MOI UNIVERSITY

LECTURE NOTES
BCT 321 - SURVEYING I

By OKUSIMBA George

gokusimba@gmail.com

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

SEPTEMBER 2016
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... ii
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... iii

Course Content ................................................................................................................................................................................. iii

Assessment ....................................................................................................................................................................................... iii
References ........................................................................................................................................................................................ iv
Work Plan.......................................................................................................................................................................................... iv
2. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND SCOPE OF SURVEYING ....................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Branches of Surveying ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Principles of Surveying ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Errors in Surveying ............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
3. DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS .................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Chain Surveying.................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Corrections to Linear Measurements ............................................................................................................................................... 12
4. LEVELLING ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

Definition and Terminologies ........................................................................................................................................................... 16

Equipment for Levelling ................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Principles in levelling ........................................................................................................................................................................ 18
General Procedure in Levelling ........................................................................................................................................................ 23
Applications of Levelling .................................................................................................................................................................. 25
5. ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS .................................................................................................................................................................................. 27

Principles of Angle Measurement .................................................................................................................................................... 27

Units of Angular Measurements ...................................................................................................................................................... 27
Measuring Angles............................................................................................................................................................................. 29
6. MAP/ENGINEERING PLAN READING ..................................................................................................................................................................... 32

Direction on Maps............................................................................................................................................................................ 32
Distances on Maps ........................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Area Measurement on Maps ........................................................................................................................................................... 34
Classification of maps....................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Map Scale......................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
7. RELIEF REPRESENTATION ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 40

Units of Vertical Measure................................................................................................................................................................. 40

Height Representation ..................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Shape Representation ...................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Surface Representation .................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Relief Interpretation......................................................................................................................................................................... 44
8. SETTING OUT ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 45

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Setting Out Using Coordinates ......................................................................................................................................................... 47
Setting Out Using Grids .................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Setting Out Buildings ........................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Controlling Verticality ...................................................................................................................................................................... 51

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1. INTRODUCTION

Course Content
 Basic Principles and Scope of Surveying: Introduction, working from whole to part; scientific
honesty; checks on field observations; errors and misclosures in surveys; economy of
accuracy; accuracy and precision; branches of surveying.
 Distance Measurements-linen, steel tapes, chain: effects of misalignment, slope,
temperature, tension & standardisation and their correction; chain surveying instruments;
survey lines and offsets; errors in chain surveying;
 Levelling: principles in levelling; ordinary and digital spirit levelling; use and criteria for
selecting levelling datum; collimation error; temporary and permanent bench marks-
construction and use; field observation and reduction of levels; various checks in
observations; uses of tertiary levelling.
 Angular Measurements- Theodolites, Magnetic Compass: Units of angular measurements;
Surveyor’s prismatic compass; angle observation with theodolite;
 Map/Engineering Plan Reading: different types of maps and their uses; map scale; map
symbology; map series and use of map catalogues; establishment of reference directions-
true, grid & magnetic north and the relationship between them; map
reading/interpretation;
 relief representation-contours; cross sections; longitudinal sections
 setting out of engineering structures-roads, sewers, buildings etc

Assessment
SNo. Item Marks
1 Examination 70
2 Course Work (CATs, Practicals, 30
Assignments)
Total 100
Pass Mark 40

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References
(i) Bannister, A., Raymond, S., Baker, R. 1998: Surveying. 7th Ed. Pearson Education.
(ii) Irvine, W., Maclennan, F. 2006: Surveying for Construction. 5th Edition. McGraw-Hill.
(iii) Alak, D. 2000: Plane Surveying. First Edition. S. Chand & Company Ltd
(iv) Robinson, A.H., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimerling, A.J., Guptill, S.C. 1995: Elements of
Cartography, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons.

Work Plan
Period Week Unit Content

12/09/2016-16/09/2016 1 Introduction; Basic Principles and Scope of Surveying

19/09/2016-23/09/2016 2 Distance Measurement

26/09/2016-30/09/2016 3 Distance Measurement

03/10/2016-07/10/2016 4 Levelling

10/10/2016-14/10/2016 5 Levelling

17/10/2016-21/10/2016 6 Angular Measurements

24/10/2016-28/10/2016 7 Map Reading

31/10/2016-04/11/2016 8 CAT 1/Assignment 1

07/11/2016-11/11/2016 9 Relief Representation

14/11/2016-18/11/2016 10 Relief Representation

21/11/2016-25/11/2016 11 Setting Out Engineering Structures

28/11/2016-02/12/2016 12 Setting Out Engineering Structures

05/12/2016-09/12/2016 13 Practicals/Revision/ CAT 2/Assignment 2

12/12/2016-16/12/2016 14 Examinations

19/12/2016-23/12/2016 15 Examinations

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2. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND SCOPE OF SURVEYING

Introduction
Surveying may be defined as the science, art and technology of determining the relative
positions of points above, on or beneath the earth’s surface or of establishing such points. It is a
discipline which encompasses (include) all methods for measuring and collecting information
about the physical earth and our environment, processing that information, and disseminating a
variety of resulting products graphically or numerically to a wide range of clients.
The International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) made the following definition for surveying:
1) Determination of the size and shape of the earth and measurement of all data needed to
define the size, position, shape, and contour of any part of the earth.
2) Positioning of objects in space, and positioning and monitoring of physical features,
structures, and engineering works on, above, or below the surface of the earth.
3) Determination of the positions of boundaries of public or private land, including national
and international boundaries, and registration of those lands with appropriate authorities.
4) Design, establishment, and administration of land and geographic information systems, and
the collection, storage, analysis and management of data within those systems.
5) Study of the natural and social environment, measurement of land and marine resources,
and the use of the data in planning of development in urban, rural, and regional areas.
6) Planning development, and re-development of property, whether urban or rural and
whether land or buildings.
7) Assessment of value and the management of property, whether urban or rural and whether
land or buildings.
8) Planning, measurement, and management of construction works, including estimation of
costs.
9) Production of maps, files, charts, and reports.

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Branches of Surveying
Surveying is classified based on:
a) Size of the earth’s surface being surveyed-this is the primary classification survey; geodetic
and plane surveying
b) Purpose of the surveys; Engineering, Military, Mine, Archaeological, Geological, GIS
c) Nature of survey field; Land (cadastral, topographical), Hydrographical, Astronomical
d) Framework/Control network of survey; Triangulation, Traverse
e) Instruments employed; Chain, Compass, Plane table, Tacheometric, Theodolite,
Photographic/Photogrammetry/Aerial

Geodetic Surveying
In this type of surveying, large areas of the earth’s surface are involved and the earth’s
curvature is taken into account. Used for establishing control networks for countries, continents
and regions and the measurements are usually taken to the highest standards and accuracies
possible. Satellite positioning systems are commonly used for these types of surveys. The study
of the size and shape of the earth and its gravity field is called geodesy. Consider two points A
and B on the surface of the earth and a section through A, B and the centre of earth. Line AB
lying on surface of earth becomes an arc of a circle and the straight line AB is a chord. The length
of arc AB is more than the length of chord AB. The difference between the two becomes lesser
and lesser as the angle subtended by the arc AB at the centre of the earth decreases. If arc AB is
that small so that we can neglect the difference from the consideration of the accuracy in which
the details are to be incorporated in the drawing, we can take AB as a straight line. In the survey
of an area where maximum length of measurement cannot exceed this magnitude of length AB,
the earth’s curvature may be neglected and it is not required to be considered in any
computation. Such surveying is called Plane Surveying. The survey where curvature of the earth
cannot be neglected and has to be taken into consideration is called geodetic surveying.

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Plane Surveying
In this type of survey, the earth is normally considered as flat and relatively small areas are
under consideration. Measurements plotted will represent the projection on the horizontal
plane of the actual field measurements. A horizontal plane is normal to the direction of gravity
as defined by plumb bob at a point, but owing to the earth’s curvature such a plane will in fact
be tangential to the earth’s surface at the point.

Topographic Surveys
Topographic surveying is used to collect the data required to draw a topographic map and plans.
In a plan, detail is drawn such that it is true to scale while on a map, features have to be
represented by symbols, the scale being too small. A topographic map is a three-dimensional
drawing of the Earth’s surface. Topographic maps are very useful for planning and preliminary
design work. Height information is added either as spot heights or as contours. Plans are mostly
used for engineering design and administration purposes only while maps have a multitude of
uses-navigation, exploration etc.

Engineering Surveys
These embrace all survey work required before, during and after any engineering works.
Topographic maps/plans are required for design. Setting out of the new item for construction on
the ground requires surveying.

Land/Cadastral Surveys
These are undertaken to produce plans of property boundaries for legal purposes. In many
countries, the registration of ownership of land is based on such plans.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

A GIS is a computer based information system that provides the following set of capabilities for
handling spatially referenced land related data and information: (i) data input; (ii) data
management; (iii) data manipulation, analysis and modeling; (iv) data and information out and
dissemination. The spatial nature of the data means that one of the layers will be a digital map
and the collection of data and its superposition onto the map has become an important branch
of surveying.

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Hydrographical Surveys
This survey concerns with the mapping of information on water bodies such as mapping the
bathymetric contours under them.

Astronomical Survey
This concerns itself with the determination of the absolute location of a place on the surface of
the earth or the absolute direction of any line on it with the help of observation on heavenly
bodies such as the determination of true meridian of a place from the observation on sun or
polaris i.e. pole star in the night observation.

