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Geodetic Sensors
Electronic Distance Meters (EDM)
Prof. Dr.-Ing Frank Neitzel | Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation Science

Version: 01.07.2022
Contents

3. Electronic Distance Meters (EDM)

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Carrier waves and their modulation
3.2.1 Principle of impulse method
3.2.2 Principle of phase comparison method
3.3 Instrumental errors
3.3.1 Instrumental scale factor
3.3.2 Zero correction
3.3.2.1 Determination of the zero correction
from a minimal configuration
3.3.2.2 Determination of the zero correction
from an overdetermined configuration
3.3.3 Determination of the zero correction and instrumental scale factor
from an overdetermined Configuration
3.4 Consideration of atmospheric conditions
3.5 Geometrical reductions of measured distances
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 2
3. Electronic Distance Meters (EDM)

3.1 Introduction
►Fundamental concept of electronic distance measurements
∆
𝑠 𝑐 𝑥 𝑡 dt
with s … distance
t … runtime of a signal
c(x(t)) … velocity
x(t) … position of a point along the path at the time t
if c = const.  𝑠 𝑐 · ∆𝑡
►Questions
• What kind of signal can be used?
• How can the runtime be measured?
• How can the velocity be determined?

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 3

3. Electronic Distance Meters (EDM)

3.2 Carrier waves and their modulation

• Measuring signals are superimposed on high frequency waves,
called carrier waves.
• This can be done by amplitude, frequency or impulse modulation.
• Amplitude or frequency of the carrier changes in the rhythm of the measuring
signals for amplitude or frequency modulation.
• Impulse modulation is advised when the transmitter sends the carrier at
constant time intervals for a very short period.
• Electromagnetic waves of the infrared, visual light and microwave ranges are
suitable as carrier.
 Their geometric behavior is only influenced by refraction.
 Signal path can be described sufficiently accurately as a straight line
for distances up to 10 km, and as a circular arc for d > 10 km.

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 4

3.2 Carrier Waves and their Modulation
Modulation of carrier waves

carrier wave

measuring signal

carrier with amplitude

modulation (AM)

carrier with frequency

modulation (FM)

impulse modulation

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 5

3.2 Carrier Waves and their Modulation

►Time measurement
Question: How precise has ∆𝑡 to be measured?
𝑠 𝑐 · ∆𝑡 , with c 3· (speed of light)
30 km  0.1 ms
30 m  0.1 µs
30 mm  0.1 ns
3 mm  10 ps

 Very precise time measurement necessary

 Special methods for time measurement needed

Impulse method Phase comparison method

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 6

3.2 Carrier Waves and their Modulation

3.2.1 Principle of Impulse Method

►EDM consists of
• transmitter
• receiver
• propagation timer
• microprocessor

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 7

3.2 Carrier Waves and their Modulation

3.2.1 Principle of Impulse Method

►EDM consists of
• transmitter
• receiver
• propagation timer
• microprocessor

►Transmitter sends an impulse (light or microwave impulse)

which propagates to the reflector and returns
►The receiver receives a small fraction of the emitted impulse immediately
and also the impulse which has travelled along the distance s and back.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 8
3.2.1 Principle of Impulse Method

►The propagation timer (controlled by an extremely accurate clock)

determines the difference in propagation time for the two impulses.
►The difference corresponds to the time Δt needed by the external impulse
to travel the distance s.
►The distance is then
∆
𝑠 𝑐·

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 9

3.2.2 Principle of Phase Comparison Method

►EDM consists of
• transmitter
• phase meter
• microprocessor

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 10

3.2.2 Principle of Phase Comparison Method

►EDM consists of
• transmitter
• phase meter
• microprocessor

►Transmitter generates a sinusoidal measuring signal

𝑦 𝐴 · sin 𝜔𝑡
with the wavelength
𝑦 𝑓 … frequency

►The receiver immediately receives a small fraction of the emitted signal

and also the signal which has travelled along the distance s.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 11
3.2.2 Principle of Phase Comparison Method

►The latter signal suffers a phase shift which is dependent

on the length of the travelled distance.
►At the receiver it has the following form
𝑦 𝐴 · sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜙
where
𝜙 𝑎 · 2𝜋 ∆𝜑
with
2𝜋 … length of a complete wave
a … number of complete waves
∆𝜑 … phase difference between the end of the last
complete wave and the receiver
►The residual distance becomes
𝑟 ·𝜆
 Distance s can only be uniquely determined if it is less
than half the wavelength!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 12

3.2.2 Principle of Phase Comparison Method

►Unique results and high accuracies can only be obtained if measurements are
carried out in steps, each step with a larger wavelength. Measurement with the
smallest wavelength is the fine reading, the other are rough readings.
►Example:
measuring frequency wavelength residual distances
1st reading 15 MHz 20 m 8437 fine reading
2nd reading 1.5 MHz 200 m 882 rough reading
3rd reading 150 kHz 2000 m 789 rough reading
788.437 m

 Final result is obtained by adding the first digit of each of the rough readings
to the fine reading.
►Since the signal travels twice along the line, twice the distance is obtained.
 Dividing result by 2 yields distance s.

