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THE IMPACT OF HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTIONS ON THE LIVELIHOODS OF

HOST COMMUNITIES IN BORNO STATE: A CASE STUDY OF MAIDUGURI

ABSTRACT

This research employs a descriptive research design to investigate the impact of humanitarian
interventions on the livelihoods of host communities in Borno State, focusing on Maiduguri. The
study population includes all residents aged 18 and above in Borno State, estimated at
approximately 5.86 million individuals. The Cochran formula determines a sample size of 384
respondents, chosen through a random sampling technique to enhance generalizability. The
research instrument is a close-ended questionnaire designed to collect data on demographics,
livelihood situations, awareness of interventions, and perceived impacts. The questionnaire's
validity and reliability are ensured through review by the supervisor and assessment of internal
consistency using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Data analysis encompasses the use of
descriptive and inferential statistics, utilizing SPSS for accuracy. Findings from the survey
reveal a diverse range of perspectives on the overall livelihood situation, with 72.4% of
respondents describing it as "Good." However, a significant minority perceives it as "Poor" or
"Very poor." Predominant challenges identified include the destruction of infrastructure
(56.8%), displacement, limited access to basic services, and social disintegration. The hypothesis
testing reveals a statistically significant association between humanitarian interventions and
livelihoods in Borno State, highlighting their transformative potential. The theoretical
implications of the research underscore the need for a paradigm shift in humanitarian theories
towards a more community-driven model. The practical implications call for collaborative
efforts among humanitarian agencies, the government, community leaders, and victims to
implement interventions that align with the diverse needs of host communities. Based on the
findings, the research recommends that humanitarian organizations such as the UN, World
Bank, and the Red Cross, etc, should prioritize a paradigm shift towards a more community-
driven approach which should involve actively involving local communities in decision-making
processes, fostering cultural sensitivity, and ensuring that interventions are adequately
streamlined to meet community needs
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CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Humanitarian interventions, driven by a sense of compassion and the desire to alleviate

suffering, have evolved over time in response to the complexities of conflicts, disasters, and

displacement. Humanitarian interventions have become an integral aspect of global efforts to

address the complex challenges posed by conflicts, displacement, and natural disasters. The mid-

20th century witnessed a significant shift in global consciousness, leading to the establishment of

international organizations and frameworks aimed at providing aid and protection to those

affected. A pivotal moment in the evolution of humanitarian interventions occurred with the

establishment of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in 1863. The ICRC,

founded in response to the humanitarian challenges posed by the Battle of Solferino, played a

pioneering role in formalizing the principles that underpin modern humanitarian efforts (Dromi,

2016; McDonald, 2007). The organization recognized the importance of providing assistance to

individuals affected by armed conflicts without discrimination based on nationality, ethnicity, or

affiliation. The emphasis on neutrality ensured that humanitarian aid was delivered without

taking sides in the conflict, fostering trust and access to those in need. Furthermore, the

commitment to humanity underscored the moral imperative to alleviate suffering and protect the

dignity of individuals caught in the midst of war.

The post-World War II era marked a critical juncture in the consolidation of humanitarian

principles. The devastating impact of the war and the recognition of widespread atrocities led to

the formulation of the Geneva Conventions. Ratified in the aftermath of the conflict, these
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conventions established a comprehensive framework for the protection of civilians and non-

combatants during armed conflicts Sangroula, 2010). The Geneva Conventions not only laid

down legal guidelines for humanitarian actions but also emphasized the ethical imperatives of

providing assistance to those in need. By codifying these principles, the conventions set the stage

for a more structured and organized approach to humanitarian interventions, ensuring that the

rights and well-being of individuals affected by conflicts were safeguarded on an international

scale. The establishment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945 further expanded the commitment

as well as playing a critical role in shaping humanitarian interventions. Arising from the

aftermath of World War II, the UN was founded on principles of international cooperation,

peace, and security. The organization swiftly acknowledged the need to address global

humanitarian crises, leading to the creation of specialized agencies and bodies. Notably, the

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) was established in 1991 to enhance

the efficiency and effectiveness of humanitarian response efforts. OCHA acts as a central

coordinating body within the UN system, working to organize and mobilize humanitarian action

in response to crises. During the post-World War II period, the United Nations (UN) actively

engaged in various humanitarian interventions to address crises and conflicts worldwide.

From the post-World War II period, humanitarian intervention evolved significantly throughout

the 20th century, adapting to the changing nature of conflicts and crises. The early years were

marked by a focus on addressing immediate post-war challenges, with the United Nations (UN)

playing a central role in providing humanitarian assistance and peacekeeping missions. As the

century progressed, the international community faced new and complex emergencies, such as

the Balkans conflict in the 1990s and the Rwandan genocide. These events prompted a

reevaluation of the approach to humanitarian intervention, leading to a more comprehensive and

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integrated strategy that considered both short-term relief and long-term development (Adekola

and Bamiloye, 2022). Additionally, the late 20th century witnessed an increased emphasis on the

protection of human rights in humanitarian efforts, with international documents like the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights serving as foundational guides. Humanitarian

organizations, both within and outside the UN framework, collaborated to respond to crises, and

the establishment of bodies like the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

(OCHA) in 1991 highlighted the growing need for coordinated global responses. Through these

developments, humanitarian intervention matured into a multifaceted endeavor, incorporating

legal, ethical, and practical considerations to address the diverse challenges faced by populations

affected by conflicts and disasters.

This monumental transformation in humanitarian intervention has been witnessed globally, even

in developing countries like Nigeria, which has grappled with significant insecurity, insurgency,

and violent conflict. The negative impact of these security challenges has been particularly

pronounced in Borno State, where the Boko Haram insurgency has caused massive havoc. The

crisis in North-East Nigeria stands among the most severe in the world today. In 2018,

approximately 10.2 million people were deemed to require humanitarian assistance across six

affected states in Nigeria. While the state traditionally plays a primary role in crisis response on a

global scale, recent years have witnessed a growing acknowledgment of the crucial contributions

made by both international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) and Civil Society

Organizations (CSOs) in addressing humanitarian crises (Adekola and Bamiloye, 2022). The

disruptions to livelihoods, widespread displacement, and the erosion of social and economic

structures have created an urgent need for humanitarian intervention in Borno State. In response

to these challenges, the international community, alongside local organizations, has adapted its
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approach to not only provide immediate relief but also to address the long-term recovery and

resilience of communities affected by conflict. The evolving landscape of humanitarian response

becomes crucial in mitigating the complex consequences of insecurity and conflict, especially in

regions like Borno State, where the humanitarian situation remains a pressing concern.

Since the imposition of a state of emergency in Borno, Yobe, and Adamawa states in May 2013

by the Nigerian Federal Government, individuals affected by the insurgency have been receiving

diverse forms of relief aid through humanitarian assistance programs facilitated by donor

agencies, including United Nations (UN) agencies, national and international Non-Governmental

Organizations (NGOs), multinational companies, and individual philanthropists. The prolonged

insurgency in Northeast Nigeria has resulted in over 7.1 million people urgently requiring

humanitarian aid, with 1.8 million internally displaced individuals, according to the Nigeria

Humanitarian Response Strategy (2018). Numerous villages, communities, and local government

areas (LGAs) remain inaccessible due to the presence of insurgents and ongoing military

operations. The crisis has been exacerbated by the insurgency's transformation into a

multinational dimension, posing challenges for the Nigerian government's effective response

(Gilbert, 2014).

Borno State bears the brunt of the insurgency, with almost all local government areas, except

three, being captured by Boko Haram fighters for an extended period. Ongoing military

operations and insurgent activities still render many villages and communities inaccessible,

leading to property loss, internal displacement, and relocation of residents. The estimated

destruction of civilian infrastructure in the northeast is valued at US$9.2 billion, with an

accumulated output loss of US$8.3 billion, primarily impacting Borno state (Nigeria

Humanitarian Response Strategy, 2018). Before the insurgency, Borno was a significant business
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center in Northeast Nigeria, benefiting from its border status with Chad, Niger, and Cameroon.

The state experienced economic growth through transnational trade and well-established small

and medium-scale enterprises connected to the commercial city of Kano. However, this growth

has been halted, contributing to a decline in development and leaving a substantial population in

dire need. Hendrickson (1998) emphasizes the necessity of understanding the relationship

between humanitarian assistance and long-term development to effectively address the

challenges faced by Borno state.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The protracted nature of the conflict in Borno State has resulted in a significant strain on the

livelihoods of host communities (Nigeria Humanitarian Response Strategy, 2018). Consequently,

the sustained dependence on humanitarian aid by the workforce, the destruction of lives and

properties, the exodus of businesses and investors, the cessation of commercial activities in

various locations across the state, and the prolonged insurgent activities collectively pose

significant concerns for the future development of the state. While humanitarian interventions

are designed to provide assistance and support, their effectiveness in mitigating the negative

impact on host communities' livelihoods remains a subject of inquiry. This study seeks to

identify the challenges and gaps in the current humanitarian response in Borno State, with a

focus on how these interventions affect the livelihoods of the host communities.