Military surveys
They aim at locating strategic points of military importance

Mine surveys
They are undertaken for exploring the mineral wealth from beneath the earth.

Geological surveys
These are carried out for the geological investigation on the earth’s crust.

Archaeological surveys
These aim at unearthing the relics of antiquities.

Principles of Surveying
a) Working from ‘whole’ to ‘part’ and never from ‘part’ to ‘whole’: consider two points A and
B. We are interested in measuring the distance AB with a tape graduated in meters and
centimeters. Zero of the tape is taken near to A and B comes somewhere between 2m 3cm
and 2m 4cm. One will record the distance to be 2m 3cm or 2m 4cm depending upon which
graduation is nearer to B. An error in the measurement within 0 to 1cm will exist but it can
never be 0cm or 1cm because even the graduation itself has some thickness. This error can
be reduced by reducing the minimum graduation from 1cm to 1mm but it can never be
eliminated.

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 B
With every measurement some error is always associated. Consider
line AB in the field with respect to which the points M and N are to be
located. This can be done in two ways: (i) measure OM and ON and
(ii) measure OM and MN. For (i), the error in the measurement of OM
will shift the point M to M’ and the error in measurement of ON will
shift point N to N’. The shift due to the error in measurement in
distance of one point M is not going to affect the position of N which
will be shifted to position N’ due to the error in measurement of ON
only. Here distortion remains localised. For (ii), the shift of M to M’ O
will add up to the error in the measurement of MN to find the shift of
N to N’. Shift of M is going to affect the position of N in the map. M M’ N N’

In (i), measurement is being taken from line AB, i.e. the whole to M
and N, the parts. In (ii), the whole measurement ON is being obtained
by adding up the part measurements OM and MN. It is a cardinal
principle in surveying to ‘work from whole to part always and never
from part to whole’ to prevent propagation of errors and keep the
distortion of the map to a minimum.
A

b) Control: each survey is to be provided with an accurate control framework with the lower
order work (detail and heighting) being fitted and adjusted to the control framework.

B B B B B

N M M M M M

A A A A A

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

In figures above, several methods of locating a point M with respect to the side
of a framework are presented. A and B are two convenient points on the line:
In fig. (a), the point M can be located if the length of the perpendicular MN is
known.
In fig. (b), the point M can be located if the length BM and angle ABM are known.
In fig. (c), the point M can be located if the lengths AM and BM are known.
In fig. (d), the point M can be located if angles ABM and BAM are known.
In fig. (e), the point M can be located if BM and angle BAM are known.

c) Economy of Accuracy: the standard of accuracy aimed at should be appropriate to the needs
of the particular task. As a general rule, the higher the standards of accuracy the higher the
cost on time and money.
d) Consistency: the relative standards of accuracy of the various classes of work (control, detail
and heighting) should be consistent throughout survey task. Details will be measured to a
lower standard of accuracy than the control framework to which it is fitted.

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e) Independent Check: survey work should be self checking or provided with independent
checks.
f) Revision: Surveys should be planned in such a way that later revisions or extensions may be
carried out without the necessity of having to carry out a complete re-survey.
g) Safe Guarding: results of survey work (markers, field and office documents) should as far as
possible be kept intact for possible use at a later date e.g. revision survey.

Errors in Surveying
Measurements/Observations in surveying refer to both the process as well as the actual
outcome of such a process. In surveying, such observations/measurements may have the
following purposes:
 Determination of the size and shape of the earth;
 Mapping a portion of the earth’s surface;
 Setting out construction works etc.
If the quantity that is measured is completely determinable then what we get from (a set of)
observations is an estimate of the true value. If  is the true value of a quantity and  is the
observed value, then the error in  is given by =-.

Types of Errors
Errors are classified based on their characteristics and there are basically three types of errors:

Gross Errors (Mistakes)

These are a result of blunders or mistakes that are due to carelessness of the observer. Mistakes
are the most serious of all the errors and they must be removed. Causes and examples of gross
errors are:
a) Misunderstanding of what one is doing;
b) Misreading of value;
c) Errors in transcription of data;
d) Arithmetic mistakes e.g. misplaced decimal point.
For most survey measurements there are observational procedures that help to detect and
eliminate mistakes. Such procedures include:
Careful checking of all entries of observations;

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 Repeated readings of the same quantity;
Verifying recorded data;
Use of common sense;
Independent repeated checks and mathematical checking for consistency

Systematic Errors
These errors arise from some physical phenomenon or some (systematic) tendency on the part
of the observer, the instrument used, the environment (natural conditions) during observations
or a combination of these factors. Systematic errors may be eradicated if the laws governing
these contributory factors are known. A systematic error follows a pattern which will be
duplicated if the measurement is made under the same conditions. A systematic error is
referred to as a constant error if its magnitude and sign remain the same throughout the
measurement process. Examples and causes of systematic errors are:
 Incorrect (or unjustified) assumed calibration of instrument or failure to correct for
standardisation;
 Imperfect measurement techniques, e.g. one-sided illumination of a scale or target;
 Failure to make necessary corrections (because of simplification of the model used in the
adjustment), e.g. neglecting the refraction effect;
 Bias by the observer, e.g. more or less constant parallax, personal equation etc
 Construction faults in the instrument e.g. mis-aligned parts.
In the reduction of survey measurements, it is important to detect and correct for all possible
systematic errors before use in computations. Thus systematic errors have to be eliminated
before measurement by calibrating the instruments, during measurement by adopting special
observational techniques and after measurement by correcting for them computationally.
Random Errors
These are errors that remain after blunders have been detected and removed and corrections
have been made for all known systematic errors. They are errors of no known functional
relationship and thus are of the greatest concern in statistical analysis of measurements.
Characteristics of random errors include:
 A positive error will occur as frequently as a negative error;
 Small errors will occur more frequently than large errors;
 Very large errors will not occur at all, or the chances for this to occur are very remote.

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The common examples/cases of random errors are:
 Deviation or statistical fluctuation as the difference between a single measured value
and the best value of a set of observations;
 Difference between the arithmetic mean as determined from a certain number of
random trials and the true mean if known;
 Accumulation of elementary errors that are imagined to exist e.g. extremely small
disturbances and fluctuations in the measuring system; from human judgement-
interpolation beyond the smallest division of scale; uncertainty in the definition of
quantity being measured-measurement of length whose end points are not known.
While systematic errors tend to be cumulative, random errors on the other hand tend to be
compensative.

Precision and Accuracy

A discrepancy is the difference between two observed values of the same quantity. A small
discrepancy indicates there are probably no mistakes and random errors are small.
Precision refers to the degree of refinement or consistency of a group of observations, and is
evaluated on the basis of discrepancy size. If multiple observations are made of the same
quantity and small discrepancies result, this indicates high precision. The degree of precision
attainable is dependent on equipment sensitivity and observer skill.
Accuracy denotes the absolute nearness of observed quantities to their true values.

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3. DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

Introduction
Horizontal distances may be determined by direct or indirect methods. Direct measurement
involves finding the length by comparing it with something of known length e.g. wooden rod, a
rope, steel measuring tape etc. Indirect measurement means deducing the length of a line from
measurement of other quantities e.g. optical and electromagnetic distance measurements.
Before 17th C, lines were measured using wooden rods or knotted ropes, then chains and later
steel tapes. As the chain was the standard instrument for so long, surveys based on linear
measurements were termed as chain surveys.
The chain being obsolete, surveys based on direct distance measurement are often termed as
linear surveys or sometimes tape & off-set surveys.

Chain Surveying
A chain is a device for taking linear measurements. Surveys that are accomplished by taking
linear measurements only are called linear, tape & off-set or chain surveying.
The current typical metric chain is 20m in length and consists of 100 steel wire links, each of
which is joined to its neighbours by three oval rings. Swivelling brass handles are fitted to each
end of the chain and its total length is measured from the outside of one handle to the outside
of the other.

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Since the chain bears no graduation marks, red numbered tallies are attached at every 5m, and
plain plastic tallies are fitted at single meter intervals. The chain may be used to measure in any
direction, is robust and is used today for laying grids for levelling spot heights. A chainage figure
may be read by estimation to 0.05m, but in practice measurements are often correct only to
1:500 or less showing that the chain is not a very accurate measuring instrument.

Principles of Chain Surveying

 The whole of the area to be surveyed is divided up in to a skeleton of framework
consisting a number of well conditioned triangles;
 Details are to be located with respect to the sides of the triangles or any other
subsidiary lines running between the sides by taking offsets.

Planning for a Chain Surveying Exercise

When planning for a chain surveying exercise, one should base judgement on minimum labour
to produce a map with the required details and minimum distortion. The following should be
taken into consideration:
There should not be any obstruction to the laying of chain along the framework, taking of
measurements and inter-visibility along the lines of the framework. This can be
accomplished through a reconnaissance;
Consider one long line/baseline through centre of the area on which well conditioned
triangles should be based. It also prevents relative rotation of triangles due to errors when
plotting;
Lines should run close to details which are to be described with respect to them by taking
offsets;
Always avoid long offsets;
Have additional lines for checking the accuracy of the measurements.