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 13

3.3 Instrumental Errors

3.3.1 Instrumental scale factor

If the modulation frequency 𝑓 does not correspond to its design value 𝑓
‐> all measurements are affected by a scale factor k
‐> we obtain 𝑘 · 𝑠 instead of the desired value 𝑠
 All distance measurements have to be multiplied by 𝑚 to obtain 𝑠.
In general the stability of the frequencies is quite high, however from time to
time (e.g. once a year) it is advisable to determine the scale factor.

frequency tester determination of m

in laboratory from field measurements
m

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 14

3.3 Instrumental Errors

Frequency tester

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 15

3.3 Instrumental Errors

3.3.1 Instrumental scale factor

Reasons for this instrumental error?
► manufacturing tolerances
► aging process of the oscillator
Magnitude of the instrumental scale factor?
► m is close to 1
► Example: 1.000005
0.999994
► Scale factor often given in “ppm” (parts per million) equivalent mm per km
1.000005 1 · 10 5 ppm
0.999994 1 · 10 6 ppm

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 16

3.3 Instrumental Errors

3.3.2 Zero correction

The zero correction takes into account the difference between
►electrical and mechanical zero position at the instrument
►separation of the reflection point and the physical centre of the reflector

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 … zero correction
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 17
3.3 Instrumental Errors

 To all measurements 𝑙 we have to add 𝑎 to obtain the desired distance 𝑠.

Magnitude of the zero correction?

From 0 mm up to several cm.

 If both errors (instrumental scale factor an zero correction) are present,

we obtain 𝑠 from

s  a  ml

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 18

3.3.2 Zero Correction

3.3.2.1 Determination of the zero correction from a minimal configuration

►Choose 3 points in a spatial straight line

►Perform measurements of the distances between

A and B  𝑙
B and C  𝑙
A and C  𝑙

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 19

3.3.2 Zero Correction

We know:
I: 𝑠 𝑎 𝑚·𝑙
II: 𝑠 𝑎 𝑚·𝑙 : unknowns
III: 𝑠 𝑎 𝑚·𝑙 5 unknown parameters, 4 equations
 underdetermined equation system?
and IV: 𝑠 +𝑠 𝑠

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 20

3.3.2.1 Determination of the zero correction
from a minimal configuration
Solution? I, II, III in IV
𝑎 𝑚𝑙 𝑎 𝑚𝑙 𝑎 𝑚𝑙 | 𝑎
𝑎 𝑚𝑙 𝑚𝑙 𝑚𝑙
𝑎 𝑚 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙

We know: ‐ 𝑎 is a small value (some cm).

‐ 𝑚 is very close to 1.  𝑎′ can be interpreted as zero correction

We introduce: 𝑎

 𝑎 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙

Approximation: 𝑎′ 𝑎

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 21

3.3.2 Zero Correction

3.3.2.2 Determination of the zero correction from an overdetermined

configuration
►Choose n > 3 points in a spatial straight line

►Perform measurements of the distances between all points Pi

 𝑙
𝑙
𝑙
𝑙
𝑙
𝑙
►Introduce coordinates 𝑋 , 𝑋 , 𝑋 as unknown parameters

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 22

3.3.2.2 Determination of the Zero Correction from
an overdetermined Configuration

►Functional model for least squares adjustment

“observations as function of unknown parameters”

e.g. 𝑋 𝑋 𝑎 𝑚𝑙

 𝑙

 𝑙

observation f (unknown parameters)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 23

3.3.2.2 Determination of the Zero Correction from
an overdetermined Configuration

 𝑙 Problem: Non‐linear equation system

𝑙 (division by m)

𝑙 Solution?
𝑙
Substitutions: 𝑋′
𝑙
𝑎
𝑙

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 24

3.3.2.2 Determination of the Zero Correction from
an overdetermined Configuration
We obtain: 𝑙 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
𝑙 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
𝑙 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
𝑙 𝑋 ′ 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
Now: Linear equation system
𝑙 𝑋 ′ 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
𝑙 𝑋 ′ 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
• Observation equations
𝑙 𝑣 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
⋮
𝑙 𝑣 𝑋 ′ 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
• Observation vector
𝑙
𝑙
𝑙
𝐋
𝑙
𝑙
𝑙
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 25
3.3.2.2 Determination of the Zero Correction from
an overdetermined Configuration
• Vector of unknowns
𝑋 ′
𝑋 ′
𝐗
𝑋 ′
𝑎′
• Design matrix
𝑋 ′ 𝑋 ′ 𝑋 ′ 𝑎
𝑙 1 0 0 1
𝑙 0 1 0 1
𝐀 𝑙 0 0 1 1
𝑙 1 1 0 1
𝑙 1 0 1 1
𝑙 0 1 1 1
• Weight matrix
Assumption: All observations have same standard deviation, no correlations
 𝐏 𝐈

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 26

3.3.2.2 Determination of the Zero Correction from
an overdetermined Configuration
• Solving the normal equations

𝐀 𝐏𝐀𝐗 𝐀 𝐏𝐋 with 𝐍 𝐀 𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐗 𝐀 𝐏𝐋 |·𝐍
𝐗 𝐍 𝐀 𝐏𝐋
𝐐

𝑋𝟐
𝑋𝟑
𝐗
𝑋
𝑎

• Standard deviation for 𝑎 can be computed from 𝐐 and 𝑠

 Again: 𝑎 𝑎

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 27

3.3.2.2 Determination of the Zero Correction from
an overdetermined Configuration

Note:

Without given distances 𝑠 computation of m is impossible.

Scale factor m cannot be computed from measurements 𝑙 only.

For determination of zero correction and instrumental scale factor

we need “EDM Calibration Baseline” with distances 𝑠 as given values
(fixed parameters).

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 28

3.3.3 Determination of the Zero Correction and Instrumental
Scale Factor from an overdetermined Configuration

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Frank Neitzel | Geodetic Sensors 29