Hydrogeology

Dr. Atef Abu Khatita

1444
Hydrology:
is the study of the occurrence, distribution, and movement of water on,
in, and above the earth. So It is the study of ground-water/earth-
material interactions. As such, it is an earth science.

• Geology controls groundwater recharge, flow, discharge and availability

• Ground water acts as a geologic agent: Weathering, dissolution,
Karstification, slope stability, earthquakes….
Course Objectives:
After completing this course students will be able to:
1. Demonstrate the hydrologic cycle and climate and their
components.
2. Explain the definitions of groundwater.
3. List the types of water-bearing formations and aquifers and their
characteristics.
4. Explain the impact of environment on groundwater properties.
5. Determine the groundwater movement and flow.
6. Identify the groundwater characteristics and pollution.
Topics to be Covered
Topics to be Covered
Schedule of Assessment Tasks for Students During the Semester
Learning Resources
 Hydrological Cycle
and
Global Water Budget

Dr. Atef Abu Khatita

Earth Systems
 Why Study Hydrogeology?

Population growth and global warming will lead to severe freshwater shortages
in the near future.

Facts about Water

• Human body is 66% water
• A living tree is about 75% water
• More than 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water
Hydrologic cycle
Hydrologic cycle
Groundwater: The Unseen Part of the Water Cycle
watershed

Hydrologic cycle
 How much water is on Earth?

Water covers about 70% of the earth's surface

But, the oceans contain 97.5% of the earth's water, land 2.4%, and the atmosphere
holds less than .001%.
 The largest sphere represents all of
Earth's water, (1,386,000,000 km3). The
How much water is on Earth?
sphere includes all the water in the
oceans, ice caps, lakes, and rivers, as
well as groundwater, atmospheric water.

Liquid fresh water

The blue sphere represents the world's liquid
fresh water (groundwater, lakes, swamp water,
and rivers). The volume comes to about
(10,633,450 km3), of which 99 percent is
groundwater, much of which is not accessible
to humans.

Water in lakes and rivers

That one represents fresh water in all the
lakes and rivers on the planet. The volume
of this sphere is about (93,113 km3).
 How much water is on Earth?

Global Water Resources

TOTAL GLOBAL (Water) 2.5% OF TOTAL GLOBAL
(Freshwater)

68.9% Glaciers & Permanent

Snow Cover

29.9% Fresh
97.5% Ground water
Salt
Water

0.3% Freshwater Lakes & 0.9% Other including

River Storage. Only this soil moisture, swamp
portion is renewable water and permafrost
16
 The hydrologic cycle

The hydrologic cycle describes the movement of water from the

ocean surface into the atmosphere and ultimately, it's path back to the
oceans. The cycle begins as water is evaporated from the ocean
surface (leaving the salt behind). This pure water vapor travels
through the atmosphere until conditions are right to form rain
droplets (precipitation).
 The hydrologic cycle
Water moves from one reservoir to
another by way of processes like
evaporation,
condensation,
precipitation,
runoff,
infiltration,
sublimation,
transpiration,
melting, and
groundwater flow.
Global water budget
Global water budget is a summary of where the hydrosphere input are
Distribution of water at the Earth's surface
 water budget

A water budget is an accounting of all the water that flows into and out of a project
area. This area can be a wetland, a lake, or any other point of interest.

water budget describes the various components of the hydrologic cycle.

The water budget typically includes:
Precipitation (P)
Evaporation (E)
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Surface runoff (SRO)
Groundwater flow (GF)

The general equations to be satisfied for a water budget are:

Inputs = Outputs + Change in Storage
P+SWin+GWin+ANTHin+Din = ET+SWout+GWout+ANTHout + Dout+ ΔS
water budget
water budget

The general equations to be satisfied for a water budget are:

Inputs = Outputs + Change in Storage

P+SWin+GWin+ANTHin+Din = ET+SWout+GWout+ANTHout + Dout+ ΔS

Factors affecting climate
• Distance from the sea
• Ocean currents
• Direction of prevailing winds
• The shape of the land (topography)
• Distance from the equator
• Human influence
 Precipitation