Chain Surveying Instruments

Tapes: the following four tapes are used in surveying.
o Linen tape: made of densely woven linen cloth 12mm-15mm in width. Length varies
from 10m-30m. May be used to take short lateral measurements. Shrinks with change
of humidity, pull can bring about extension of its length and it’s not sufficiently strong.

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 o Steel tape: made of thin strip of steel, 6mm-10mm in width and available in different
varying length. The tape is graduated at the interval of 5mm, 1cm, 1 decimetre and a
meter.
o Invar tape: invar is an alloy of 64% steel and 36% nickel and has very low coefficient of
thermal expansion. Invar tape is 6mm wide and is available in different varying length to
suit different works of measurements. Error due to fluctuation of temperature is
reduced to small value and is used for works of high precision. It is only employed in the
measurement of baseline of triangulation survey.
Ranging pole and Offset rod: ranging rods, ranging poles and offset rods are differentiated as
below.
o Ranging rod: 2m -3m in length, made of well seasoned wood into a rod of 300mm in
diameter or a straight bamboo alternately painted red and white/ black and white. The
rod is provided with an iron shoe at its bottom and carries a red and white/ yellow and
white flag to make it conspicuous from a distance.
o Ranging poles: ranging rods with longer lengths varying from 4m-6m. Employed to range
long lines on undulatory grounds.
o Offset rod: same as ranging rod but flag replaced by stout iron ring or a hook for pulling
or pushing the chain. Employed to take short offsets in ordinary work.
Other instruments that are required to carry out a chain survey include pegs, plumb bob,
hammer, optical square, compass and field book.
Ranging Using Rods
Ranging a line means establishing intermediate points on a line.

B
A C
Vertical projection of the
rods at A, B, C
A C B

Ranging a line

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In the figure above, the line AB is to be ranged. At A and B, two ranging rods are to be driven
vertically with the help of a plumb bob. If the rods at A and B are truly vertical, the surveyor
standing about 2m behind A and looking along line AB will find the vertical projection of the rod
at B hiding behind the vertical projection of the rod at A. One may miss the vision if they stand
very close to rod A. A person with a ranging rod is send to stand on the line AB at a distance less
than one chain length from A. the surveyor advise the person through hand signals to put the
rod vertically on line AB till he finds with his one eye closed and looking a long AB both the
vertical projections of the rods hiding behind that of the rod A. the point C will then lie on line
AB. This way, the other points may be ranged out.

Corrections to Linear Measurements

The following corrections are to be applied to linear measurements with a chain or a tape where
such accuracy is required:
 Pull correction;
 Standard length correction;
 Slope correction;
 Temperature correction;
 Sag correction;

Pull Correction
A chain/tape of nominal length L with a cross sectional area A and standardised under a pull Ps is
used to measure a length at a pull Pf. If young’s modulus of elasticity of material is E, the
extension of its length is
( )

The recorded length is less than the actual by this extension. The error is –ve and thus the
correction is +ve. If Pf is less than Ps, the error will be +ve and the correction –ve.

Temperature Correction
A chain/tape of nominal length L with a cross sectional area A and standardised at a
temperature Ts is used to measure a length at a temperature Tf.  being the coefficient of linear
expansion of material of chain/tape per unit rise in temperature, the extension = (Tf-Ts)L. If Tf is
more than Ts, the recorded length is less than the actual by the amount of extension. The error

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is –ve and the correction to the length L is +ve. If the field temperature Tf is less than Ts, the
error is +ve and the correction is –ve.

Standard Length Correction

With the use of chain/tape, the length shortens or extends by an amount depending on nature
and extent of deformation. If such a deformation is an extension by x of the nominal length L,
the error for standard length is –ve and the correction to be applied is +ve.

Sag Correction
In the case of suspended measurements across a span L the chain/tape sag to take the form of a
curve called catenary. The length or tape along the curve between the supports may be
approximated as

Where W is weight of chain/tape between the supports; P is the pull at its end. The correction
for sag is –ve the error being +ve by an amount L/24(W/P)2

Slope Correction
When a length L is measured a long a sloping ground with angle of slope Ø the length measured
is more than the actual by an amount L(1-cos Ø). The error is +ve and the correction –ve.
Example:
A steel tape was exactly 30m long at 20oC when supported throughout its length under a pull of
15kg. A line was measured with a pull of 10kg applied to the tape at a mean temperature of 13oC
and found to be 810m long. The cross sectional area of the tape was 0.03 cm2, total weight of
the tape was 0.65kg,  for steel is 11x10-6 per oC and E for steel is 2.1x106 kg/cm2. Compute the
true length of the line if the tape was supported during measurement (i) at every 30m and (ii) at
every 15m.
Solution:
We are given:
 Chain’s nominal length L as 30m
 Temperature of standardisation Ts as 20oC;
 Pull at standardisation Ps as 15kg;

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  Pull at field measurement Pf as 10kg;
 Temperature at field measurement Tf as 13oC;
 Measured length as 810m;
 Elasticity E of steel as 2.1x106 kg/cm2;
 Cross sectional area A of tape as 0.03 cm2;
 Weight of tape W as 0.65kg;
 Coefficient of linear expansion of steel  as 11x10-6 per oC
(i) When supported at every 30m length:
Increase in length due to pull = (10-15)30/0.03x2.1x106
=-0.00238m
Increase in length due to change in temperature= 11x10-6(13-20)30
=-0.00231
Sag correction= - (30/24) x (0.65/10)2
=-0.00528m
Total correction=-0.00238-0.00231-0.00528
=-0.00997
The actual length for the measured length of 30m= 30-0.00997=29.99m
True length for the 810m measured length = (29.99x810)/30=809.730m

Exercise: Compute the true length of the 810m line if the tape is supported at every 15m
length.

Errors in Chain Surveying

There are basically three sources of errors:
o Personal: arise as a result of the carelessness of the observer
o Instrumental: due to defects in the instruments being used
o Natural: due to changes in natural phenomena that may affect the functioning of the
instrument.

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Field Book Recording
The field book for chain surveying has two parallel blue lines running centrally through all the
pages parallel to their length. Recording starts from the bottom of the last page of the book.
Initial recording should include: date; name of survey site; nominal length of chain.
A reconnaissance mission should result in a sketch showing survey lines and stations together
with conspicuous features. As the survey proceeds along the chain, the recording will be done
within the space between the lines from bottom upwards. The corresponding offsets are written
to the left or right as the case may be in the field.

Plotting a Survey from Field Book Recording

 Depending on scale, length of the longest line of the framework is to be ascertained. This
helps in deciding size of drawing sheet to be used;
 Fix drawing sheet on drawing board;
 Orient the map such that the north line points more or less in upwards; draw the longest
line to scale;
 Draw the framework completely;
 From the recording of the field book along the different lines of the framework, the points
are marked according to the chainage and offset. Through those points, detailed features
on the ground surveyed are drawn on the map in their proper conventional symbols.
 The map should be made complete in all respects i.e. include all the key map elements-
scale, title, legend, date etc.

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4. LEVELLING

Definition and Terminologies

It is the operation required in the determination /comparison of heights of points on surface of
earth. Heights are given with respect to a plane called datum. For topographic work, the datum
is the mean sea level.
Information on relative height positions of various points on earth’s surface is a prerequisite to
the successful planning and execution of any engineering project such as roads, railways,
bridges, canals, dams, sewerage and drainage works etc.
Level of a Point
The level of a point is its distance from the centre of the earth. If the earth is approximated as a
spheroid, then the centre of gravity of the earth coincides with the centre of spheroid. A level
surface is therefore a surface joining points of the same level on the surface of the earth.
A level line is any line connecting any two points on the level surface and any point on the level
line has the same level. The level line is curved having its level equal to the distance of any point
lying on it from centre of the earth. A horizontal line is tangential to the level line at any
particular point because it is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at that particular point. For
short distances (arcs), the level line is straight and horizontal being tangential to the spherical
level surface. A line passing through any point on the level line to the centre of the earth is
called a vertical line (plumb line) and it’s the direction of a freely suspended plumb bob.

16
Reduced Level and Datum
In the figure below, the level of B may be determined from the measurement of BD if the level
of A is known. This is the reduced level of B sine it is determined with respect to the height/level
of a known point A.
A datum is any level surface of reference chosen with respect to which all levels of other points
may be referred by measuring vertical distances of the points above or below the surface. The
reduced level of the datum is zero. The mean sea level is chosen as the universal datum.

G H J

B
E

D
Bench Marks
Throughout a country, there are fixed points whose reduced level are determined and kept
recorded with reference to the datum. The point of which its reduced level is known is called a
Bench Mark. Permanent bench marks may be found on the plinth of buildings, underside of any
slab or underside of any girder of railway bridges, along trunk roads or railway trucks. They are
normally recorded on topographic maps covering a given country. All levelling works not being
complete in a day the work has to be resumed the next day and the work may proceed from the
last point the reduced level of which was determined the previous day. Such a point is called a
temporary bench mark.

Equipment for Levelling

The basic equipment required in levelling is:
The Level; a devise that gives a truly horizontal line
The levelling Staff; suitably graduated for reading vertical heights

17
 Other equipment to enable points levelled to be located relative to each other on the
map/plan.

Principles in levelling
 The levelling device (level) must be set up such that its longitudinal axis is at right angles to
the direction of gravity. This way, then the line of sight will be horizontal. Older instruments
used plumb bob which has since been replaced by a spirit level.
 The difference in the readings on the vertically held graduated staff where it is intersected
by the horizontal line of sight is a direct measure of the difference in height between the
two staff stations.