1.3 Research Questions

In order to achieve the study objectives, the following research questions were formulated to

guide the study:

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1. What are the primary challenges faced by host communities in Borno State as a result of

the humanitarian crisis?

2. How do humanitarian interventions contribute to addressing the livelihood needs of host

communities in Borno State?

3. What factors influence the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions in supporting the

livelihoods of host communities?

1.4 Research Objectives

The general objective of this research is to examine the impact of humanitarian interventions on

the livelihoods of host communities in Borno State.

The specific objectives of this research are:

1. To examine the challenges faced by host communities in Borno State due to the

humanitarian crisis.

2. To assess the impact of humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods of host

communities in Borno State.

3. To identify factors influencing the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions in

supporting host communities' livelihoods.

1.5 Research Hypothesis

From the following objectives, the following hypothesis was formulated;

Null Hypothesis: There is no significant impact of humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods

of host communities in Borno State.

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Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant impact of humanitarian interventions on the

livelihoods of host communities in Borno State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will have significant implications on humanitarian Organizations, the

government, host communities and researchers.

This study will provide valuable insights for humanitarian organizations operating in Borno

State, enabling them to enhance the effectiveness of their interventions and better address the

livelihood needs of host communities.

The findings of this research can inform government policies and strategies aimed at improving

the overall well-being and resilience of host communities affected by humanitarian crises.

For the victims and host communities, this study can shed light on how humanitarian assistance

can positively impact their livelihoods, fostering a better understanding of available support

mechanisms.

Researchers in the field of humanitarian studies will find this study useful for further academic

exploration and as a foundation for future research.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This research focuses specifically on the impact of humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods

of host communities in Borno State, Nigeria. The study will consider various types of

interventions, including food aid, shelter, healthcare, and livelihood support programs.

1.7 Definition of Terms

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To ensure clarity, the following terms will be succinctly defined:

Humanitarian Interventions: Actions taken to alleviate the suffering of individuals and

communities affected by conflicts, disasters, or displacement.

Livelihoods: The means by which individuals and communities sustain themselves, including

economic activities, access to resources, and social well-being.

Host Communities: Local populations in areas directly affected by the presence of displaced

persons and the activities of humanitarian organizations.

Borno State: A state in northeastern Nigeria, heavily affected by the Boko Haram insurgency

and characterized by significant displacement and humanitarian challenges.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Review

Concept of Humanitarian intervention

Humanitarian intervention refers to the efforts of organizations aimed at alleviating widespread

human suffering within the borders of a sovereign state. It involves providing assistance to save

lives, mitigate suffering, and uphold human dignity during and after crises or natural disasters.

The goal is not only to respond to immediate needs but also to equip communities to withstand

potential future events. Guided by key humanitarian principles—humanity, impartiality,

neutrality, and independence—endorsed by the UN General Assembly, these principles are

enshrined in various humanitarian standards and guidelines (Global Humanitarian Assistance,

2019). Additionally known as Humanitarian Assistance, Relief Intervention, Emergency Relief,

or Emergency Intervention, humanitarian intervention is distinct from development intervention,

with Dieci (2006) emphasizing that relief interventions aim to save lives in immediate risk

situations, while development strategies focus on introducing structural changes over time.

Processes leading to improvements in living standards, infrastructure, human capital, or socio-

economic, environmental, and political growth are considered development. Development

intervention provides financial support to facilitate a country's growth economically, socially,

politically, and enhance environmental sustainability. By August 2019, approximately US$2.23

billion had been spent on relief support in Northeast, according to the Financial Tracking

Services (FTS) of the United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

(UNOCHA) (2019). Despite this significant investment, numerous vulnerable individuals and
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groups still urgently require humanitarian intervention. Since the initiation of full humanitarian

intervention in response to the insurgency in Northeast Nigeria in 2014, 47 International Non-

Governmental Organizations (INGOs) and over 180 joint Civil Society Organizations (CSOs),

Faith-Based Organizations (FBOs), and Community-Based Organizations (CBOs), along with

UN agencies and the International Committee of the Red Cross, have provided various forms of

humanitarian intervention to the affected populations in the region (Global Humanitarian

Assistance, 2019).

Humanitarian interventions are actions taken to save lives, alleviate suffering, and uphold human

dignity during and after crises or natural disasters, with the additional goal of preventing future

occurrences and equipping people to withstand future events. This form of intervention addresses

the immediate needs of populations affected by either man-made or natural disasters, serving as a

short-term solution before more extended government interventions can be implemented

(DuBois, 2018). Described by DuBois as a set of short-term program methodologies and

operational objectives, humanitarian interventions focus on meeting urgent needs without

necessarily building long-term systems for development or resilience (DuBois, 2018). The

provision of interventions is guided by protection principles, emphasizing the rights outlined in

the humanitarian charter, including the right to life with dignity, the right to humanitarian

assistance, and the right to protection and security (Sphere Association, 2018). The concept of

humanitarian interventions is rooted in the commitment to ensure that no human being is

sacrificed for a purpose, reflecting Albert Schweitzer's assertion that "Humanitarianism consists

in never sacrificing a human being to a purpose." This principle underscores the importance of

protecting the dignity of life in all humanitarian actions. The international humanitarian law

forms the foundation of humanitarian interventions, providing a framework for the protection
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and assistance of all people affected by crises with dignity. Humanitarian interventions operate

on the basis of humanitarian principles, with the international humanitarian law serving as a

fundamental guide (Sphere Association, 2018). The Humanitarian Charter encapsulates the core

legal principles crucial for the welfare of those affected by disaster or conflict (Sphere

Association, 2018).

Additionally, Akramov (2012), as quoted by Seblewengel Debebe Dagne, categorizes Official

Development Interventions (ODI) into three distinct categories. Economic interventions, the first

category, aim to raise capital accumulation by increasing a recipient nation's stock of physical

capital, encompassing sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, mining, construction, trade,

and tourism. The second category, social interventions, focus on building additional physical and

human capital to promote economic growth, covering areas like education, healthcare, sanitation,

and drinking water supplies. The third category, humanitarian interventions, are intended for

consumption during emergency situations and include provisions such as medicine and food,

emphasizing their life-saving nature (Debebe Dagne, n.d.).

History of Humanitarian Intervention

The history of humanitarian intervention can be traced back to influential figures such as

Florence Nightingale and Henri Dunant. During the Crimean War in 1854, Nightingale and her

team of nurses offered health, nutrition, clean water, and hygiene services to wounded soldiers

on a voluntary basis, laying the foundations for statistical measurement of mortality and

morbidity rates (McDonald, 2007). Nightingale's evidence-based campaign for the needs of

people affected by conflict led to her advocacy for the establishment of a Royal Commission on

the Health of the Army in Britain (Wikipedia).

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Formalized humanitarian intervention finds its roots in the story of Henri Dunant, a Swiss

businessman, and social activist. Dunant worked with volunteers to assist wounded soldiers

across nations during conflicts, laying the groundwork for humanitarian principles of impartiality

and neutrality. He advocated for the creation of a permanent relief society and international

humanitarian law, gaining support from the International Committee for Aid to Wounded in

Situations of War (Dromi, 2016). This committee paved the way for the establishment of the

International Committee of the Red Cross, the world's largest provider of humanitarian

intervention, and the guiding principles of international humanitarian law, founded on the treaty

signed during the Geneva Convention in 1864 (Wikipedia).

Humanitarian intervention in response to natural disasters gained attention with the North

Chinese famine of 1876-1879, where Timothy Richard spearheaded an international effort to

establish the Shandong Famine Relief Committee (Janku, 2013). Similar interventions responded

to the great famine in India in 1876-1878, leading to the formation of a famine relief fund in the

United Kingdom. Before the 1980s, private sectors played a primary role in humanitarian

intervention with limited resources. The landscape changed in the 1980s when BBC global news

coverage shed light on intervention challenges, prompting the mobilization of celebrities to

galvanize large-scale government-led humanitarian funds for global disaster response (Ada and

Abdullahi, 2022).

The formal international coordination of humanitarian intervention began in 1991 when the

United Nations established the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)

under Resolution 46/182. OCHA is tasked with leading, coordinating, and facilitating

humanitarian assistance, aiming to strengthen the UN's response to complex emergencies and

natural disasters while enhancing overall effectiveness in the field (Ada and Abdullahi, 2022;
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OCHA, 2019). This effort culminated in the first World Humanitarian Summit in 2016 in

Istanbul, Turkey, where discussions centered on preventing and ending conflicts, managing

crises, and financing intervention (Ada and Abdullahi, 2022; Wikipedia; OCHA, 2019).