Precipitation is moisture that falls from the atmosphere as

rain, snow, sleet (sleet: is a mixture of snow and rain), or hail
(hail: small pieces of ice which fall like frozen rain). The
precipitation that falls may be trapped on land surfaces as
snow or ice, or drained across the land into ponds, lakes,
streams or rivers forming runoff. Water, which flows over the
land surface, is called overland flow.
 Precipitation
• Air is forced to rise
• Rising air cools because the ideal gas law says that the
temperature falls when the air pressure decreases.
• The air cools at the dry lapse rate until it reaches its
dewpoint.
• Once the air reaches its dewpoint, the relative humidity
reaches 100%, and clouds form.
• As the air continues to rise, the air cools at the wet lapse
rate, causing precipitation to form because the colder air
can not hold the excess moisture.
 Precipitation
• The condensing water generates heat, causing the air to
warm slightly, so that the wet air lapse rate is less than the
dry rate.

• The excess heat generated by the condensing water

causes the air to rise faster (because warmer air rises
through colder air).
 Precipitation

Three primary steps for formation of precipitation

•creation of saturation conditions in the atmosphere

(typically some type of lifting of air)

•phase change from vapor to liquid (cloud formation)

•growth of droplets to precipitable size (able to

overcome upward velocity)
 Lifting Mechanisms
Front: the boundary between two adjacent air masses of
different temperature and moisture content.
Warm Front: Warm air advancing on colder air

Cold front: Cold air advancing on warm air

Convective Precipitation
Orographic Precipitation
 Radar

Radar records a signal reflected of particles (raindrops) at a

high frequency. This signal is converted to cumulative
rainfall. This data can provide information on location and
movement of storms, data in ungauged regions.
However, there are difficulties or error in the measurements
due to various types of particulate (hail, snow, high
intensities)
 Data Representation
Cumulative Mass Curve
Typically the output from a recording gauge is in the form of
cumulative rainfall over time

180 At any given time

160 during a storm, the
Cumulative volume (mm)

140
intensity is the
120
100
slope of the
80 cumulative rainfall
60 curve at that point
40
20
in time
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
15 minutes periods
Rainfall Hyetograph

The slope of the cumulative mass curve at any point

represents the rate of rainfall (depth/time).
Typically we represent the rainfall distribution in discrete
time intervals using the cumulative mass curve to
calculate the depth over each time interval.
Next the depth or intensity is plotted versus time to
generate a hyetograph characterizing the time
distribution of a storm or selected time period.
The hyetograph is the most common input to hydrologic
models (surface hydrology models).
Rainfall Hyetograph
35

Average depth (mm/15 minutes)

30

25

20
15

10

5
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
15 minutes periods

It is expressed in depth units per unit time, usually as mm per

hour (mm/h) (or in/hr)
 Evaporation
The process by which water is transferred from land
and water masses of the earth to the atmosphere

There is a continuous exchange of water molecules between

an evaporating surface and its overlying atmosphere

Evaporation is the net rate of vapour transfer

 Evaporation
It is a function of
• solar radiation
• difference in vapour pressure between water surface and the
overlying air
• temperature
• wind
• atmospheric pressure
• the quality of evaporating water
• size of the water body
 Evaporation

Evaporation is determined based on

•water budget

•energy budget

•empirical formulae

•pan-evaporation data
 Evaporation Pans
Most widely used method

A standard evaporation pan

The standard weather bureau Class A pan: unpainted, galvanized iron

4-ft diameter (122 cm), 10 in (25.4 cm) deep, circular container,
mounted 12 in above the ground on a wooden frame

Usually filled to a depth of 20 cm and refilled when the depth has

fallen to less than 18 cm

Water surface is measured with a hook gauge

 Evaporation Reduction

Evaporation losses can be greatly significant at any location

Consequently, the concept of evaporation reduction is
receiving widespread attention