Elements of Surveyor’s Level

18
From the figure above show the basic parts of a surveyor’s level:
 1,2,3 are the three tripod legs;
 3a is a triangular plate fixable on the top of tripod or detachable from the stand;
 4,5,6 are three foot screws;
 7 is a magnetic compass for measurement of bearing where necessary;
 8 is screw for holding magnifying lens;
 9 is the eye piece;
 10 the object glass of telescope covered by a detachable sun shade marked 11. The shade is
used under blazing sun;
 12 is milled headed screw for focussing;
 13 is one of the four capstan screws holding the cross hairs in position inside the telescope;
 14 is the spirit level with graduations;
 15 is a cross level smaller in size not graduated;
 16 is the triangular base on tripod;
 17 is tribrach.
The Levelling Staff
Staffs used for ordinary levelling work are sectional and are assembled telescopically or by
slotting onto one another vertically. They are manufactured in aluminium alloy although those
made of mahogany are also available. They are normally 3, 4 or 5m in length and graduated with
the graduation marks taking E shape. The first meter is graduated in white followed by the
second in black, alternating in this manner.
Surveyor’s Level
Four basic types of level can be distinguished;
a) The dumpy level;
b) Tilting level;
c) Automatic level and;
d) Digital levels
Exercise: differentiate amongst the above four types of levels

19
Temporary adjustments for level
These are adjustment made to the level in readiness for observations. There are basically three
phases:
 Setting up of the level: set up the tripod at a convenient height; set the level on the tripod
stand by screwing it or clamping it in the slot of the tribrach; bring the foot screws to the
middle of their run; using one of the legs of tripod, bring the bubble in the tube on the
tribrach in the centre of its run; lock the legs of the tripod.
 Levelling up the level: at this stage, the vertical axis of the instrument is rendered truly
vertical; the telescope axis is placed parallel to the line joining one pair of foot screws; both
screws are rotated simultaneously by moving them equally inwards or outwards till the
bubble of the spirit level on the telescope is brought to the centre of its run; the telescope
axis is placed perpendicular to its previous position i.e. perpendicular to line 1-2; the third
foot screw is rotated to bring the bubble of spirit level on telescope to the centre of its run;
steps 1-4 may have to be repeated several times before the bubble of the spirit level on the
telescope remains central for all positions of the telescope when the vertical axis of the
instrument becomes truly vertical.

 Adjustment for clear vision and elimination of parallax: focus the eye piece against a white
background of sky, white paper/cloth. The eye piece is looked through and is moved in or
out till the cross hairs look clear and conspicuous through the eye piece; focus the objective
by directing it to the staff held vertically on a point for reduced level. Rotate the focusing
screw of telescope till the real inverted image of the staff is formed on the plane of the
diaphragm when there will be no relative movement between the image and the cross hairs
as seen through the eye piece while moving the eye up and down or to the sideways.

20
Permanent adjustment of the dumpy/tilting level
The following permanent adjustments are needed for the level:
1. Bubble axis should be made perpendicular to vertical axis of the telescope: if the bubble
travels out of centre after temporary adjustment, then the vertical axis of the instrument is
not at right angle to the bubble axis hence the need for this adjustment. Bring the bubble
half way the centre by tightening one of the capstan screws holding the spirit level to the
telescope and loosening the other equally; the bubble is brought to centre by moving pair of
foot screws to which the telescope axis is parallel, equally outwards or inwards; test for the
need of further adjustment. If there is, then the above steps have to be repeated.
2. Bubble axis should be made parallel to line of collimation of the telescope: use the two pegs
test to test for the need of the adjustment. Insert two pegs A & B about 100m a part (see
figure below); bring the level as near to point A as possible, set it up, level it and eliminate
parallax; hold staff vertically at A and determine the staff reading AD=a. If bubble axis
remains parallel to line of collimation of telescope and with the bubble at the centre of
tube, then the bubble axis is horizontal and hence the line of collimation is also horizontal;
corresponding to staff reading AD, the vertical staff reading at B is obtained as BE; if the line
of collimation remains inclined to the bubble axis at an angle of elevation Ø, we can write;

R.L. of D=R.L. of E
R.LA+AD=R.LB+BC-CE
R.LA+a=R.LB+b-LtanØ
BC=b is the vertical staff reading at B
R.LA-R.LB = (b-a)-LtanØ………(i)

A similar observation with the instrument as near to B as possible may be made and let the
vertical staff readings at B and A be b1 and a1 respectively. We can write:

21
 R.L. of N=R.L. of R
R.LA+AM-MN=R.LB+BR
R.LA-R.LB= (b1-a1) +LtanØ……….(ii)

From (i) and (ii) Ø ………..(iii)

If Ø is 0, i.e. the bubble axis parallel to line of collimation, is obtained

from (iii). Otherwise the adjustment is necessary.
Adjustment: as shown in figure above, with line of collimation inclined at an angle of
elevation Ø, the reading at the point E on the vertically held rod at B is

=BC-CE=b-LtanØ=

And the reading at the point N is

=AM-MN=a1-LtanØ=

The capstan screws holding the diaphragm are loosened and the horizontal hair of the cross
is set to any of the readings above calculated at either the point E or N. the capstan screws
are tightened and the adjustment is complete.

Procedure in levelling
The basic operation is the determination of level between two points. Consider points A and B. a
level is set up so that readings may be made on a staff held vertically on A or B in turn. If the
readings on A and B are 3.222m and 1.414m respectively, then the difference in level is equal to
AC (3.222-1.414=1.808m) representing a rise in the height of the land at B relative to A. In any
two successive staff readings:
 Second reading less than first reading represents a rise;
 Second reading greater than first reading represents a fall.

If the actual level of one of the two points is known, the level of the other may be found by
either adding the rise or subtracting the fall. This is the rise and fall system of booking.

22
The second method known as the height of collimation method, the height of line of collimation
above datum is found by adding staff reading, obtained with the staff on a point of known level,
to the reduced level of that point. The levels of other points are determined by deducting the
staff reading at these points from the height of collimation.

General Procedure in Levelling

Consider the line of levels down the centre line of the road as shown below required to produce
a longitudinal section. The instrument is set up at a convenient position P such that a bench
mark (BM) may be observed. The first reading made with staff on a point of known reduced
level is known as backsight (BS). The staff is now held at points A, B, C in turn and readings
known as intermediate sights (IS) are taken. It is found that no readings after D are possible and
the instrument position is changed.

The last reading on D is known as foresight (FS) and it is the final reading taken before moving
the instrument. The point D is known as change point because it is the staff position during
which the position of the level is being changed.
The instrument is moved to Q, setup and levelled and the reading BS is taken on the staff at the
change point D followed by intermediate sights with the staff on points at which levels are
required until a further change becomes necessary, resulting on a foresight on point G. this
procedure is repeated until all required levels have been obtained.

Booking in Rise and Fall Method

The readings are booked in a level book, specially printed for the purpose and a reduction of
these readings is done in the same book. Each reading is entered on a different line in the
applicable column, except at change points, where a FS and a BS occupy the same line-reason
made clear in the remark column. The reduced level is obtained by applying the rise or fall

23
shown by the foresight compared with the previous intersight. The backsight is taken with staff
still on this point of known level, and the next rise or fall is obtained by comparing this BS with
the intersight. The check to be applied to the arithmetic involved in reducing the levels is:
(Backsights)-(Foresights)=(Rises)-(Falls)=Last RL- First RL
The checks concern only the accuracy of the reductions and have no effect on the accuracy of
the readings.

Height of Collimation Method

The height of collimation (HoC) is obtained by adding the staff reading (BS) to the known
reduced level of the point on which the staff stands. All other readings are deducted from the
HoC until the instrument setting is changed whereupon the new HoC is determined by adding
the backsight to the reduced level at the change point.

24
The arithmetic checks are:
 (BS)-(FS)=last RL-First RL;
 (all RLs except the first)=(each instrument height)x(no. of ISs and FSs deduced from it)-
(FS+IS)
Reduction is easier with the height of collimation method.
Comparison between the Rise & Fall and Collimation Method
Collimation method Rise and Fall method
RL of a point=H.I-I.S or F.S on the point; RL of a point=RL of the previous point + (IS or FS on
the point – IS or BS on the previous point) which is
rise or fall
Easier and faster computation Computation is laborious and time consuming
Advantageous in ‘longitudinal sectioning’ and ‘cross Advantageous where rise and fall computations are
sectioning’ of interest
B.S-F.S=Last R.L-First R.L checks the computation of Rise-Fall=Last RL-First RL checks all the
B.S and F.S and cannot check the error in I.S computations involving BS, IS and FS and the check
computations is thorough.