Humanitarian Interventions in Borno State

The significance of humanitarian intervention can be attributed to its defined purpose of "saving

lives, alleviating suffering, and upholding human dignity during and after crises or natural

disasters." According to the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2004), humanitarian

intervention specifically addresses the consequences of conflicts, including social and economic

dislocations, displacement of people, the collapse of state and civil society institutions,

disenfranchisement of livelihoods, disruption of communal living, and obstruction of access to

basic services. By addressing these effects, humanitarian intervention plays a crucial role in

bringing relief to the suffering population and contributing to the rehabilitation, reconstruction,

and resettlement of those affected by conflicts.

Borno State has endured a prolonged conflict spanning over a decade, resulting in the

displacement of more than 1.4 million people, as reported by UNICEF (2016). The impact

includes social and economic dislocation, destruction of properties and livelihoods, and

hindrance of access to basic services for over 1.4 million individuals. However, the humanitarian

response has provided interventions in key areas such as food security and nutrition, water

sanitation and hygiene (WASH), health, and shelter and settlement. These interventions adhere

to protection principles, ensuring the provision and access to services in a dignified manner

(Sphere Association, 2018). The intervention has extended beyond life-saving measures to

include education for the youth, rehabilitation, reintegration, and resettlement of the conflict-
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affected population. Additionally, efforts encompass the restoration of telecommunication

services by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the reconstruction of

essential assets, including health and educational facilities, security facilities (such as police

stations), and the restoration of justice systems in the most affected Local Government Areas

(LGAs) of the state(Ada and Abdullahi, 2022).

Challenges facing humanitarian intervention in Borno state

Humanitarian intervention in Borno State, encounters a lack of adequate attention from the

United Nations (UN), International NGOs, humanitarian donors, and the Nigerian government,

leaving a significant population of displaced and affected individuals in urgent need of

assistance, as highlighted by McIlreavy and Schopp (2017) in the Humanitarian Practice

Network. The provision of humanitarian aid continues to grapple with challenges in accessing

people with critical needs due to restricted security perimeters imposed by the military, as

pointed out by Eguiluz (2020). The protracted conflict displaces individuals with urgent needs,

compelling them to seek refuge in garrison towns with restricted security perimeters, thereby

diminishing the standard of aid provided. Eguiluz further argues that donor fatigue is not the

primary issue, as funding continues to flow, but the challenge lies in finding implementing

partners and delivering programs outside urban areas. This difficulty is attributed to reported

cases of abductions and executions of aid workers by Armed Opposition Groups (AOGs). The

perception of the Nigerian government that International NGOs were untrustworthy agents

meddling in Nigeria's domestic affairs, as reported by McIlreavy and Schopp (2017), and other

narratives associated with the military lockdown of aid agencies' offices in Maiduguri, as

reported by the media in September 2019, is also subject to more scrutiny, with varying opinions

from different writers.

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The Nigeria Humanitarian Response Strategy (2018) aligns with Eguiluz's (2020) assertion on

restricted security perimeters as a challenge facing humanitarian aid, in addition to bureaucratic

impediments related to the importation of life-saving drugs and other humanitarian goods, legal

ambiguity, delays in INGO registration, and high costs, as well as delays in obtaining visas for

international staff. The strategy also concurs with Olojo's (2019) perspective on climate changes

posing a challenge to humanitarian aid, while adding that the presence of explosive remnants of

war (ERW) and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) planted on the roads targeting military

convoys further compounds the difficulties.

Branczik (2004) highlights several issues in humanitarian interventions, including concerns

about efficiency and effectiveness, political dilemmas, and criticism directed at humanitarian

organizations. At the same time, development aid encounters challenges related to the lack of a

conflict-preventive element in its design, aid conditionality, and general issues with efficiency

and effectiveness. In Borno State, these dynamics are accentuated, as the involvement of

numerous humanitarian organizations leads to inefficiencies through poor coordination and

duplicated efforts, as highlighted by Olojo (2019). This lack of streamlined collaboration can

hinder the overall impact and effectiveness of interventions, potentially resulting in suboptimal

outcomes for the affected population. Moreover, the challenges extend to difficulties in accessing

vulnerable groups, a critical aspect identified by the Humanitarian Country Team in the Nigerian

Humanitarian Response Strategy (2018). The report emphasizes that 13% of the population in

dire need remains inaccessible, exacerbating the difficulties in delivering aid where it is most

urgently required. These challenges underscore the need for improved coordination, strategic

planning, and a nuanced understanding of the local context to ensure that humanitarian

interventions and development aid align with the unique needs and complexities of Borno State,
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ultimately contributing more effectively to the well-being and recovery of the affected

population.

Finally, Olojo (2019) rightly points out that aid organizations play a crucial role in easing the

immediate impact of the crisis in Borno. However, addressing the deeper issues causing the

conflict is the responsibility of the Nigerian government. Dealing with these root causes demands

more than just humanitarian efforts; it requires a commitment from the government to tackle the

underlying socio-economic, political, and governance challenges that contribute to the ongoing

crisis. Overcoming the political dilemma associated with the Borno crisis means adopting a

comprehensive approach that goes beyond immediate humanitarian responses. The government

needs to commit to implementing long-term strategies that promote inclusivity, equitable

development, and good governance. By addressing the root causes, the government can create an

environment where humanitarian aid becomes a supplementary measure rather than the primary

response to the crisis. Olojo's perspective emphasizes the need for a coordinated effort that

integrates humanitarian assistance with broader initiatives aimed at fostering sustainable

development and lasting peace in the region.

2.2 Theoretical Review

Disaster Relief Model

The theoretical framework for examining the impact of humanitarian interventions on the

livelihoods of host communities in Borno State can be grounded in the Disaster Relief Model

developed by sociologist Enrico L. Quarantelli. The Disaster Relief Model provides a

comprehensive understanding of how communities respond to and recover from disasters

(Quarantelli, 1977, 1994). Quarantelli developed this model in the late 20th century, primarily
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drawing on his extensive research on human behavior during and after disasters. The model's

major propositions include the recognition that disasters are social phenomena, the importance of

social systems in disaster response, the role of formal and informal organizations, and the

significance of communication in the disaster recovery process (Quarantelli, 1994). The Disaster

Relief Model posits that disasters affect not only individuals but entire social systems,

emphasizing the interconnectedness of communities and their responses. The model also

highlights the crucial role of formal organizations (government agencies, NGOs) and informal

groups (community networks, local leaders) in disaster response and recovery. Communication

is identified as a key factor in facilitating effective response efforts and ensuring information

flows between all relevant parties.

The Disaster Relief Model is the acknowledgment of the pivotal role played by both formal and

informal entities in the aftermath of a disaster. Formal organizations, including government

agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), are identified as crucial actors in disaster

response and recovery. These entities bring structured resources, expertise, and coordination

efforts to mitigate the impact of the disaster (Quarantelli, 1994). Simultaneously, informal

groups, such as community networks and local leaders, are recognized for their significance in

facilitating response efforts. These informal structures often possess an intricate understanding of

the local context, fostering a more nuanced and contextually relevant approach to disaster relief.

Moreover, the model emphasizes the importance of effective communication as a linchpin in

disaster response. Clear and efficient communication channels between all relevant stakeholders,

including affected communities, formal organizations, and informal groups, are essential for

successful interventions, ensuring that information flows seamlessly and contributes to a

coordinated and effective relief effort (Quarantelli, 1994).

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Applying the Disaster Relief Model to the impact of humanitarian interventions in Borno State

allows for a careful examination of how these interventions influence the livelihoods of host

communities. The model's emphasis on social systems aligns with the interconnected nature of

communities in Borno, providing a framework to analyze the broader social impacts of

interventions. It allows us to explore how formal and informal organizations collaborate or

encounter challenges in delivering aid and facilitating recovery. Moreover, the model's attention

to communication dynamics helps in understanding how information dissemination and

community engagement contribute to the success or failure of interventions.

The Disaster Relief Model, while providing valuable insights into the dynamics of disaster

response and recovery, is not without potential limitations that may impact its applicability to the

study of humanitarian interventions in Borno State. A critical aspect to consider is the model's

temporal focus on immediate response and recovery. The Disaster Relief Model may not

explicitly address the long-term consequences of humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods

of host communities. As the study aims to explore the lasting impacts of interventions in Borno

State, the model's relative neglect of prolonged effects might limit its explanatory power in

understanding the extended repercussions on community resilience, socio-economic stability,

and overall well-being.