Evaporation losses from soils can be controlled by employing

various types of mulches or by chemical alteration
 Evaporation Reduction
They may be reduced from open waters by;
1- Physical Method
a)storing water in covered reservoirs
b) making increased use of underground storage
c) controlling aquatic growths
d) building storage reservoirs with minimal surface area
e) through the use of chemicals
f) injection of air bubbles into water(bubble plume)
2- Chemical Methods
a) WaterSavr
3- Biological Methods
a) floating plants
b)Wind breakers
 Transpiration
Process by which water is drawn from the soil by plant roots and
transferred to the leaves, from which it evaporates
Controlled by
• solar radiation
• temperature
• wind velocity
• vapour pressure gradient
• characteristics of plants
• plant density
• soil moisture content
 Estimation of Transpiration
Precise determination is difficult

Extrapolations to other areas can be misleading

Water budgets are valuable, but again requires

estimates of other variables and thus the transpiration
estimates are only as accurate as the measurement of
the other variables
 Estimation of Transpiration
For small plant areas: determined by a
closed container in which humidity changes
are measured

Soil is sealed to prevent evaporation from soil

These experiments are performed on site or by

use of a phytometer (a container with a particular
plant rooted in it). Soil surface is sealed so that
the only escape of moisture is by transpiration.
Transpiration can be determined by weighting the
planted container at desired intervals of time
 Transpiration Reduction

Methods of control include

•use of chemicals to inhibit water consumption
(chemicals are applied in the root zone)
•harvesting of plants
•improved irrigation practices
•actual removal or destruction of certain vegetative
types a day when in leaf
 Evapotranspiration

Sum total of water returned to the atmosphere from

surface and ground (soil) water and vegetation

Evaporation + Transpiration

Difficult to separate the effect of evaporation and

transpiration over land areas

Mostly, only total evaporation from an area (combined

evaporation plus transpiration: consumptive use) is of
practical interest to a hydrologist
 Evapotranspiration from satellite data
When a surface evaporates, it looses energy and cools itself.
This cooling can be observed from space.
Satellites can map the infrared heat radiated from Earth, thus
enabling to distinguish the cool surfaces from the warm
surfaces.
Very dry and desert-like surfaces show easily as they get
hotter than their surroundings.
From this qualitative reasoning, the scientific objective is to
determine quantitatively the amount of evapotranspiration that
occurs at given locations.
 Evapotranspiration from satellite data

In practice, it consists in
entering various types of
satellite observations
(not just infrared) into
mathematical models of
the atmosphere.

The models, of various

complexities, are run in
algorithmic form on
computers.
 Streamflow

Streamflow = surface runoff + underground flow

classified according to

speed of appearance
The source

Direct runoff storm interflow

base runoff groundwater runoff

Surface runoff = overland flow : water, which flows over the land surface
 Streamflow
Streamflow = surface runoff + underground flow (subsurface flow)

Inter flow (Throughflow) Baseflow

flow through the soil in groundwater

the zone of aeration
(above the water table)
 Meteorological factors affecting runoff:

• Type of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, etc.)

• Rainfall intensity
• Rainfall amount
• Rainfall duration
• Distribution of rainfall over the watersheds
• Direction of storm movement
• Antecedent precipitation and resulting soil moisture
• Other meteorological and climatic conditions that affect
evapotranspiration, such as temperature, wind, relative humidity, and
season
 Initial Loss
Interception process + Depression storage

This represents the quantity of storage that must be satisfied

before overland runoff begins

Interception
Segment of gross precipitation input, which wets and adheres to above ground
objects until it is returned to the atmosphere through evaporation

Depression Storage
Precipitation that reaches the ground may infiltrate, flow over the surface or become
trapped in numerous small depressions from which the only escape is evaporation
or infiltration
All depression must be full before overland flow supply begins
 Interception
It is part of a subcycle of the hydrological cycle

Interception is a function of
a) the storm character
b) the species (type), age and density of prevailing plants and trees
c) the season of the year

Typical interception loss curve

 Infiltration

The movement of water through the ground surface into the

soil and on downwards

Infiltration rate and quantity are a function of

• soil type
• soil moisture
• soil permeability
• ground cover
• drainage conditions
• depth of water table
• intensity and volume of precipitation
 Infiltration
Infiltrated water percolates downwards by gravity until it
reaches the zone of saturation