Applications of Levelling
The main uses of levelling are:
i. The taking of longitudinal sections
ii. Cross sections
iii. Contouring
iv. Setting out levels

Factors affecting accuracy in levelling

o Curvature and Refraction;
o Reading of staff;
o Bubble not being central;
o Instrument not being in adjustment: eliminated by equal FS and BS;
o Differential settlement of tripod: put tripod on firm ground with legs well dug in;
o Tilting and settlement of staff: use staff with a target bubble, place staff on firm ground with
change plate;
o Sensitivity of bubble/compensator

25
Error due to curvature
Consider the figure below. OA is a level line, the line of collimation OE is tangent to the curved
level line at O. staff reading at E is AE=h. because OA is curved, the RLs along the horizontal line
of sight change at different points on it. RLO is not equal to RLE. But RLO=RLE-h. h is the error due
to curvature of earth. From the figure, AE=h; radius of earth R is AC; distance OE=D
2 2 2
EC =CO +OE
2 2 2
(R+h) =R +D
2 2
2Rh+h =D
The error due to curvature at a distance D is
2 2
h=(D -h )/2R
2 2 2
=D /2R; D >>>>h
2
=1000D /(2*6370); for R=6370km and D in km
2
0.07849D m

Error due to Refraction

The earth is surrounded by a stratum of atmospheric air. Consider this stratum to be subdivided
into a number of thin strata. The layer nearer to earth is denser than overlying layers due to
compression.
A ray of light starting out tangentially at O bends away from
the normal as it passes from denser to rarer medium at each
surface of separation of layers. This ray ultimately is incident at
S on the vertically held staff at A. If the ray passes out
undeviated, it would be incident on point E of staff. The staff
reading decreases by ES which is the error due to refraction.
o
Observations established that at 0 C and under 76cm of
atmospheric pressure, error due to refraction is one seventh of
error due to curvature of earth.

i.e.,

=0.01121D2 m
Exercise
Determine the expression for the combined correction due to curvature and refraction.

26
5. ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
Horizontal and vertical angles are fundamental in surveying. The vertical angle is used to obtain
elevation of points through trigonometric heighting as well as in the reduction of slant distances
to the horizontal.
The horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain relative direction to a survey control or to
topographic detail points or to points to be set out. The instrument used in the measurement of
angles is called the THEODOLITE.

Principles of Angle Measurement

If points S, T and a theodolite set up on a tripod over a ground point R are considered, the
reduced level of S is greater than that of R which in turn is greater than that of T. The theodolite
is mounted at point L, a vertical distance above R for ease of observation.
The horizontal angle at L between S and T is the angle MLN where M and N are the vertical
projection of S and T onto the horizontal plane through L. The vertical angles of S and T from L
are the angles SLM (angle of elevation) and angle TLN (angle of depression).Another angle often
referred to as zenith angle is defined as the angle between the direction vertically above the
theodolite and the line of sight. What is the relationship between the zenith and vertical
angle?

Units of Angular Measurements

Angles can be measured in degrees, degrees minutes and seconds, degrees and minutes, or in
radians. The most commonly used units in surveying are the degrees minutes and seconds. One
should however understand the relationship between the different units used in angular
measurements.

27
In order to measure horizontal and vertical angles:
The theodolite must be centred over the point R using a plumbing device;
The instrument must be levelled to bring angle reading instruments to appropriate planes.

Setting up a Theodolite
Setting up a theodolite is carried out in three stages:
a) Centering the theodolite;
b) Levelling the theodolite;
c) Elimination of parallax.

Centering
Assume that survey mark X is given where the theodolite is to be set up. Centering it involves
making the vertical axis of theodolite to coincide with plumb line or direction of gravity through
X. it is achieved by the use of a plumb bob or optical plummet.
 Spread tripod legs evenly over the mark and extend the legs to a convenient height ensuring
that the tripod the top of tripod is as level as possible;
 Attach theodolite to tripod head;
 Focus and look through optical plummet eyepiece to locate ground mark X;
 Release lightly the theodolite from the tripod and finely place the cross-hairs of the
plummet over X before tightening it properly;
 Level the rough bubble and check to ensure that optical plummet cross hairs are still on X.

Levelling
This is the fine levelling of the theodolite and follows the steps below:
 Rotate the alidade until the plate level is parallel to two foot screws. Turn these two foot
screws simultaneously in two opposite directions until the bubble is at the centre of its run;
 Turn the alidade through 90o clockwise and centre bubble again using the third foot screw
only;
 Repeat steps (i) and (ii) until the bubble is level at both positions (i) and (ii);
 Turn alidade 180o clockwise form position (i) and note the position of bubble;
 Turn alidade through 90o clockwise and note position of bubble;

28
 If the bubble is at the centre of its run for all these positions, then the theodolite is levelled.
If it isn’t, then it should be off centre by the same amounts in (iv) and (v);
 Remove the error. Turn alidade to point (i), remove half the error by using the two foot
screws parallel to plate level;
 Turn alidade through 90o clockwise and again remove half the error;
 Repeat (vii) and (viii) until half the error is removed. The plate level bubble should remain in
the same position throughout. The vertical axis of theodolite is truly vertical and can be
achieved with plate bubble not necessarily in centre of its run.

Elimination of Parallax
Parallax is eliminated by focusing the cross hairs against a light background and focusing the
theodolite on a far object.

Measuring Angles
The theodolite and total station are common instruments and the measurement of horizontal
and vertical angles is a simple concept. The horizontal and vertical circles of the instrument
should be regarded as circular protractors graduated from 0o to 360o in a clockwise manner. The
simple horizontal angle measurement between A and C would be as follows:
Instrument set up, levelled and centred, horizontalised on survey point B and parallax
eliminated;
Starting on face left (FL), the target set at survey point A is carefully bisected and horizontal
scale reading noted i.e. 25 o;

A C

29
 Upper plate clamp is released and survey point C bisected. Horizontal scale reading is noted
to be 145o;
The horizontal angle is then the difference of the two directions (145-25)=120o;
Change face and observe survey point C on face right (FR) i.e. 325o;
Release upper plate and swing to point A and note the reading=205o;
The reading/directions must be subtracted in same order as in (v) i.e. C-A=325-205=120o;
Note how changing face changes the readings by 180o thus providing a check on the
observations. The mean of the two values would be accepted if they are in acceptable
agreement.

Measurement by Directions (Reiteration)

The method of direction is generally used when obtaining a set of angles as shown in the figure
below. The angles are observed commencing from A and noting all the readings as the
instrument moves from point to point in a clockwise manner. On completion at D, the face is
changed and the observations repeated moving from D in an anti-clockwise direction.
Finally the mean directions are deduced relative to the starting direction for PA by applying the
orientation correction. For example if the mean horizontal circle reading for PA is 48o54’36’’ and
the known bearing for PA is 40o50’32’’, then the orientation correction which will be applied to
all the mean bearings is -8o04’04’’.

The observations as above are carried out on both faces of the instrument constituting a full set.

30
Vertical Angles
In the measurement of horizontal angles, the concept is of a measuring index moving around a
protractor. In the case of a vertical angle, the situation is reversed and the protractor moves
relative to a fixed index.

Sources of Errors
Errors in measurement of angles result from:
o Instrument errors: can be minimised by taking several measurements of the angle on each
face of the theodolite. Regular calibration of the equipment is also of prime importance.
o Personal errors: include careless centring of instrument over survey point. Always ensure
that the optical plummet or centring rod is in adjustment. This should also be applied to
target; light clamping of horizontal and vertical movement. Hard clamping can affect point
and is unnecessary; final movement of slow motion should be clockwise thus producing a
positive movement against the spring. An anticlockwise movement which releases the
spring may cause backlash; failure to eliminate parallax and poor focusing of target can
affect accurate pointing. Keep observed target near centre of field view; incorrect levelling
of altitude bubble which produces vertical angle error; the plate bubble must be carefully
levelled and regularly checked throughout the measuring process; make quick decisive
observation. Too much care can be counterproductive; all movement of the theodolite
should be done gently while movement around the tripod should be reduced to a minimum.
o Natural sources: wind vibration; vertical and lateral refraction of line of sight is always a
problem; temperature differences cause an equal expansion of various parts of the
instrument; avoid tripod settlement by careful selection of ground conditions.

31
6. MAP/ENGINEERING PLAN READING

Direction on Maps
North point is the established reference direction on maps. There exists the true, grid and
magnetic north direction. True North is the direction to the true north at any point on the map.
North Pole

Magnetic North is the direction of the north magnetic pole as shown on a compass free from
error or disturbances. The compass needle is not attracted to the geographical pole but to a
magnetic pole which is somewhere in the polar region. The magnetic north is not fixed but
changes its position year by year. The direction of this point from any point on earth is the
magnetic north. Grid north is the northern direction of the north south grid lines on the map.
Magnetic variation/declination is the angle between magnetic north and true north; grid
convergence is the angle between grid north and true north; grid-magnetic angle is the angle
between the grid and magnetic norths.
The annual magnetic change is the amount by which magnetic declination changes annually
because of change in position of the magnetic north pole. The diagram used on map sheet to
show this information consists of 3 short lines radiating from a point. The line denoting true
north is headed by a star (symbolizing polaris, north star) and letters TN. The line denoting grid
north is denoted by a plain line and letters GN. The one denoting magnetic north is headed by
an arrow or half arrow and letters MN. The directions may be labeled with full names or the
labels may be missing. The line denoting GN is drawn parallel to N-S grid lines on the map. The
angles made with GN with other two lines are usually too small to be shown accurately-they are
exaggerated for clarity. The exaggeration is always sufficiently large enough to prevent
confusion with true angles. Where values for these angles vary significantly over the map sheet,
values for various locations of the sheet are given in tabulated form.