Moreover, the model's treatment of formal and informal organizations as distinct entities may

oversimplify the complex interactions between these actors in the specific context of Borno. In

reality, the relationships between government agencies, NGOs, community networks, and local

leaders are intricate and multifaceted. The model's tendency to categorize these entities

separately might overlook the nuanced collaborations or tensions that influence the success or

failure of humanitarian interventions.

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2.3 Empirical Review

Sule and Sambo (2020) conducted an examination of the role of international humanitarian aid in

alleviating human suffering in Northeastern Nigeria, assessing both the successes and challenges

encountered in the process. The study utilized a combination of primary and secondary sources

of data. In-depth interviews were conducted with selected informants representing stakeholders

in the area of study to gather primary data, while secondary sources such as books, journal

articles, newspapers, and internet sources were also consulted. Content analysis was employed to

discuss, analyze, and interpret the obtained data, identifying and discussing key themes. The

research revealed that international humanitarian aid effectively prevented numerous disasters in

the Northeastern states of Adamawa, Borno, and Yobe. However, challenges persist, as a

significant number of people in critical need of assistance remain inaccessible due to security

concerns. The study recommends, among other things, the necessity for all stakeholders to

collaborate and harmonize their efforts to ensure the effective delivery of aid services to the

affected victims.

Inyang and Effiong, (2022) examined the humanitarian interventions in IDP camps, aiming to

evaluate the conditions of the internally displaced persons (IDPs) and the effectiveness of

government and other humanitarian organizations in addressing their needs. The paper also

explores the challenges faced by IDPs in the camps and the overall impact of displacement on

them. Employing both secondary and tertiary sources of data, the researchers utilized the

historical research method to gather and analyze information. The findings indicate that despite

interventions by the government and humanitarian agencies, the living conditions of IDPs remain

deplorable and vulnerable. The paper suggests that the government should take proactive

measures to prevent displacement, holding perpetrators accountable, reintegrating IDPs into

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society. Additionally, the study recommends collaboration between the government and

humanitarian organizations to provide comprehensive care and relief materials, addressing the

IDPs' needs related to shelter, education, food, health, clothing, and security.

Okunade, S. K., and Ogunnubi, O. (2022) explored the efforts of local and international actors in

dealing with a humanitarian crisis in a specific region and how it affects women and children.

They use a qualitative research model with a phenomenological case study approach. The

findings reveal that people in border communities are being neglected, and those in IDP camps

are in poor conditions due to uncoordinated responses from various stakeholders and the

Nigerian government's failure to fulfill its role in providing relief and coordinating humanitarian

solutions. The study suggests addressing corruption as a major problem so that government

agencies can effectively carry out their functions. It also emphasizes the need for UN agencies

and non-governmental organizations to work together, putting aside differences to create a

unified and sustainable approach to address the crisis.

The study by Pratiwi, (2020) discusses humanitarian intervention in Nigeria in response to Boko

Haram's attacks. The intervention was prompted by gross human rights violations in the area and

the government's inability to address them. Boko Haram's activities have led to a humanitarian

crisis in Nigeria, with the group aiming to replace the legitimate government with Sharia Law.

The paper covers three sub-chapters: the political and economic conditions in Nigeria, the

process of Boko Haram's attacks, and humanitarian intervention efforts by international actors

such as the African Union, some African countries, the United States, and various international

humanitarian agencies. The research method employed is a descriptive qualitative method, using

data from literature and internet studies. The study highlights that humanitarian intervention

comprises both military and socio-economic approaches. In 2020, the focus of humanitarian
 22

interventions shifted towards recovery in education, health issues, and assisting the shelter of

refugees.

Momoh, Z. E. K. E. R. I. (2018) conducted an assessment on the repercussions of the absence of

harmonization in humanitarian assistance by development partners on the reconstruction efforts

in North-Eastern Nigeria. This research employs a mixed-method approach, integrating both

qualitative and quantitative design supplemented by historical and descriptive analysis. The data

primarily derives from secondary sources, encompassing books, journals, official publications,

newspapers, magazines, and online resources. The analysis involves qualitative content analysis

alongside quantitative tools like tables, graphs, and percentage analysis. The study aligns with

the Oxfam model of development assistance. The findings indicate that the lack of harmonization

in humanitarian aid leads to the fragmentation of support from development partners, adversely

affecting the success of reconstruction efforts. The study recommends the establishment of a

joint donor basket, akin to the Joint Donor Basket (JDB) under the Democratic Governance for

Development (DGD) Project, to facilitate proper coordination of development partner support

and enhance effective implementation, ultimately achieving the desired impact.

Ariyo et al., (2020) conducted a cross-sectional survey study titled "Humanitarian Intervention,

Health Behavior, and Health Outcomes in Conflict-Affected North East Nigeria." The study

aimed to explore the health behavior and outcomes, including bathing, diarrhea, and sickness,

among children in conflict-affected communities in Northeastern Nigeria. The research analyzed

data from a pretested questionnaire administered to a randomly selected sample of 385 children

aged 7 to 18 years in six conflict-affected communities, utilizing descriptive and regression

analysis. The findings revealed that children from households benefitting from Water, Sanitation,

and Hygiene (WASH) intervention exhibited better environmental hygiene (39.4%) compared to
 23

those with no humanitarian intervention (10.5%) or those benefiting from non-WASH

interventions (10.3%). Positive associations were observed between environmental hygiene and

all measured outcomes. The study also highlighted the impact of food security and

socioeconomic status on the frequency of sickness among internally displaced children.

Although no significant differences in health outcomes were found across intervention groups,

the findings underscored the importance of children-oriented WASH programming with an

emphasis on environmental hygiene for households and communities. Additionally, the study

affirmed the significance of integrated multi-sectoral humanitarian interventions in enhancing the

health of crisis-affected children.

Gambo (n.d) conducted an assessment of the Boko Haram insurgency and the humanitarian crisis

in Nigeria, focusing on Borno State. Secondary data were utilized to address the research

objectives, primarily sourced from secondary data. Systematic content analysis was employed to

examine the impacts of the Boko Haram insurgency and the humanitarian crisis in Borno State.

The study revealed that the insurgency has resulted in an unprecedented humanitarian crisis,

significantly affecting the health sector, shelter, accommodation, and leading to food insecurity.

Malnutrition crisis, severe damage to primary healthcare services, and vital infrastructure were

also noted. The conflict caused the displacement of over 2.3 million people, turning them into

refugees and internally displaced persons. Challenges in government response included fund

diversion, lack of commitment, insecurity, and logistical issues. The study recommended

strengthening and equipping NEMA and SEMA to respond effectively to humanitarian

emergencies, ensuring the rights and privileges of IDPs are guaranteed through inclusive

government decisions and actions. The provision of financial support and the construction of

housing estates were suggested as precautionary measures to alleviate IDP challenges.

 24

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology employed to investigate the impact of humanitarian

interventions on the livelihoods of host communities in Borno State, focusing on the case study

of Maiduguri. The methodology includes the study area, research design, study population,

sample size determination, sampling technique, research instrument, research validity, reliability

assessment, data collection method, and data analysis techniques.

3.1 Study Area

The study is conducted in Borno State, Nigeria, with a specific focus on the city of Maiduguri.

Maiduguri serves as the capital and largest city of Borno State, making it an appropriate case

study location due to its significant population and the extensive humanitarian interventions

implemented in response to the challenges faced by the host communities. Borno State, located

in the North-East zone of Nigeria, shares borders with Yobe, Gombe, and Adamawa states, while

its eastern and northern boundaries form part of the national borders with Cameroon and Niger,

respectively. It also shares a border with Chad, making it the only Nigerian state bordering three

foreign nations. Named after the historic Borno Emirate, its capital is Maiduguri. Established in

1976 from the former North-Eastern State, it initially included the territory that is now Yobe

State. Despite being the second-largest state in Nigeria, following Niger State, Borno ranks as

the 11th most populous state, with an estimated population of around 5.86 million in 2016

(Olugbode, 2014).

Borno State's economy traditionally relied heavily on agriculture, particularly livestock and crop

farming. The state capital, Maiduguri, served as a crucial regional trade and service center (NCA,

2021). However, the Boko Haram insurgency significantly impacted the state's development,
 25

causing a decline in agriculture and the Human Development Index. The conflict has left a large

portion of the Borno population in need of essential provisions, with an estimated 800,000

people requiring humanitarian aid (Tayo, 2021). Borno is the epicenter of the Boko Haram

insurgency, experiencing numerous conflict-related incidents regularly, in contrast to fewer

occurrences in Yobe and Adamawa states. The direct violence against civilians, including the use

of explosive devices, remains a recurring issue in Borno. The state has a significant number of

internally displaced persons, with around 78% of them originating from Borno. Ongoing military

operations and threats suggest that further displacements may occur (Pulse, 2021; UNICEF,

2016).