Rate of downward movement is controlled by the

transmission characteristics of the underlying soil profile

vadose water= soil moisture: water stored in the vadose zone is called

Groundwater: water stored in the zone of saturation is known

 Measuring Infiltration
Infiltrometer

Single ring infiltrometer

Double ring infiltrometer

 Calculation of Infiltration
Calculations vary in sophistication from the application of
average rates to the use of conceptually sound differential
equations

Horton (1930s) studied infiltration process and suggested the

following relationship for determining infiltration

f = f c + (f o - f c) e-kt
Where,
f = infiltration rate as a function of time, (depth/time)
fc = final or ultimate (equilibrium) infiltration rate
fo = initial infiltration rate
k = a constant representing the rate of decrease in
infiltration capacity
Infiltration Rate
Temporal and Spatial Variability of Infiltration Capacity

Infiltration rate generally varies both in space and time

Spatial variations are due to differences in soil type and

vegetation

Accommodate this type of variation by subdividing the total

region into compartments having approximately uniform
soil and vegetal cover

The infiltration capacity at a given location in a watershed

varies with time as shown before
 Streamflow Measurements
The measurement, or gauging, of river discharge is
important for assessment of water resources, design of
water supply schemes, flood-control projects, hydroelectric
projects etc.

Measurement techniques can be broadly classified into

two categories as,

a) direct determination
(Area-velocity methods, Dilution techniques)

b) indirect determination
(Hydraulic structures [eg., weirs, flumes] )
 Streamflow Measurements
Flow measuring methods can also be classified as shown
below too

Stage Discharge Discharge

(water surface (structural)
elevation)
Visual observation Current meter Direct volume
Float Dilution collection
Pressure Sensor Float Weirs
Electrical Indirect via Flumes
Resistance Manning's equation Orifices

Streamflow is the general term used to represent volumes

or rates of flow.
 Streamflow Measurements
Continuous measurement of stream discharge is very difficult
(very time-consuming and costly)

Hence, a two-step procedure is followed

First, the discharge is related to the elevation of the water

surface (stage)

Next, the stage of the stream is observed routinely in a

relatively inexpensive manner and the discharge is
estimated by using the previously determined stage-
discharge relationship
 Measurement of Stage

Stage: water surface elevation recorded relative to some

horizontal datum elevation, frequently MSL

Record of stage is called "stage hydrograph"

A stage recorder can be as simple as a ruler along a

bridge or other structure. It can be read periodically
 Stage data
Stage data is presented as a plot of stage against chronological
time (stage hydrograph)

Besides its use in the determination of stream discharge, stage

data itself is of importance in flood warning and flood protection
works
 Stream Discharge
Velocity-area method:

Based on continuity equation Q = A V̂

Where,
Q = volume rate of discharge (m3/s)
A = cross sectional area (m2)
V = mean velocity in the cross section (m/s)

Discharge is determined by measuring cross sectional area

and the velocity
 Water resources

Sources of fresh water

Surface water
Under river flow (Inter flow)
Groundwater
Frozen water
Desalination
 Drilling Locations
Precipitation or the source of infiltrated
water is probably the most important.
There must be a sufficient amount of
water to fill the available pore spaces.
The zone where the water is to infiltrate
must have a high porosity.
The area in which the water is to be
stored needs sufficient permeability to
allow water to flow into the well and
replace the water that is pumped out of
the well
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Surface methods
• Geomorphologic methods
• Geological & structural Methods
• Soil and Micro-Biological Methods
• Remote Sensing Techniques
• Surface Geophysical Methods

Subsurface methods
• Test Drilling
• Borehole Geophysical Logging techniques
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Geophysical methods

Exploring the ground water by geophysical method is termed Ground water

geophysics. Geophysical investigations are conducted on the surface of the earth to
explore the ground water resources by observing some physical parameters like
density, velocity, conductivity, resistivity, magnetic, electromagnetic & radioactive
phenomena.
Geophysical methods detect the differences, or anomalies of physical properties
within the earth's crust.
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Geophysical methods
The main geophysical methods which are useful in solving some of
the problems of hydrogeology are:
• Gravity methods
• Magnetic methods
• Seismic methods
• Electrical methods
• Radiometric methods
• Geothermal Methods
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Gravity Method