32
 GN

TN

Grid-Magnetic angle (251’)

MN

Grid Convergence (3’37’’)

Magnetic Declination (146’)

a) Using Cardinal Points-reference to cardinal points using 8, 16, 32 directions can be used to
approximately place or get locations related to a point. This method may be adequate for
general descriptions but for more accuracy, angular measurements have to be made.

b) Measuring Angles-measure directions at points where the required direction crosses either
N-S grid lines or E-W grid lines. Align protractor 0/360 or 180 with N-S direction/grid with
center point coinciding with the crossing or 90/270 with E-W grid lines as appropriate.
Values are expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds.
Full Circle System
D F
N
A
x

x
270 W E 90

x
Values range from 0 to 360
x in clockwise direction

B
S
180

C
E

Quadrantal angle: Express angular directions from either the north or south cardinal points
to east or west in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction. This method combines the

33
 cardinal point expression with angular measurements. All readings start from north to
south.
Bearing: this is the direction with reference to grid north.
Azimuth: this is the direction with reference to the true North Pole
Grid directions can be obtained by measuring the required angles on the map. To obtain
direction with reference to true north, convert grid bearing by adding or subtracting grid
convergence angle to grid bearing. If true north is west of GN, azimuth=+c; if TN is east of
GN, azimuth =-c

N
D
A

45

35
W E
30 A: N45E
50
B: S50E
C: S30W
C B D: N55W

To convert grid bearing to magnetic bearing, calculate the grid magnetic angle for the period
of observation, then subtract or add this angle to the grid bearing appropriately.

Distances on Maps
The scale of the map is essential for obtaining distances on maps between specified points. This
could be vertical or horizontal distances. Obtain distances using the units of measurement
quoted on the map, in most cases the meter. The smallest unit represents the distance you can
measure directly without making estimations and the assumed smallest distance is half the
division.
Curved lines on maps require reducing them into portions of straight lines and cumulatively
adding them. Use either a pair of dividers, straight portions of paper or an opsemeter
(mechanical device with a wheel)-count the number of revolutions a wheel makes as it moves
from one point to another on the map.

Area Measurement on Maps

Area measurements are directly related to linear measurements and hence relates to the scale
of the map.

34
a) Graphical Methods
Square Procedure: on most maps, area feature are characterized by irregular boundaries.
Trace the area to be computed on a graph paper; count the number of complete squares
within the traced area; for partial squares, if >0.5, count as a complete square; exclude if
<0.5 of a square. Alternatively, combine partially filled squares to complete squares. Convert
the final value to actual ground area based on scale of the map. The accuracy of this method
depends on value of squares.

Strip Method: draw a series of parallel lines of a fixed unit distance a part whether over this
area or on tracing paper placed over the area. Draw vertical lines at both ends of strips such
that the area to be excluded from the strip is as equal as possible to the area to be included
in the strip. Add the length of all strips and convert the actual ground area by using the scale
factor. The accuracy depends on the choice of the width of the parallel strips, the less the
width, the more precise will be the result.

b) Geometric Procedures
These are best applied to areas with relatively simple outline. It involves reducing the area
into geometric figures e.g. triangles and squares and then compiling the area of these
figures. The area of irregular portion can be completed using various methods.

35
 B

Area=½*b*h
=(s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c))½
Where s=(a+b+c)/2
=½abSin

A
D

Mid-ordinate method: draw a series of perpendicular lines of a fixed distance between one
another from the boundary.

These are x 0.75 1.25 1.75 2.25

mid-
mid-ordinates y 1.250 1.601 2.016 2.462
2.462
2.016
1.601
1.250

0.75 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.25 2.5

0 0.5 1 2
Area = (0.5 x 1.250) + (0.5 x 1.601) + (0.5 x 2.016) + (0.5 x 2.462)
2.462)
Area = 0.5 x (1.250 + 1.601 + 2.016 + 2.462) = 3.664

width of strips sum of mid-

mid-ordinates

Trapezoidal rule: the area is broken into trapeziums.

ab
Area  h
2
y5
y1  y2
y4 h
2
y3
y 2  y3
y2 h
2
y1
y3  y 4
h
2
y 4  y5
h h h h h
2

 y  y 2  y 2  y3  y3  y 4  y 4  y 5 
Area  h 1 
 2 
Area  h y1  y5  2 y2  y3  y4 
1
2
Area = ½ h (end ordinates + twice sum of ‘interior’ ordinates)

Simpson’s rule:
Exercise: Derive the expression for determining the area of irregular figures using Simpson’s
rule.

36
c) Mechanical Integrator-Planimeter
A mechanical integrator is used to measure areas on a map or any plotted area. The
common feature on most planimeters is that a pointer guided round the boundary which
causes displacement of another part of the mechanism in such a way that the area can be
recorded.

Digital Planimeter: works out as a digitizer and gives point coordinates that can be used to
work out the area automatically using a computer.

Classification of maps
Maps are classified according to content (Topographic, thematic), data source (Basic, derived),
Scale (large, medium, small, atlas, plans), producing agent (official, commercial), nature of
image (line, photographic, digital), colors (monochrome, multicolored/chromatic), function
(administrative, planning, education, travel etc)
a) Classification of maps based on content
i. Topographic maps: designed from data collected directly from terrain; most accurate as
far as location/position of features is concerned; represent the horizontal and vertical
position of features on earth’s surface at a specified scale; represent as much as
possible the physical environment-relief, hydrology, drainage vegetation; serve a variety
of users; Topography is the configuration of the surface of the earth including its relief,
the position of its streams, cities etc.
ii. Thematic maps: special subject maps; maps specific topics e.g soil, land use, geology,
cadastral, population etc; cover small or large areas; private/publicly produced.
b) Classification of maps based on data source
i. Basic Maps: prepared from original survey data carried out specifically for producing
such a map. Usually large scale maps produced from primary data from the field.

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 ii. Derived maps: small scale map derived from information from existing data
c) Classification based on scale of a map
i. Large scale maps: relatively small ground area is represented on a large map area.
Usually preferred for urban areas and other densely/closely developed areas. They can
be constructed from actual ground or aerial surveys or a combination of both. Used for
planning and other uses-traffic control, police work, town planning etc
Plans: cover a small area at large scale. It is also called a graphic representation without
relief. The surface is assumed to be a plane.
ii. Small scale maps: relatively large ground surface is represented on a small map area
d) Classification based on producing agent
i. Official maps: maps produced by governments or their agents for the benefit of the
public and other government organisations for planning. In most cases, they are non-
profit.
ii. Commercial maps: maps produced by commercial/private organisations for the purpose
of profit making by selling the maps to the public. They rely heavily on official maps for
information and mostly popular themes with public are mapped. Examples include town
maps, road maps, tourist maps, travel maps etc.
e) Classification based on the nature of the image
i. Line maps: drawn images of lines
ii. Photographic: map information is represented by photographs
iii. Digital maps: map information is processed by computers and represented on visual
copies e.g. diskettes, tape, CD ROMs.
f) Classification based on colour
i. Monochrome maps: a single colour used to draw a map e.g. black & white
ii. Multicoloured/chromatic maps: many colours used on fine graphic image of a map
g) Classification according to function
These maps tell the function which these maps are used. Examples are administrative maps,
planning maps, education maps, navigation maps, travel maps, propaganda maps, military
maps, census maps etc.

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Map Scale
Scale refers to the relationship between the earth and map distance. It is based on a strict
mathematical principle. Understanding the relationship between scale and how it influences
content of the map is important.
There are three types of cartographic scales:
a) Representative Fraction (RF) e.g. 1:50,000 or 1/50,000

b) Graphical Scale (Bar Scale) e.g.

c) Verbal Statement
The representative fraction is the simplest and functional way to represent scale. It is unit less
and any distance measure may be inserted. Example, 1:24000 means that one distance unit on
the map represents twenty four thousand units on the ground. However, any enlargement or
reduction of original map makes the RF value wrong since it alters the map units without
adjusting the earth units.
Graphical scale is a more reliable representation of scale on large scale maps because it
promotes direct estimates of distances and is reduced or enlarged a long with the accompanying
map. The verbal statement e.g. one inch equals one mile reads like a spoken description of the
relationship between map distance and earth distance. The statement is invalid if the map is
reduced or enlarged.

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7. RELIEF REPRESENTATION
Relief is a general term applied to the shape of the ground in a vertical plane. The
representation of relief on a map is the showing of heights and shapes of the ground usually
above or below a datum.
A datum is a level of a surface to which heights are referred to, usually the mean sea level.
On some maps and plans, no relief is shown but on all topographical mapping and in almost all
maps for military purposes, some representation of relief is necessary.

Units of Vertical Measure

The standard unit is the meter. Many existing maps have the feet as the unit of measurement.
The unit of height on any map is always stated prominently on the map margin.

Methods of Relief Representation

(i) representation of height
(ii) representation of shapes
(iii) representation of surface

Representation of height is a factual matter in which variations will arise from the type, density
and accuracy of the information required.
Representation of shape is largely artistic and there is much scope of variation according to
taste. It is often the combination of these factors which determine the appearance of the map in
any area where there is a marked relief.

Height Representation
a) Bench Marks: they are the most precise heights shown on maps and are derived directly
from leveling networks. The positions of permanent marks are usually shown by a symbol
and the height of the mark is recorded besides it. On maps of scales 1/10,000 or larger, the
values may be shown to one or more decimal places and for 1/25,000 scales, the values may
be rounded off or omitted. Benchmarks are not usually shown on small scale maps.
b) Triangulation Heights: triangulation stations and other forms of survey control points are
usually shown on the maps when they are defined on the ground by a pillar or other
recognizable mark. The heights of such points are given normally next to the symbol for the
points.