3.2 Research Design

The research design for this study is a descriptive research design. This design allows for the

collection and analysis of data to describe the current situation, identify patterns, and make

interpretations regarding the relationship between humanitarian interventions and the livelihoods

of host communities.

3.3 Study Population

The study population comprises all residents aged 18 and above in Borno State. According to

estimated population figures from 2016, Borno State had a populace of approximately 5.86

million individuals (Olugbode, 2014). This population is considered representative of the host

communities affected by the Boko Haram insurgency and other challenges in the region.

3.4 Sample Size Determination

The sample size for this study will be determined using the Cochran formula. The formula is as

follows:

n = Z^2 * p * q / e^2
 26

Where:

n = sample size

Z = z-value corresponding to the desired confidence level (e.g., 95% confidence level is 1.96)

p = estimated proportion of the population (if unknown, use 0.5 for maximum variability)

q=1–p

e = desired margin of error (expressed as a proportion)

Assuming a 95% confidence level, a margin of error of 5%, and an estimated proportion of 0.5

(maximum variability), the sample size calculation becomes:

n = (1.96^2 * 0.5 * 0.5) / (0.05^2)

n = 384.16

Therefore, the sample size required for this study is approximately 384.

3.5 Sampling Technique

A random sampling technique will be employed to select respondents from the determined

sample size. This technique ensures that each member of the population has an equal chance of

being selected, minimizing selection bias and increasing the generalizability of the findings.

3.6 Research Instrument

The research instrument utilized in this study is a close-ended questionnaire. The questionnaire

consists of multiple-choice questions with response options provided in a box format, providing

a standardized approach to gather information on the impact of humanitarian interventions on

livelihoods. The questionnaire has been designed to collect data on demographics, livelihood

situation, awareness of interventions, and the perceived impact of interventions on various

aspects of livelihoods.

3.7 Research Validity and Reliability

 27

To ensure research validity, the questionnaire and research methodology will be reviewed and

validated by the supervisor. This process involves assessing whether the questionnaire

effectively measures the intended constructs and variables.

The reliability of the questionnaire will be assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, which

measures the internal consistency of the questionnaire items. A pilot study will be conducted

with a small sample of respondents to test the reliability of the questionnaire. The obtained data

will be analyzed using Cronbach's alpha to ensure that the questionnaire items are reliable and

consistent.

3.8 Data Collection Method

Data will be collected through the administration of the close-ended questionnaires to the

selected respondents. Three trained research assistants will be assigned to distribute and collect

the questionnaires on the same day, ensuring consistency in data collection procedures. The

research assistants will provide explanations and clarifications to respondents, if needed.

3.9 Data Analysis

Data analysis will involve both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics will be

used to summarize and interpret the collected data using frequency distributions. Inferential

statistics, t-tests, will be employed to test hypotheses and draw conclusions about the impact of

humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods of host communities in Borno State. The analysis

will be conducted using statistical software for social science (SPSS) to ensure accuracy and

reliability of the findings. The research hypothesis will be tested using chi-square.
 28

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results and Analysis

Table 1: Gender of Respondents

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid male 198 51.6 51.6 51.6
female 186 48.4 48.4 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 1 presents the gender distribution of respondents. Out of a total of 384 respondents, 198
(51.6%) identified as male, while 186 (48.4%) identified as female.

Table 2: Age of Respondents

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 18 – 24 52 13.5 13.5 13.5
25 – 34 52 13.5 13.5 27.1
35 – 44 121 31.5 31.5 58.6
45 – 54 122 31.8 31.8 90.4
55 and above 37 9.6 9.6 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 2 provides information about the age distribution of the respondents. The age groups and

their corresponding frequencies are as follows: 18-24 (52 respondents, 13.5%), 25-34 (52

respondents, 13.5%), 35-44 (121 respondents, 31.5%), 45-54 (122 respondents, 31.8%), and 55

and above (37 respondents, 9.6%).

 29

Table 3: Ethnic Group of Respondents

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Hausa 99 25.8 25.8 25.8
Fulani 89 23.2 23.2 49.0
Kanuri 121 31.5 31.5 80.5
Others 75 19.5 19.5 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 3 displays the ethnic group distribution of the respondents. The ethnic groups and their

corresponding frequencies are as follows: Hausa (99 respondents, 25.8%), Fulani (89

respondents, 23.2%), Kanuri (121 respondents, 31.5%), and Others (75 respondents, 19.5%).

Table 4:Religion of Respondents

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Christianity 57 14.8 14.8 14.8
African Traditional 84 21.9 21.9 36.7
Religion
Islam 151 39.3 39.3 76.0
Others 92 24.0 24.0 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 4 presents the religious affiliation of the respondents. The religions and their

corresponding frequencies are as follows: Christianity (57 respondents, 14.8%), African

Traditional Religion (84 respondents, 21.9%), Islam (151 respondents, 39.3%), and Others (92

respondents, 24.0%).
 30

Table 5:Length of Residence in Borno State

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Less than 1 year 102 26.6 26.6 26.6
1 - 5 years 83 21.6 21.6 48.2
6 - 10 years 104 27.1 27.1 75.3
More than 10 years 95 24.7 24.7 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 5 displays the length of residence in Borno State among the respondents. The categories

and their corresponding frequencies are as follows: Less than 1 year (102 respondents, 26.6%),

1-5 years (83 respondents, 21.6%), 6-10 years (104 respondents, 27.1%), and More than 10 years

(95 respondents, 24.7%).

Table 6: How would you describe the overall livelihood situation in Borno
State currently?
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Very poor 15 3.9 3.9 3.9
Poor 19 4.9 4.9 8.9
Good 278 72.4 72.4 81.3
Very good 72 18.8 18.8 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 6 presents the respondents' descriptions of the overall livelihood situation in Borno State

currently. The categories and their corresponding frequencies are as follows: Very poor (15

respondents, 3.9%), Poor (19 respondents, 4.9%), Good (278 respondents, 72.4%), and Very

good (72 respondents, 18.8%).

 31

Table 7: What are the main challenges faced by the host communities in Borno State in
terms of livelihoods?
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Limited access to basic 21 5.5 5.5 5.5
services (healthcare,
education, water, etc.)
Economic instability 25 6.5 6.5 12.0
and lack of income
opportunities
Destruction of 218 56.8 56.8 68.8
infrastructure
Displacement and loss 85 22.1 22.1 90.9
of property
Social disintegration 35 9.1 9.1 100.0
and community
tensions
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 7 provides insights into the main challenges faced by host communities in Borno State

regarding their livelihoods. The data reveals several significant challenges. Limited access to

basic services, such as healthcare, education, and water, was identified by 5.5% of respondents.

Economic instability and lack of income opportunities were reported by 6.5% of respondents.

The most prevalent challenge identified was the destruction of infrastructure, which was

mentioned by a significant majority of respondents (56.8%). Additionally, 22.1% of respondents

highlighted the issue of displacement and loss of property, while 9.1% expressed concerns about

social disintegration and community tensions. These findings indicate the multifaceted nature of

the challenges faced by host communities in Borno State, emphasizing the urgent need for

interventions to address infrastructure damage, restore basic services, and promote economic

stability and social cohesion.

 32

Table 8: The level of humanitarian interventions taking place in Borno

State is adequate
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 14 3.6 3.6 3.6
No 370 96.4. 96.4 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 8 indicates the respondents' perception regarding the adequacy of humanitarian

interventions taking place in Borno State. The data indicates that 3.6% of respondents believe

that the level of humanitarian interventions taking place in Borno State is adequate, while 96.4%

of respondents feel that it is not. This suggests that the majority of respondents have a negative

perception of the adequacy of the ongoing humanitarian efforts in Borno State. They believe that

more interventions or improvements are needed to adequately address the humanitarian situation.

These findings highlight the importance of further assessment and potential adjustments to

enhance the effectiveness and scale of humanitarian interventions in Borno State.