Gravimeters are used in this

method to measure the
differences in density on the
earth's surface that may
indicate the underlying
geologic structures.
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)

Magnetic Method
The magnetic method enables detecting the magnetic fields of the earth
which can be measured and mapped.
Because magnetic contrasts are seldom associated with groundwater
occurrence, the method has little relevance for exploring groundwater.
Indirect information pertinent to the groundwater studies, such as the
presence of dikes that form aquifer boundaries or limits of a basaltic flow,
could be obtained with this method.
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Seismic Method
• Seismic methods are of two kinds as seismic refraction and reflection methods.
• Seismic waves follow the same laws of propagation as light rays and may be reflected or
refracted at any interface where a velocity change occurs.
• The travel time of a seismic wave depends on the media through which it is passing
through.
• The velocities are greatest in solid igneous rocks and least in unconsolidated materials.
Based on these indications, it is possible to delineate the subsurface zones of fractures,
fissures, faults and lineaments.
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Seismic Method
A basic understanding of the characteristic seismic velocities for a variety of geologic
materials is necessary. These velocities help to identify the nature of alluvium or
bedrock. In coarse alluvial terrain, seismic velocity increases markedly from
unsaturated to saturated zones. In seismic method, the depth to water table can be
mapped, with an accuracy of 10 percent, where the geologic conditions are relatively
uniform.
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Electrical resistivity method

The purpose of electrical surveys is to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution

by making measurements on the ground surface. From these measurements, the true
resistivity of the subsurface can be estimated.
method. The resistivity measurements are normally made by injecting current into the
ground through two current electrodes
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Electrical resistivity method
The most common electrode arrays are :

• Wenner,
• Schlumberger,
• Pole-pole, pole-dipole
• Dipole-dipole array.
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Electrical resistivity method
• Resistivity surveys give a picture of the subsurface resistivity distribution.
• Igneous and metamorphic rocks typically have high resistivity values.
• Sedimentary rocks, which usually are more porous and have a higher water content,
normally have lower resistivity values. Wet soils and fresh ground water have even
lower resistivity values.
• The resistivity of ground water varies from 10 to 100 ohm•m. depending on the
concentration of dissolved salts.
• The resistivity method an ideal technique for mapping the saline and fresh water
interface in coastal areas.
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Electrical resistivity method
Wenner array

Wenner array is relatively sensitive to vertical changes in the subsurface resistivity

below the center of the array. However, it is less sensitive to horizontal changes in
the subsurface resistivity.
 Groundwater Exploration (Prospecting)
Electrical resistivity method
Schlumberger array

In the Schlumberger array, A and B are current electrodes, and M and N are
potential electrodes. Let the current I enter the ground at A and return at B.
Occurrence of groundwater
 Groundwater
• Ground Water lies beneath the ground surface, filling
pores in sediments and sedimentary rocks and fractures
in other rock types
– Resupplied by slow infiltration
of precipitation

– Generally cleaner than surface water

– Accessed by wells
– Major reservoirs of groundwater are referred to as aquifers
 Groundwater
Aquifers

Unconsolidated formations Consolidated formations

 Groundwater
Aquifers
Consolidated formations
• Composed of solid rock with groundwater found in the
cracks.
• The amount of groundwater in a consolidated formation
depends on how many cracks there are and the size of the
cracks

Unconsolidated formations
Composed of sand and gravel, cobblestones or loose earth or
soil material.
The amount of groundwater in an unconsolidated formation
varies depending on how closely packed the solid materials
are and how finely grained they are.
 Porosity and Permeability
• Porosity - the percentage of rock or sediment that
consists of voids or openings
– Measurement of a rock’s ability to hold water
– Loose sand has ~30-50% porosity
– Compacted sandstone may have only 10-20% porosity
• Permeability - the capacity of a rock to transmit fluid
through pores and fractures
– Interconnectedness of pore spaces
– Most sandstones and conglomerates are porous
and permeable
– Granites, schists, unfractured limestones are impermeable
 Porosity

Vv= volume of voids, Vt= total unit volume,

 Porosity

Specific yield is the portion that will percolate downward under the
influence of gravity.
It indicates how much water is actually available for use.
Specific retention is retained as a film on particle and rock surfaces
and in tiny openings .
It indicates how much water remains bound in the material.
 Porosity
porosity in sediments and rocks
 Porosity
Porosity can be classified as following:

Primary porosity is the voids present when the sediment or rock that
developed during its formation

Secondary porosity is a subsequent or separate porosity system in a

rock . develop as a result of secondary physical and chemical Processes.