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c) Spot heights: the third form of height given to a point in addition to bench marks and
triangulation points is the spot height. Normally, the chosen point is neither an item of
detail nor an exact point on the ground but a height is given to a point to supplement the
height information by other methods. Spot heights are therefore placed at ruling points
such as tops of hills, bottoms of valleys, ridge points and saddle points. There selection and
placing are important and they are sighted to give maximum value in determining the height
of the ground where it is not clear from contour or any other information. The accuracy of
spot heights depends on the method of survey-the accuracy required for spot heights
depend on the scale of the map and the type of ground. Approximate values are often much
more useful than no values at all.
d) Contours: a line joining points of equal height. It is the standard method of relief
representation. Contours combine an accurate indication of height with a good indication of
shape and are a simple and effective method of showing relief especially when used in
conjunction with heighted points. Effectiveness of contours depend to a large extend on the
selection of the vertical interval between contours, scale of the map and the nature of the
terrain. The best vertical interval is one which enables the hill features and changes of scope
to be shown as fully as the scale permits without making the contours so close together as
to obscure the map or too close together to be shown separately on steep slopes.

Vertical Interval
Related to two factors: (i) map scale (ii) terrain slopes
A map is required to have enough contours to allow appreciation of terrain but not so many that
they merge into a continuous mass of lines hence obscure other information.
The general guide:
Scale V.I.
1/10,000 5 or 10
1/25,000 10
1/50,000 20
1/100,000 25
1/250,000 50
On smaller scales, it might be necessary to show 50m and 100m contours and to verify intervals
in the high ranges.

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Contour representation
Contours are normally drawn as continuous lines of standard gauge. Every fourth or fifth
contour, depending on the V.I. to provide multiples of 10, 50,100, etc, is called an index contour
and is shown in a heavier gauge of line. This helps in reading and counting the contours to
determine the height.
Auxiliary or supplementary contours at an intermediate vertical interval may be used in special
circumstances to supplement the standard contours e.g. in flat ground where a small rise within
the standard vertical interval may be a significant figure. Auxiliary contours must be clearly
distinguished from standard contours and their values must be shown.

Diagram showing standard, index and auxiliary contours

Contour values are oriented up right ‘uphill’ such that when you read these values, you’re
hypothetically looking up slope.

Color convention: Use brown color on multicolored maps, blue for contours under water, black
on rocky terrain and blue on permanent snow.

Characteristics of Contours
Contours are continuous
Contours do not split
Contours do not cross each other

Form Lines
Form lines are approximate contours sketched to show the general shape of terrain rather that
its elevation. They are used when it has not been possible to obtain accurate contours, a
situation which may arise for part or a complete map sheet. They can be used in conjunction
with contours and spot heights to show the rough shape of terrain especially in inaccessible or
built up areas. They are usually depicted by broken lines and may be given values.

Shape Representation
a) Hachures: hachures depict the relief by means of short disconnected lines drawn down the
slope in the direction of water flow. The lines are short, thick and close together on steep

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 slopes and are longer, more spaced out and thinner on the gentle slope. Diagram showing
hachures. This is an artistic method that requires much skill and although it does give a 3D
effect to relief, it does not provide any definite height information and has the disadvantage
of obscuring all other details. Hachures are not normally used on modern maps except to
depict certain details e.g. cuttings, embankments, cliffs, craters and steep slopes. Bottom of
valleys and tops of hills are not shown by hachures.
b) Hill shading: this is the most commonly used technique to indicate slopes, either alone or in
conjunction with contours. It does not itself give an indication of the height. It only gives
indication of the steepness of the slope and an excellent visual picture of relief without any
positive value of height. Basically, hill-shading consists of shading the ‘dark’ side of the hill
‘lighting’ the sunny side to provide contrast. The darker the shading, the steeper the slope
on the shadow side. The light is usually assumed to come from the North-West corner of the
map. For some purposes, a good hill shaded map is more descriptive than a contoured map.
With addition of spot heights, a reasonable standard of height comparison may be obtained
and a clearer picture of relief is shown. It cannot however be substituted for a contoured
map. A disadvantage of hill-shading is that it tends to obscure names and details below it
and for this reason it has to be more lightly than might otherwise be desired.
c) Layer Shading/Layer Tinting/Hipsometric Shading: a layer is a uniform tint applied to a
ground between defined limits of height above or below a datum e.g. all ground between 50
and 100m. By using different tints for different layers, it is easy to get a clear picture of the
variations of height or depth over an area. Layers are normally used in conjunction with
contours to assist the user in gaining a quick appreciation of relief. They are occasionally
used alone or in conjunction with hill shading to give a general impression of relief in areas
where there is insufficient accurate height information for contouring. Although layers are
generally considered an extremely useful aid to relief appreciation, they involve
considerable additional work in map production and printing. They are therefore normally
used on mapping scales of 1/250,000 and smaller. Light colors are usually chosen for the
lower elevations while dark colors are used for higher elevations.

Surface Representation
Surface representation uses digital terrain models (DTM). Points on contours or grid lines are
randomly chosen as spot heights. With appropriate software, it is possible to express it in visual

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display unit. This can also be done on statistical points depending on boundary areas. From this,
a hard copy can then be produced.

Bathymetric Relief
This shows variation of relief in large water masses e.g. the ocean. Contours are shown similarly
to the land contours normally in blue or black. Their values are related to the mean sea level but
in special cases of inland waters, they can be related to the surface level of the water.

Relief Interpretation

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8. SETTING OUT

Introduction
In engineering the production of an accurate large-scale plan is usually the first step in the
planning and design of a construction project. Thereafter the project, as designed on the plan,
must be set out on the ground in the correct absolute and relative position and to its correct
dimensions. Thus, surveys made in connection with a specific project should be planned with
the setting-out process in mind and a system of three-dimensional control stations conveniently
sited and adequate in number should be provided to facilitate easy, economical setting out.

It is of prime importance that the establishment and referencing of survey control stations
should be carried out at such places and in such a manner that they will survive the construction
processes. This entails careful choice of the locations of the control stations and their
construction relative to their importance and long- or short-term requirements.

The setting-out engineer should establish such a system of work on site that will ensure the
accurate setting out of the works well in advance of the commencement of construction. To
achieve this, the following factors should be considered:
(i) A complete and thorough understanding of the plans, working drawings, setting-out data,
tolerances involved and the time scale of operations.
(ii) A complete and thorough knowledge of the site, plant and relevant personnel.
Communications between all individuals is vitally important. Field checks on the survey
control already established on site, possibly by contract surveyors, should be carried out at
the first opportunity.
(iii) A complete and thorough knowledge of the survey instrumentation available on site,
including the effect of instrumental errors on setting-out observations. At the first
opportunity, a base should be established for the calibration of tapes, EDM equipment,
levels and theodolites.
(iv) A complete and thorough knowledge of the stores available, to ensure an adequate and
continuing supply of pegs, pins, chalk, string, paint, timber, etc.
(v) Office procedure should be so organized as to ensure easy access to all necessary
information. Plans should be stored flat in plan drawers, and those amended or superseded

45
 should be withdrawn from use and stored elsewhere. Field and level books should be
carefully referenced and properly filed. All setting-out computations and procedures used
should be clearly presented, referenced and filed.
(vi) Wherever possible, independent checks of the computation, abstraction and extrapolation
of setting-out data and of the actual setting-out procedures should be made.

It can be seen from this brief list of the requirements of a setting-out engineer, that such work
should never be allocated, without complete supervision, to junior, inexperienced members of
the site team.
Consider the cost implications of getting it right or getting it wrong. If the most junior and
therefore the cheapest surveyor is used a few £/$/E may be saved on the setting-out work, but
if he/she gets it wrong the cost of putting the error right is likely to be many times the money
‘saved’.

Control Points: Protection and Referencing

Most site operatives have little concept of the time, effort and expertise involved in establishing
setting-out pegs. For this reason the pegs are frequently treated with disdain and casually
destroyed in the construction process. A typical example of this is the centre-line pegs for route
location which are the first to be destroyed when earth-moving commences. It is important,
therefore, that control stations and BMs should be protected in some way (usually as shown in
Figures below) and site operatives, particularly earthwork personnel, impressed with the
importance of maintaining this protection.
Where destruction of the pegs is inevitable, then referencing procedures should be adopted to
relocate their positions to the original accuracy of fixation. Various configurations of reference
pegs are used and the one thing that they have in common is that they must be set well outside
the area of construction and have some form of protection, as in Figure below.
A commonly-used method of referencing is from four pegs (A, B,C, D) established such that two
strings stretched between them intersect to locate the required position. Distances AB, BC, CD,
AD, AC, BD should all be measured as checks on the possible movement of the reference pegs,
whilst distances from the reference pegs to the setting-out peg will afford a check on
positioning. Ideally TP1 should be in line with DB and AC. Intersecting lines of sight from
theodolites at, say, A and B may be used where ground conditions make string lining difficult.