Table 9: Please specify the forms of humanitarian intervention you are aware of
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Provision of food aid 117 30.5 30.5 30.5
Healthcare services and 170 44.3 44.3 74.7
medical assistance
Education and skills 33 8.6 8.6 83.3
training programs
Shelter and housing 21 5.5 5.5 88.8
support
Livelihood support and 13 3.4 3.4 92.2
income generation
programs
 33

Infrastructure 17 4.4 4.4 96.6

rehabilitation and
development
Psychosocial support 13 3.4 3.4 100.0
and counseling
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 9 presents the forms of humanitarian intervention that respondents are aware of in Borno

State. The data reveals a range of interventions that the respondents have knowledge of. The

most frequently mentioned form of intervention is the provision of food aid, with 30.5% of

respondents indicating awareness of programs aimed at addressing food insecurity. Healthcare

services and medical assistance were mentioned by 44.3% of respondents, highlighting the

importance of addressing health-related challenges in the affected communities. Education and

skills training programs were mentioned by 8.6% of respondents, indicating the recognition of

the need to support education and skills development. Shelter and housing support, livelihood

support and income generation programs, infrastructure rehabilitation and development, and

psychosocial support and counseling were also mentioned by a smaller percentage of

respondents. These findings illustrate the diverse range of humanitarian interventions taking

place in Borno State, encompassing areas such as food security, healthcare, education, shelter,

livelihood support, infrastructure, and psychosocial well-being.

Table 10: Humanitarian interventions have improved access to basic services in the
host communities
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Disagree 21 5.5 5.5 5.5
Disagree 21 5.5 5.5 10.9
Agree 273 71.1 71.1 82.0
 34

Strongly Agree 69 18.0 18.0 100.0

Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 10 provides insights into the respondents' perception regarding the impact of humanitarian

interventions on improving access to basic services in the host communities. The data reveals

that a notable majority of respondents, 71.1%, agree that humanitarian interventions have

contributed to enhancing access to basic services. Furthermore, 18.0% of respondents strongly

agree with this statement, indicating a strong belief in the positive impact of these interventions.

However, a smaller percentage of respondents, 5.5% each, either disagree or strongly disagree

that humanitarian interventions have improved access to basic services. These findings suggest

that the majority of respondents acknowledge the positive effects of humanitarian interventions

in facilitating access to essential services in the host communities. It emphasizes the importance

of ongoing efforts to ensure that basic services such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure

are effectively provided and accessible to those in need.

Table 11: Humanitarian interventions have contributed to the economic stability and
income generation opportunities for host communities
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Disagree 19 4.9 4.9 4.9
Disagree 29 7.6 7.6 12.5
Agree 271 70.6 70.6 83.1
Strongly Agree 65 16.9 16.9 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023
 35

Table 11 examines the respondents' perception regarding the contribution of humanitarian

interventions to the economic stability and income generation opportunities for host

communities. The data indicates that 70.6% of respondents agree, and an additional 16.9%

strongly agree that humanitarian interventions have contributed to economic stability and income

generation opportunities. However, a small percentage of respondents hold a more skeptical view

or express disagreement. These findings highlight the perceived positive impact of humanitarian

interventions on the economic situation and income-generating opportunities for the host

communities.

Table 12: Humanitarian interventions have facilitated the rebuilding and

rehabilitation of infrastructure in the host communities
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Disagree 28 7.3 7.3 7.3
Disagree 27 7.0 7.0 14.3
Agree 266 69.3 69.3 83.6
Strongly Agree 63 16.4 16.4 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 12 presents the respondents' perception regarding the contribution of humanitarian

interventions to the rebuilding and rehabilitation of infrastructure in the host communities. The

data reveals that a majority of respondents, 69.3%, agree that humanitarian interventions have

played a role in the rebuilding and rehabilitation of infrastructure. Additionally, 16.4% of

respondents strongly agree with this statement, indicating a strong belief in the positive impact of

these interventions. However, a small percentage of respondents, 7.3% and 7.0% respectively,

either strongly disagree or disagree with the notion that humanitarian interventions have
 36

facilitated infrastructure rebuilding and rehabilitation. These findings suggest that a significant

proportion of respondents perceive that humanitarian interventions have played a beneficial role

in addressing the infrastructure needs of the host communities. It underscores the importance of

ongoing efforts to rebuild and rehabilitate infrastructure to enhance the overall recovery and

development of the affected areas.

Table 13: Humanitarian interventions have promoted social cohesion and community
integration among the host communities
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Disagree 40 10.4 10.4 10.4
Disagree 29 7.6 7.6 18.0
Agree 250 65.1 65.1 83.1
Strongly Agree 65 16.9 16.9 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 13 presents the respondents' perception regarding the promotion of social cohesion and

community integration through humanitarian interventions in the host communities. The data

reveals that a majority of respondents, 65.1%, agree that humanitarian interventions have played

a role in promoting social cohesion and community integration. Additionally, 16.9% of

respondents strongly agree with this statement, indicating a strong belief in the positive impact of

these interventions. However, a notable percentage of respondents, 10.4% and 7.6% respectively,

either strongly disagree or disagree with the notion that humanitarian interventions have fostered

social cohesion and community integration. These findings highlight the varying perceptions

among respondents regarding the impact of humanitarian interventions on social cohesion. While

the majority perceive positive effects, a significant minority expresses skepticism or

disagreement. Overall, the data suggests that humanitarian interventions have made significant
 37

contributions to fostering social cohesion and community integration in the host communities,

emphasizing the importance of continued efforts to promote unity and resilience among the

affected populations.

Table 14: Humanitarian interventions have enhanced the overall well-being and
quality of life of the host communities
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly Disagree 36 9.4 9.4 9.4
Disagree 25 6.5 6.5 15.9
Agree 261 68.0 68.0 83.9
Strongly Agree 62 16.1 16.1 100.0
Total 384 100.0 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 14 presents the respondents' perception regarding the enhancement of overall well-being

and quality of life in the host communities through humanitarian interventions. The data reveals

that a majority of respondents, 68.0%, agree that humanitarian interventions have played a role

in improving the overall well-being and quality of life. Additionally, 16.1% of respondents

strongly agree with this statement, indicating a strong belief in the positive impact of these

interventions. However, a notable percentage of respondents, 9.4% and 6.5% respectively, either

strongly disagree or disagree with the notion that humanitarian interventions have enhanced

overall well-being and quality of life. These findings highlight the varying perceptions among

respondents regarding the impact of humanitarian interventions on the well-being of the host

communities. While the majority perceive positive effects, a significant minority expresses

skepticism or disagreement. Overall, the data suggests that humanitarian interventions have

made substantial contributions to improving the overall well-being and quality of life in the host
 38

communities, underscoring the importance of ongoing efforts to address the needs and enhance

the lives of the affected populations.

4.2 Testing of Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis: There is no significant impact of humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods

of host communities in Borno State.

Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant impact of humanitarian interventions on the

livelihoods of host communities in Borno State.

Table 15: Case Processing Summary

Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
Livelihood_in_Borno_s 384 100.0% 0 0.0% 384 100.0%
tate_Mean *
Impact_of_Humanitaria
n_interventions_in_Bor
no_state_Mean
Source: Field survey, 2023

Table 16: Chi-Square Tests

Asymptotic
Significance
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 461.942a 78 .000
Likelihood Ratio 335.254 78 .000
Linear-by-Linear 158.419 1 .000
Association
N of Valid Cases 384
a. 85 cells (86.7%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is .00.
 39

Based on Table 15 and Table 16, the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative

hypothesis, indicating that there is a significant impact of humanitarian interventions on the

livelihoods of host communities in Borno State. The Chi-Square tests conducted on the data

reveal a significant relationship between the mean livelihood in Borno State and the impact of

humanitarian interventions in Borno State (p < .001). This suggests that there is a statistically

significant association between the two variables, supporting the hypothesis that humanitarian

interventions have a significant impact on the livelihoods of the host communities in Borno

State.

4.3 Discussion of Findings

The purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of humanitarian interventions on the

livelihoods of host communities in Borno State, focusing on Maiduguri as a case study. The

findings, derived from survey data, offer valuable insights into various aspects of the current

livelihood situation, challenges faced by host communities, perceptions of the adequacy of

humanitarian interventions, and the impact of these interventions on different aspects of

livelihood.

The overall livelihood situation in Borno State, as described by the respondents, reveals a mix of

opinions. While 72.4% of respondents characterized it as "Good," a significant portion (18.8%)

still considered it "Very good." However, it is noteworthy that 8.8% of respondents perceived the

livelihood situation as either "Poor" or "Very poor." These varying perspectives underscore the

complexity of the challenges faced by the communities and the need for nuanced interventions.

Table 7 sheds light on the main challenges faced by host communities, emphasizing the

multifaceted nature of the issues. The destruction of infrastructure emerges as a predominant

 40

challenge, with 56.8% of respondents highlighting its significance. The scale of displacement,

coupled with issues such as limited access to basic services and social disintegration, paints a

vivid picture of the multifaceted difficulties faced by communities in Borno State. This

underscores the urgent need for interventions focused on infrastructure rehabilitation and

development. Additionally, issues such as displacement, limited access to basic services, and

social disintegration further highlight the complexity of the challenges that host communities in

Borno State are grappling with.