• Vuggy porosity is secondary porosity generated by dissolution

of large features.
• Fracture porosity is porosity associated with a fracture system
or faulting.
Dual porosity Where both primary and secondary porosities are present, a dual-porosity
system is recognized, for example as a result of fracturing and fissuring in porous
sandstone or limestone.
 Porosity
Factors affecting porosity

Porosity is determined by:

1. Shape - Well rounded particles have greater porosity

than angular.
POROSITY

ROUNDNESS ROUND ANGULAR

 Porosity
Factors affecting porosity

2. PACKING- The more closely packed the particles the

POROSITY lower the porosity.

PACKING UNPACKED PACKED

 Porosity
Factors affecting porosity

3. SORTING-
- If all particles are the same size they are sorted.
- If the particles are different sizes they are
unsorted (poorly sorted)
- The more sorted the higher the porosity
POROSITY

SORTING
 Porosity
Factors affecting porosity

Particle Size alone does NOT affect

porosity!!!!!
(Shaping, Packing, Sorting does)
 Permeability
• Ability of water to pass through
• Affected by: packing and particle size

PERMEABILITY
• Tighter packing and Smaller particles
= less permeability
• Looser Packing and
Larger particles = more permeability
PARTICLE SIZE

The smaller the size of the sediment grains, the

larger the surface area the water contacts.
 Permeability
Permeability of sediments
 Permeability
Permeability of rocks
The intrinsic permeability of rocks is due to primary openings
formed with the rock and secondary openings created after the rock
was formed.

Crystalline rocks typically have a low primary permeability, in

addition to a low porosity.

Secondary permeability can develop in rocks through:

• Fracturing
• Chemical dissolution

Water can permeate between granular void or pore spaces, and

fractures between rocks.
 Groundwater
• Groundwater lies beneath the ground surface, filling pores
in sediments and sedimentary rocks and fractures in other
rock types

Ground water is water in the saturated zone, below the water table.
 The Water Table
• Subsurface zone in which all rock openings are filled with water is
the phreatic, or saturated zone
• Top of the saturated zone is the water table
– Water level at surface of most lakes and rivers corresponds to local water table
• Above the water table is an unsaturated region called the vadose
zone
• A perched water table is above and separated from main water table
by an unsaturated zone
– Commonly produced by thin lenses of impermeable rock (e.g., shales or clays)
within permeable ones
Types of Geological Formations of Groundwater

There are four different types of geological formations

of groundwater :

1.Aquifer
2.Aquiclude
3.Aquitard
4.Aquifuge
 Types of Geological Formations of Groundwater
Aquifers: is rock or sediment that act as storage reservoirs for
groundwater and are typically characterized by high porosity and
permeability.
Aquiclude is composed of a low permeability rock or sediment that
essentially acts as a barrier to groundwater flow.

Aquitard: is a geological formation of layers comprised of clay, with

tiny connected pores, or non-porous rock that restrict water flow from
one aquifer to another.

Aquifuge: is a geologic formation which has no interconnected

openings and cannot hold or transmit water. It is neither contain nor
transmit water.
Aquiclude describes a very low permeability aquitard
Types of Geological Formations of Groundwater
 Aquifers types
✓ Unconfined aquifer
(non-artesian aquifer)
✓ Perched aquifer
✓ Confined aquifer
(artesian aquifer)
✓ Semi-confined aquifers
(leaky aquifer)
✓ Semi-unconfined aquifer
 Aquifers types
Unconfined vs. Confined Aquifers

• Unconfined Aquifer
–Has a water table, and is only partly filled with water
–Rapidly recharged by precipitation infiltrating down to the
saturated zone
–The recharge zone is where the confined aquifer is exposed at
the surface and water can enter it laterally or vertically .