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Although easy to construct, wooden pegs are easily damaged. A more stable and precise control
station mark that is easily constructed on site is shown in Figure below. A steel or brass plate
with fine but deeply engraved lines crossing at right angles is set with Hilti nails into a cube of
concrete cast into a freshly dug hole. To avoid any possible movement of the plate there should
be a layer of epoxy resin between it and the concrete.

All information relating to the referencing of a point should be recorded on a diagram of the
layout involved.

Setting Out Using Coordinates

Plans are generally produced on a plane rectangular coordinate system, and hence salient points
of the design may also be defined in terms of rectangular coordinates on the same system. For
instance, the centre line of a proposed road may be defined in terms of coordinates at, say, 30-
m intervals, or alternatively, only the tangent and intersection points may be so defined. The
basic methods of locating position when using coordinates are either by polar coordinates or by
intersection.

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polar coordinates

In Figure above, A, B and C are control stations whose coordinates are known. It is required to
locate point IP whose design coordinates are also known. The computation involved is as
follows:
 From coordinates compute the bearing BA (this bearing may already be known from the
initial control survey computations).
 From coordinates compute the horizontal length and bearing of B − IP.
 From the two bearings compute the setting-out angle AB(IP), i.e. β.
 Before proceeding into the field, draw a neat sketch of the situation showing all the setting-
out data. Check the data from the plan or by independent computation.
Alternatively the coordinate geometry functions in a total station can be used to avoid most of
the computations. The field work involved is as follows:
(i) Set up theodolite at B and backsight to A, note the horizontal circle reading.
(ii) Add the angle β to the circle reading BA to obtain the circle reading B − IP. Set this reading
on the theodolite to establish direction B − IP and measure out the horizontal distance L.
If this distance is set out by steel tape, careful consideration must be given to all the error
sources such as standardization, slope, tension and possibly temperature if the setting-out
tolerances are very small. It should also be carefully noted that the sign of the correction is
reversed from that applied when measuring a distance. For example, if a 30-m tape was in fact
30.01 m long, when measuring a distance the recorded length would be 30 m for a single tape
length, although the actual distance is 30.01 m; hence a positive correction of 10 mm is applied
to the recorded measurement. However, if it is required to set out 30 m, the actual distance set
out would be 30.01 m; thus this length would need to be reduced by 10 mm, i.e. a negative
correction.

Setting Out Using Grids

Many structures in civil engineering consist of steel or reinforced concrete columns supporting
floor slabs. As the disposition of these columns is inevitably that they are at right angles to each

48
other, the use of a grid, where the grid intersections define the position of the columns, greatly
facilitates setting out. It is possible to define several grids as follows:
a) Survey grid: the rectangular coordinate system on which the original topographic survey is
carried out and plotted.

Survey, site and structural grids

b) Site grid: defines the position and direction of the main building lines of the project, as
shown in Figure above. The best position for such a grid can be determined by simply
moving a tracing of the site grid over the original plan so that its best position can be located
in relation to the orientation of the major units designed thereon. In order to set out the site
grid, it may be convenient to translate the coordinates of the site grid to those of the survey
grid using the well-known transformation formula:
E = ΔE + E1 cos θ − N1 sin θ
N = ΔN + N1 cos θ + E1 sin θ
where ΔE,ΔN = difference in easting and northing of the respective grid origins
E1,N1 = the coordinates of the point on the site grid
θ = relative rotation of the two grids
E,N = the coordinates of the point transformed to the survey grid
Thus, selected points, say X and Y (Figure above) may have their site-grid coordinate values
transformed to that of the survey grid and so set-out by polars or intersection from the
survey control. Now, using XY as a baseline, the site grid may be set out using theodolite and

49
 steel tape, all angles being turned off on both faces and grid intervals carefully fixed using
the steel tape under standard tension.
When the site grid has been established, each line of the grid should be carefully referenced
to marks fixed clear of the area of work. As an added precaution, these marks could be
further referenced to existing control or permanent, stable, on-site detail.
c) Structural grid: used to locate the position of the structural elements within the structure
and is physically established usually on the concrete floor slab (Figure above). It may be used
where the relative positions of points are much more important than the absolute positions,
such as for the holding down bolts of a steel frame structure. The advantages of such a grid
are that the lines of sight are set out in a regular pattern and so can be checked by eye even
for small errors and that there is more check on points set out from the grid than if those
points were set out individually by bearing and distance or by coordinates from a total
station.

Setting Out Buildings

For buildings with normal strip foundations the corners of the external walls are established by
pegs located directly from the survey control or by measurement from the site grid. As these
pegs would be disturbed in the initial excavations their positions are transferred by total station
on to profile boards set well clear of the area of disturbance (Figure below). Prior to this their
positions must be checked by measuring the diagonals as shown.

Check measurements

Profile boards

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The profile boards must be set horizontal with their top edge at some predetermined level such
as damp proof course (DPC) or finished floor level (FFL). Wall widths, foundation widths, etc., can
be set out along the board with the aid of a steel tape and their positions defined by saw-cuts.
They are arranged around the building as shown in the second figure above. Strings stretched
between the appropriate marks clearly define the line of construction.

In the case of buildings constructed with steel or concrete columns, a structural grid must be
established to an accuracy of about ±2 to 3 mm or the prefabricated beams and steelwork will
not fit together without some distortion.
The position of the concrete floor slab may be established in a manner already described.
Thereafter the structural grid is physically established by Hilti nails or small steel plates set into
the concrete. Due to the accuracy required a 1" theodolite and standardized steel tape
corrected for temperature and tension may be preferable to a total station.
Once the bases for the steel columns have been established, the axes defining the centre of
each column should be marked on and, using a template orientated to these axes, the positions
of the holding-down bolts defined (Figure below). A height mark should be established, using a
level, at a set distance (say, 75 mm) below the underside of the base-plate, and this should be
constant throughout the structure. It is important that the base-plate starts from a horizontal
base to ensure verticality of the column.

Holding down bolt positions

Controlling Verticality
Using a plumb-bob
In low-rise construction a heavy plumb-bob (5 to 10 kg) may be used as shown in Figure below.
If the external wall were perfectly vertical then, when the plumb-bob coincides with the centre
of the peg, distance d at the top level would equal the offset distance of the peg at the base.
This concept can be used internally as well as externally, provided that holes and openings are
available. The plumb-bob should be large, say 5 kg, and both plumb-bob and wire need to be

51
protected from wind. The motion of the plumb-bob may need to be damped by immersing the
plumb-bob in a drum of water. The considerations are similar to those of determining verticality
in a mine shaft but less critical. To ensure a direct transfer of position from the bottom to the
top floor, holes of about 0.2 m diameter will need to be left in all intermediate floors. This may
need the agreement of the building’s designer.

Using a theodolite
If two centre-lines at right angles to each other are carried vertically up a structure as it is being
built, accurate measurement can be taken off these lines and the structure as a whole will
remain vertical. Where site conditions permit, the stations defining the ‘base figure’ (four per
line) are placed in concrete well clear of construction (Figure (a)). Lines stretched between
marks fixed from the pegs will allow offset measurements to locate the base of the structure. As
the structure rises the marks can be transferred up onto the walls by theodolite, as shown in
Figure (b), and lines stretched between them. It is important that the transfer is carried out on
both faces of the instrument.
Where the structure is circular in plan the centre may be established as in Figure (a) and the
radius swung out from a pipe fixed vertically at the centre. As the structure rises, the central
pipe is extended by adding more lengths. Its verticality is checked by two theodolites (as in
Figure (b)) and its rigidity ensured by supports fixed to scaffolding.
The vertical pipe may be replaced by laser beam or autoplumb, but the laser would still need to
be checked for verticality by theodolites.

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 (a) Plan, and (b) section
Steel and concrete columns may also be checked for verticality using the theodolite. By string
lining through the columns, positions A–A and B–B may be established for the theodolite;

String lines

alternatively, appropriate offsets from the structural grid lines may be used. With instrument set
up at A, the outside face of all the uprights should be visible. Now cut the outside edge of the
upright at ground level with the vertical hair of the theodolite. Repeat at the top of the column.
Now depress the telescope back to ground level and make a fine mark; the difference between
the mark and the outside edge of the column is the amount by which the column is out of
plumb. Repeat on the opposite face of the theodolite. The whole procedure is now carried out
at B. If the difference exceeds the specified tolerances the column will need to be corrected.
Using optical plumbing
For high-rise building the instrument most commonly used is an autoplumb. This instrument
provides a vertical line of sight to an accuracy of ±1 second of arc (1 mm in 200 m). Any
deviation from the vertical can be quantified and corrected by rotating the instrument through
90◦ and observing in all four quadrants; the four marks obtained would give a square, the
diagonals of which would intersect at the correct centre point.

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 The optical system of the autoplumb
A base figure is established at ground level from which fixing measurements may be taken. If
this figure is carried vertically up the structure as work proceeds, then identical fixing
measurements from the figure at all levels will ensure verticality of the structure.
To fix any point of the base figure on an upper floor, a Perspex target is set over the opening and
the centre point fixed as above. Sometimes these targets have a grid etched on them to
facilitate positioning of the marks. The base figure can be projected as high as the eighth floor,
at which stage the finishing trades enter and the openings are closed. In this case the uppermost
figure is carefully referenced, the openings filled, and then the base figure re-established and
projected upwards as before. The shape of the base figure will depend upon the plan shape of
the building. In the case of a long rectangular structure a simple base line may suffice but T
shapes and Y shapes are also used.

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