The respondents' perception of the adequacy of humanitarian interventions, as depicted in Table

8, is overwhelmingly negative, with 96.4% expressing dissatisfaction. This major contrast

between the perceived inadequacy of interventions and the identified challenges urges a

reevaluation of the strategies employed, emphasizing the importance of community engagement

and feedback mechanisms to better align interventions with the actual needs and aspirations of

the affected populations.

Table 9 provides an overview of the various forms of humanitarian interventions known to the

respondents. The most recognized interventions include the provision of food aid (30.5%) and

healthcare services (44.3%). The diverse range of interventions, encompassing education,

shelter, livelihood support, infrastructure, and psychosocial support, highlights the

comprehensive approach required to address the multifaceted challenges faced by the host

communities.

The impact of humanitarian interventions on access to basic services, economic stability,

infrastructure rehabilitation, social cohesion, and overall well-being is explored in Tables 10 to

 41

14. While a majority of respondents perceive positive impacts in these areas, there is a

noteworthy minority expressing skepticism or disagreement. This underscores the need for

continuous monitoring and improvement of interventions to ensure their effectiveness in

enhancing the livelihoods of host communities.

The hypothesis testing in Tables 15 and 16 further strengthens the findings, indicating a

significant association between humanitarian interventions and livelihoods in Borno State. The

rejection of the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis suggests that there is a

statistically significant impact of humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods of host

communities in the region.

The findings of this study highlight the complex challenges faced by host communities in Borno

State and the varying perceptions regarding the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions. The

data underscores the importance of a comprehensive and adaptive approach to address the

multifaceted needs of the communities and improve their overall livelihoods. Ongoing efforts

should be guided by a continuous assessment of the impact of interventions, considering the

diverse challenges and opinions within the affected population.

 42

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of Findings

The research on the impact of humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods of host communities

in Borno State, with a focus on Maiduguri, is essential at this point in time. Borno State has

faced significant conflict and displacement, leading to severe disruptions in livelihoods.

Assessing the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions and understanding their impact is

crucial for improving the well-being of the affected communities. The summary of findings

includes:

1. The livelihood situation in Borno State, as perceived by respondents, varied with 72.4%

considering it "Good," 18.8% considering it "Very good," and 8.8% perceiving it as

"Poor" or "Very poor." This highlights the complexity of challenges faced by host

communities and the need for nuanced interventions.

2. The main challenges faced by host communities in Borno State include the destruction of

infrastructure, displacement, limited access to basic services, and social disintegration.

These multifaceted difficulties emphasize the urgent need for interventions focused on

infrastructure rehabilitation and development.

3. Respondents expressed overwhelming dissatisfaction (96.4%) with the adequacy of

humanitarian interventions, contrasting with the identified challenges. This underscores

the importance of community engagement and feedback mechanisms to align

interventions with the actual needs and aspirations of the affected populations.
 43

4. The most recognized forms of humanitarian interventions by respondents include food

aid (30.5%) and healthcare services (44.3%). Addressing the multifaceted challenges

requires a comprehensive approach encompassing education, shelter, livelihood support,

infrastructure, and psychosocial support.

5. While a majority of respondents perceived positive impacts of humanitarian interventions

on access to basic services, economic stability, infrastructure rehabilitation, social

cohesion, and overall well-being, a significant minority expressed skepticism or

disagreement. Continuous monitoring and improvement of interventions are necessary to

ensure their effectiveness in enhancing livelihoods.

6. Hypothesis testing indicated a significant association between humanitarian interventions

and livelihoods in Borno State, supporting the notion that these interventions have a

statistically significant impact on host communities' livelihoods.

Overall, the findings highlight the complex challenges faced by host communities in Borno State

and the importance of a comprehensive, adaptive approach to improve their livelihoods. Ongoing

efforts should consider the diverse challenges and opinions within the affected population and

include continuous assessment of intervention impact.

5.2 Implication of Findings

The theoretical implications of the findings underscore the necessity for a paradigm shift in the

conceptualization and execution of humanitarian interventions. The research highlights the

importance of integrating a dynamic, community-centric model into existing theoretical

frameworks. It suggests that humanitarian theories need to evolve beyond a traditional top-down

approach, emphasizing the significance of community participation, cultural sensitivity, and

continuous feedback loops. The identified dissonance between perceived needs and the efficacy
 44

of interventions signals a theoretical gap that can be addressed through a more participatory and

adaptive theoretical lens. This requires a reconceptualization of humanitarianism that places

communities at the forefront of decision-making processes, thereby enhancing the theoretical

foundations guiding interventions in conflict-affected regions.

From a practical perspective, the findings necessitate tangible adjustments in the design and

implementation of humanitarian interventions in Borno State. The research calls for a more

comprehensive and contextually nuanced approach that goes beyond immediate relief efforts.

Practical implications include the need for aid organizations to actively engage with local

communities, fostering partnerships that empower community members to actively shape and

participate in their recovery and development. Practical adaptations should also focus on

enhancing the diversity and awareness of interventions to address the multifaceted challenges

faced by host communities. Additionally, the overwhelmingly negative perception of

intervention adequacy signals the need for more transparent communication, accountability

mechanisms, and continuous monitoring to ensure that interventions align with the evolving

needs and expectations of the affected populations. In essence, the practical implications of the

findings call for a transformative reorientation of current practices to foster a more responsive,

inclusive, and sustainable humanitarian approach in Borno State.

5.3 Conclusion

In conclusion, the extensive examination of the impact of humanitarian interventions on the

livelihoods of host communities in Borno State, with Maiduguri as a focal point, reveals a

nuanced landscape of challenges, perceptions, and opportunities. The multifaceted nature of the

livelihood situation in Borno, as depicted in Table 6, is a testament to the diversity of

 45

experiences within the community. While a significant proportion perceives the overall

livelihood situation as "Good" or "Very good," a substantial minority identifies it as "Poor" or

"Very poor." This dichotomy underscores the necessity for tailored and adaptable interventions

that can address the distinct needs of various segments within the community.

The challenges delineated in Table 7 brings to limelight the level of adversities faced by host

communities, with the destruction of infrastructure taking center stage. The pervasive impact of

displacement, limited access to basic services, and social disintegration amplifies the urgency for

strategic interventions that go beyond immediate relief to address the root causes and foster

sustainable community resilience. It is evident that a comprehensive approach is indispensable,

encompassing infrastructure development, social cohesion initiatives, and targeted interventions

to restore access to essential services.

The findings further emphasize the critical need for a paradigm shift in the design and execution

of humanitarian interventions. The overwhelmingly negative perception of the adequacy of

current interventions, as depicted in Table 8, is a resounding call for reflection and recalibration.

The dissonance between community expectations and the perceived effectiveness of

interventions highlights the imperative for a participatory and community-centric approach. This

involves not only addressing immediate needs but also engaging communities in decision-

making processes to ensure interventions align with their aspirations, thereby fostering a sense of

ownership and sustainability.

In addressing the diverse forms of humanitarian interventions outlined in Table 9, it becomes

evident that the spectrum of challenges requires a holistic response. While certain interventions

like food aid and healthcare services garner more recognition, it is crucial to elevate awareness
 46

and understanding of the broader array of support available. This not only enhances the efficacy

of interventions but also empowers communities to actively participate in their own recovery and

development.

The examination of perceptions regarding the impact of interventions on access to basic services,

economic stability, infrastructure rehabilitation, social cohesion, and overall well-being, as

delineated in Tables 10 to 14, underscores the complexities inherent in gauging success. The

predominant positive perceptions are encouraging but necessitate a meticulous analysis of the

dissenting voices. This acknowledgment of varying perspectives underscores the dynamic nature

of community dynamics and the importance of an ongoing dialogue between aid organizations

and the communities they serve.

In validating the findings through hypothesis testing, as demonstrated in Tables 15 and 16, the

research establishes a statistically significant association between humanitarian interventions and

livelihoods in Borno State. The rejection of the null hypothesis underscores the transformative

potential of well-designed and effectively implemented interventions. However, it also

underscores the ongoing responsibility to refine strategies based on real-time feedback and

evolving community needs.

In a macroscopic perspective, the finding of this research provides a roadmap for the future of

humanitarian interventions in Borno State. It is imperative to transition from a prescriptive

approach to a collaborative, community-driven model that fosters resilience, empowerment, and

long-term sustainability. The identified challenges underscore the necessity for holistic solutions

that address not only immediate needs but also contribute to the broader goals of reconstruction,

rehabilitation, and community development. It is a clarion call for the humanitarian community
 47

to embrace adaptability, inclusivity, and community participation as core tenets, ensuring that

interventions are not only impactful but also resonate with the aspirations and realities of the host

communities in Borno State.