• Confined Aquifer
– Completely filled with water under pressure (hydrostatic head)
– Separated from surface by impermeable confining layer/aquitard
– Very slowly recharged
 Aquifers types
perched aquifer A layer of saturated soil will form above the
main water-table.
 Wells
• Well - a deep hole dug or drilled
into the ground to obtain water
from an aquifer
– For wells in unconfined aquifers,
water level before pumping is the
water table
– Water table can be lowered by
pumping, a process known as
drawdown
– Water may rise to a level above
the top of a confined aquifer,
producing an artesian well
 Springs
• Spring - a place where water flows
out of the earth through a natural
opening to form a small stream or
pool. Springs can be permanent or
ephemeral

Depression springs
Contact spring
Fault spring
Sinkhole springs
 Ground Water Movement
• Movement of ground water
through pores and fractures is
relatively slow (cms to
meters/day) compared to flow
of water in surface streams
– Flow velocities in cavernous
limestones can be much higher
(kms/day)

• Flow velocity depends upon:

– Slope of the water table
– Permeability of the rock or
sediment
 Aquifers and Aquitards
• Aquifer - body of saturated rock or sediment through
which water can move easily
– Sandstone
– Conglomerate
– Well-jointed limestone
– Sand and gravel
– Highly fractured
volcanic rock
• Aquitard - rock/sediment that retards ground water
flow due to low porosity and/or permeability
– Shale, clay, unfractured crystalline rocks
 Aquifers- Sierra Nevada Mtns
and foothills
• Aquifer
- Forms in fractured
igneous rock (granitic)
- Porosity and
permeability are low
- Wells are difficult to
locate, yield is low
- Often limits development
 Ground Water Contamination
Infiltrating water may bring
contaminants down to the water table,
including (but not limited to):
– Pharmaceuticals
– Pesticides/herbicides
– Fertilizers
– Feed lots
– Mercury and gold mining
– Landfill pollutants
– Heavy metals
– Bacteria, viruses and parasites from sewage
– Industrial chemicals (PCBs, TCE)
– Acid mine drainage
– Radioactive waste
– Oil and gasoline
 Ground Water Contamination

• Contaminated ground water

can be extremely difficult and
expensive to clean up
 Balancing Withdrawal
and Recharge
• If ground water is withdrawn more
rapidly than it is recharged, the
water table will drop
– Dropping water table can lead to
ground subsidence
• surface of the ground drops as
buoyancy from ground water is
removed, allowing rock or sediment to
compact and sink
– Subsidence can crack foundations,
roads and pipelines
– Areas of extremely high ground water
pumping (such as for crop irrigation in
dry regions) have subsided 7-9 meters
 Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst

• Caves - naturally-formed underground

chambers
– Acidic ground water dissolves limestone
along joints and bedding planes
• Caves near the surface may collapse
and produce sinkholes
• Rolling hills, disappearing streams,
and sinkholes are common in areas
with karst topography
 Hot Water Underground

• Hot springs - springs in which the water

is warmer than human body temperature
– Ground water heated by nearby magma
bodies or circulation to unusually deep (and
warm) levels within the crust
– Hot water is less dense than cool water and
thus rises back to the surface on its own
• Geysers - hot springs that periodically
erupt hot water and steam
– Minerals often precipitate around geysers as
hot water cools rapidly in the air
 Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal energy is produced using

natural steam or superheated water
– No CO2 or acid rain are produced (clean
energy source)
– Some toxic gases given off (e.g., sulfur
compounds)
– Can be used directly to heat buildings
– Superheated water can be very corrosive to
pipes and equipment
 Streams and
Groundwater
• Gaining streams - receive water
from the saturated zone
– Gaining stream surface is local water table

• Losing streams - lose water to the

saturated zone
– Stream beds lie above the water table
– Maximum infiltration occurs through
streambed, producing permanent “mound”
in the water table beneath dry channel