power-Blow Problemstt, AI=
"rans.(Power
t u s andSsstems), ~01.75, pp.498-404, June, 19
N.Ld. = (aj e; + bj f
i I/? (40)
(2) J.E. Van Ness, J.H. Griffin, "Elimination Methods
f o r bad-Xlow Studiesf', AI.ZE Trans.
(power b r a -
t u s and S s s t a s ) , v01. 80, pp.299-m, Jlme,1961.
L.*=
Ld
( a i f i - bdeL)/V; (41)
(3) W.F. Z%mes. C.E. Hart, "Power F l o w Solutionbs
(b) for the termsof j = i;
2
H..
LC
=-Q;- B LC. . VL: (42)

1049
 Dirmssion where:MVAl = load MVA at voltage V
S. A. Ibrahim and M. S. Sachdev(PowerSystemsResearchGroup,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada): The authorsare to be
v““
A
=
=
=
load MVA at initial voltage
ratio of voltage to initial voltage
fractionofloadatinitialvoltage
complimented for aninterestingpaperwhichextends the Newton represented by constantMVA
Raphson load flow technique to include the effects of governor charac-
teristicsandvoltageandfrequencydependenceofloads.Flatand And several series of load-voltagetests were performed.
frequency bias tie line controls are also discussed inthis paper. We will According to the test report(2) of Mr. G. J. Berg, the activeand
appreciateknowingauthor’sviews onthe followingcommentsand reactive-loaddemandvarieswithvoltageandfrequencyaccording
questions. to the following functions:
1. Equations 9 and10 describe the load model used bythe authors.
Both the realandreactivecomponentsofloads are assumed to be
composedofthreeparts.One is the constantpowercomponentin-
dependent of the system voltage. The second is voltage dependent and
changes as the Nth powerofvoltage.While the thirdcomponent
represents constant impedance load which changes as the square of the where the subscript 0 refers to nominal values.
system voltage, The frequency deviations are considered to affect the The values of pv, p w , qv and qw calculated from test data were as
three load components in exactlythe same manner. We believe that the follow:
constant impedance loads would somewhat decrease with increase of
frequency. On the contrary, the constant power loads, if assumedto be PV 1 2, qv = 2 4, Pw 6.2 5 0.4,
qw -2.5
0.4
rotating machines, will increase in case the system frequency increases.
Would the authors discuss why the frequency dependence of loads has From those testdata, we anticipated the characteristic voltage parameter
beenassumed to besimilarand to the same extent for all the three pv and 9~ should be more than 2.
components? So we think each bus load shall be representable as any desired
2. What values of constants Kp, K q , N1 and N2 were used in the combination of constant power, constant impedance, the Nth power of
example?Werethosevaluesdeterminedfromactualsystemtests or voltage, and frequency sensitivity, as described.in eqs.(9) and (10). The
were synthasized from actual load compositions and lab tests? values of load-voltage and frequency constants in the our example isas
3. Inequation 33, the undervoltage, overvoltage and under fre- follow :
quency relayshave been defmed in terms of two inputs X and Y and
the frequencydeviationAf,Wouldthe authorsindicate the specific Load on BUS4 : Pp = 0.2,PC = 0.3, Pz = 0.5
inputswhich were consideredfor the voltage and frequency relays in the
example?Was the load shedding, in the example, simulated using the qp = 0.2,
qc 0.3, 42’0.5
characteristic eauations ofthe relavs or arbitrarily at 49.8 Hz?
4.What k h d of connection assumed beheen buses 1 & 12 and N1 = N2 = 1.0
4 & 42 in Figure 7?
We on& again congratulate the authors for developing an advance- Kp = 0.04, Kq 0
ment of the load flow technique to include the load shedding criterion
and frequency deviation aspects which many power system engineers OtherLoads : Pp = qp = 1.O, PC = qc = PZ= 42 = 0
will fmd useful.
Kp=Kq=O
Manuscript received February 19,1975
Those values were not determined from actual system testsor laboratory
tests.
The load shedding was simulated using frequency relay, and carried
M. Okamura, V. O-ura, S. Hayashi, K. Uemura and, F. Ishiguro:The on arbitrarilyat 49.8Hz.
authors would like to thank Professors S. A. Ibrahim and M. S. Sachdev The connection between BUS1 and BUS12andBUS4 & BUS42 is
for theirdiscussiononwellchosenpointand for theirinterestand made through zero impedance branchor bus-tie.
appreciation of the‘paper.
The correct representation of electrical loads in emergency statesis REFERENCES
not well known. But within certain voltage intervals, the loadvoltage
relationship was assumedto be of the form (1): [ 1 ] M.H. Kent, W. R. Schmus, F. A.McCrackin and L. M. Wheeler,
“Dynamic Modelingof Loads in Stability Studies,” IEEE Trans. on
MVA 1 = MV& (A + (1 -A)V2) (1) Power Auuaratus and SYstems.vo1 PAS-88. DD. 750-760.May 1969.
121 G. T. Berg, “System and Load Behaviour fo-liowing Lo& of-anera-
tion,” PIEE, vol. 1 19, No. 10, Oct. 1972.
Manuscript received January 2,1975

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