5.4 Recommendations

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made to various stakeholders

involved in humanitarian efforts in Borno State. Humanitarian organizations such as the UN,

World Bank, and the Red Cross, etc, should prioritize a paradigm shift towards a more

community-driven approach. This involves actively involving local communities in decision-

making processes, fostering cultural sensitivity, and ensuring that interventions are adequately

streamlined to meet community needs. Additionally, these organizations should focus on

enhancing the diversity and awareness of interventions, addressing not only immediate needs but

also the broader challenges faced by host communities.

The State Government of Borno and the federal government, particularly the President of

Nigeria, should collaborate with humanitarian organizations to establish a comprehensive and

adaptable framework for intervention. This involves actively engaging with local communities to

understand their needs and aspirations, establishing transparent communication channels, and

implementing accountability mechanisms to ensure the effective use of resources. The

government should prioritize infrastructure rehabilitation and development, address economic

instability, and promote social cohesion initiatives to facilitate long-term recovery and

development.

Community leaders in Borno State play a crucial role in facilitating the success of humanitarian

interventions. They should actively participate in the planning and implementation of

 48

interventions, acting as liaisons between the affected communities and humanitarian

organizations. Furthermore, community leaders should prioritize community education and

awareness programs to ensure that residents are well-informed about the diverse range of

interventions available and their potential benefits.

For the victims of the unrest in Borno State, the recommendation is to actively engage in

community-based support networks. Participating in decision-making processes, sharing

personal experiences, and collaborating with humanitarian organizations will empower victims

to actively shape their recovery journey. Additionally, victims should prioritize education and

skill-building programs to enhance their resilience and capacity for sustainable livelihoods.

Finally, researchers should continue to explore the evolving dynamics of humanitarian

interventions in conflict-affected regions, using Borno State as a case study. Research efforts

should focus on longitudinal studies that track the long-term impact of interventions, capturing

the complexities of community perceptions and needs over time. By generating in-depth and

context-specific knowledge, researchers can contribute valuable insights to enhance the

effectiveness and sustainability of future humanitarian endeavors in Borno State and beyond.
 49

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 54

APPENDIX I

QUESTIONNAIRE

Title: Questionnaire on the Impact of Humanitarian Interventions on the Livelihoods of

Host Communities in Borno State: A Case Study of Maiduguri

Section 1: Demographic Information

1. Age:

[ ] 18-24 [ ] 25-34 [ ] 35-44 [ ] 45-54 [ ] 55 and above

2. Sex:

[ ] Male [ ] Female

3. Religion:

[ ] Islam [ ] Christianity [ ] Traditional African Religion [ ] Other (please specify:

_______)

4. Length of residence in Borno State:

[ ] Less than 1 year [ ] 1-5 years [ ] 6-10 years [ ] More than 10 years

Section 2: Livelihoods in Borno State

Please select the most appropriate response for the following questions related to the livelihoods

of people in Borno State, focusing on the Boko Haram insurgency and other challenges they

face:

5. How would you describe the overall livelihood situation in Borno State currently?

[ ] Very poor [ ] Poor [ ] Good [ ] Very good

6. What are the main challenges faced by the host communities in Borno State in terms of

livelihoods? (Select all that apply)

[ ] Limited access to basic services (healthcare, education, water, etc.)

 55

[ ] Economic instability and lack of income opportunities

[ ] Destruction of infrastructure

[ ] Displacement and loss of property

[ ] Social disintegration and community tensions

[ ] Other (please specify: _______)

Section 3: Humanitarian Interventions in Borno State

Please select the most appropriate response for the following questions related to the forms of

humanitarian intervention in Borno State:

7. The level of humanitarian interventions taking place in Borno State is adequate

[ ] Yes [ ] No

8. Please specify the forms of humanitarian intervention you are aware of: (Select all that

apply)

[ ] Provision of food aid

[ ] Healthcare services and medical assistance

[ ] Education and skills training programs

[ ] Shelter and housing support

[ ] Livelihood support and income generation programs

[ ] Infrastructure rehabilitation and development

[ ] Psychosocial support and counseling

[ ] Other (please specify: _______)

Section 4: Impact of Humanitarian Interventions

Please select the most appropriate response for the following statements regarding the impact of

humanitarian interventions on the livelihoods of host communities in Borno State:

 56

9. Humanitarian interventions have improved access to basic services in the host

communities.

[ ] Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly Agree

10. Humanitarian interventions have contributed to the economic stability and income

generation opportunities for host communities.

[ ] Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly Agree

11. Humanitarian interventions have facilitated the rebuilding and rehabilitation of

infrastructure in the host communities.

[ ] Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly Agree

12. Humanitarian interventions have promoted social cohesion and community integration

among the host communities.

[ ] Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly Agree

13. Humanitarian interventions have enhanced the overall well-being and quality of life of

the host communities.

[ ] Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly Agree

Section 5: Additional Comments

Please provide any additional comments or insights regarding the impact of humanitarian

interventions on the livelihoods of host communities in Borno State.

Thank you for your participation!

 57

APPENDIX II

RELIABILITY
/VARIABLES=Livelihood_in_Borno_state1 Livelihood_in_Borno_state2
Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_State1 Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_State2
Impact_of_Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_State1
Impact_of_Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_State2
Impact_of_Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_State3
Impact_of_Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_State4
Impact_of_Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_State5
/SCALE('ALL VARIABLES') ALL
/MODEL=ALPHA
/STATISTICS=SCALE
/SUMMARY=TOTAL.

Reliability

Scale: ALL VARIABLES

Case Processing Summary

N %
Cases Valid 150 39.1
a
Excluded 234 60.9
Total 384 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha N of Items
.775 9
 58

Item-Total Statistics
Scale Corrected Cronbach's
Scale Mean if Variance if Item-Total Alpha if Item
Item Deleted Item Deleted Correlation Deleted
How would you 20.6733 20.476 .681 .734
describe the overall
livelihood situation in
Borno State currently?
What are the main 20.4800 19.231 .492 .748
challenges faced by the
host communities in
Borno State in terms of
livelihoods?
The level of 22.7267 24.965 -.066 .791
humanitarian
interventions taking
place in Borno State is
adequate
Please specify the 21.6867 17.143 .456 .771
forms of humanitarian
intervention you are
aware of
Humanitarian 20.7667 20.341 .559 .742
interventions have
improved access to
basic services in the
host communities
Humanitarian 20.8600 19.638 .638 .730
interventions have
contributed to the
economic stability and
income generation
opportunities for host
communities
 59

Humanitarian 20.9800 19.684 .541 .741

interventions have
facilitated the
rebuilding and
rehabilitation of
infrastructure in the
host communities
Humanitarian 21.0800 19.819 .464 .752
interventions have
promoted social
cohesion and
community integration
among the host
communities
Humanitarian 21.0933 20.488 .388 .764
interventions have
enhanced the overall
well-being and quality
of life of the host
communities

Scale Statistics
Std.
Mean Variance Deviation N of Items
23.7933 24.863 4.98629 9
 60

APPENDIX III

SET TLook=None Small=0.0001 SUMMARY=None THREADS=AUTO TFit=Both

DIGITGROUPING=No LEADZERO=No TABLERENDER=light.
CROSSTABS
/TABLES=Livelihood_in_Borno_state_Mean BY
Impact_of_Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_state_Mean
/FORMAT=AVALUE TABLES
/STATISTICS=CHISQ
/CELLS=COUNT
/COUNT ROUND CELL.

Crosstabs

Case Processing Summary

Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
Livelihood_in_Borno_s 384 100.0% 0 0.0% 384 100.0%
tate_Mean *
Impact_of_Humanitaria
n_interventions_in_Bor
no_state_Mean

Livelihood_in_Borno_state_Mean *
Impact_of_Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_state_Mean Crosstabulation
Count
Impact_of_Humanitarian_interventions_in_Borno_state_M
ean
1. 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 Tot
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 al
Livelihood_in_Borno_st 1. 1 0 1 0 2 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9
ate_Mean 00
2. 0 0 0 14 3 2 2 2 4 1 0 0 0 0 28
00
 61

2. 0 1 1 0 0 2 4 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 14
50
3. 0 1 6 6 8 10 31 6 14 1 0 1 0 0 21
00 1 1
3. 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 21 1 0 0 1 4 28
50
4. 0 0 0 0 2 0 5 2 26 3 4 1 3 47 93
00
4. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
50
Total 1 2 8 20 15 16 46 14 19 6 4 2 4 51 38
5 4

Chi-Square Tests
Asymptotic
Significance
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 461.942a 78 .000
Likelihood Ratio 335.254 78 .000
Linear-by-Linear 158.419 1 .000
Association
N of Valid Cases 384
a. 85 cells (86.7%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is .00.