Psychoactive Medication: a brief summary for vets

The following guidance on psychoactive medication is provided by the Fellowship of Animal Behaviour
Clinicians to assist vets who are referring behaviour cases to Clinical Animal Behaviourists.

Veterinary Considerations
It is important to realise that animals who are presented to us as vets are rarely showing just a ‘medical
condition’ or just a ‘behavioural problem’ because emotional and physical health are interrelated.
Medical conditions can affect behaviour even when they’re intermittent, have occurred in the past or
are currently being treated.

It is always advisable to consider underlying physical factors that may be causing or exacerbating
the behaviour displayed by an individual patient. It is particularly important to consider whether they
could be experiencing pain (osteoarthritis, other musculoskeletal problems, breed-related
conformational issues, previous surgery, gastrointestinal conditions and neurological conditions),
have an endocrinological imbalance or disturbance of their gut function.

Investigations that should be considered in animals showing abnormal behaviour include:

• Blood tests – haematology and biochemistry including cobalamin, folate, pancreatic parameters
and thyroid tests.
• Faecal tests if there are any symptoms suggestive of gastrointestinal upset, including vomiting
and diarrhoea, coprophagia, and pica.
• Radiography – if any lameness, stiffness or gait abnormalities are identified.
• Analgesia trials can be useful if pain is suspected from the history of the case but there are no
radiographic or other clear indications of its presence, particularly if the patient is intolerant of
veterinary examinations. It has been found that up to 80% of patients with behavioural issues are
suffering with underlying pain (Mills et al., 2020). An analgesia trial should ideally last for at least
12 weeks because it can take that long for behaviour to change as a result of an animal learning
that situations that used to predict pain no longer do so.
• A behavioural response to analgesia is the best means of assessing whether pain is affecting an
animal. There is an emotional component to pain and its perception is an individual experience.
For this reason, diagnostic imaging findings do not always correlate with the degree of pain an
individual is experiencing, so ideally should only be used as a guide that contributes to a holistic
approach to the patient’s treatment.

Fellowship of Animal Behaviour Clinicians C.I.C.

www.fabclinicians.org info@fabclinicians.org
Community Interest Company No. 12446060 limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales
Erw Wastad, Llwynteg, Llanelli, SA14 8JW
Psychopharmacy
Psychoactive drugs affect the mind, emotions and behaviour by altering neurotransmitter levels,
which increases or reduces activity in neural pathways between regions of the brain. They most
commonly affect serotonin, GABA, glutamate, noradrenaline and dopamine pathways. Different
classes of these drugs act in different ways: binding to presynaptic or postsynaptic membrane
receptors, reducing reuptake of neurotransmitters from the synapse and inhibiting neurotransmitter
breakdown, for example.

This handout aims to provide a quick guide to the commonly available options in the UK and their
use. It does not replace reference to accepted published texts regarding these medications’ uses,
contraindications and side effects. All medications must be prescribed by a veterinary surgeon for the
specific animal and agreed scenarios, with consideration given to the animal’s age, health status and
any other medications / supplements or nutraceuticals the animal may be receiving. Every patient is
unique and will have an individual response to these medications. Many of these medications are not
veterinary licensed and so should be prescribed in accordance with the prescribing cascade.

Two main types of psychoactive medications that are used in cats and dogs – long-acting maintenance
drugs and short-acting (or event) drugs.

The Veterinary Medicines Directive (VMD) prescribing cascade

1. If a suitable veterinary medicine has been licensed in the UK for treating a
specific condition in the species being treated, this should be used, e.g.
Clomicalm and Reconcile for separation anxiety in dogs, Selgian for
behaviours of an emotional origin in dogs, Sileo for noise related anxiety in
dogs and Pexion for anxiety and fear associated with noise phobia in dogs.
2. If none are available or clinically suitable, a drug that is authorised in
another species, or in the same species for another condition, should be
used, e.g. Clomicalm and Reconcile for uses other than separation anxiety
in dogs and for all uses in cats, and Sileo for any anxieties in dogs other that
caused by noises.
3. If none are available or clinically suitable, a drug authorised in the UK for
human use, or a drug authorised in another European country for use in
any animal species, may be used.

Licensed drugs should be used when possible, but the use of drugs lower on the cascade can be
justified in order to maximise the welfare of a patient if a specific drug action is required or if there
are contraindications or unacceptable side-effects for a particular patient from drugs that are higher
on the cascade.

Owners/caregivers are required to sign an informed consent form for the use of unlicenced
medications for their pet.

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Long-term maintenance drugs
Long-term maintenance medications can be started at the beginning of a Behaviour Modification
Programme (BMP) or selected if the implementation of the BMP alone is not resolving the behaviour
issues that the patient is exhibiting. The medications aim to promote a more positive frame of mind
(more optimistic than pessimistic) and help animals to effectively learn from their BMP. It is important
to understand that the medication does not provide a cure, but is used as an adjunct to the BMP.

Maintenance drugs are likely to be used long-term, ideally for a minimum of 6-12 months duration
or until the undesirable behaviour in question has resolved or improved for at least 6 months. It is
recommended to take baseline blood tests when starting any long-term medication and to perform
regular blood tests to monitor the on-going health status of the animal. Once learning has occurred
as a result of a BMP, depending on the characteristics and circumstances of the individuals involved,
some can be weaned off the medication over a few months.

It may take 4-12 weeks for maintenance medication to reach clinical efficacy, so clients need to be
informed that there will not be an immediate effect. If a more immediate effect is required, short-
term event medication could be used during this period. Common side-effects of long-term
psychoactive medication start immediately and include a reduction in appetite, gastrointestinal upset
and occasionally sedation. They generally wear off over a few weeks and can be minimised by starting
on a lower dose and increasing it after a few weeks and/or using gastroprotectants when appropriate.

In order to monitor the response to long-term medication, owners/care-givers can be asked to keep
diaries to record the frequency and intensity of fearful or anxious responses, and the time it takes for
pets to recover from these events.

Weaning maintenance medication

Maintenance medication should generally not be stopped abruptly. When considering weaning a
patient off them, it is important not to do so too soon and some individuals benefit from long-term or
lifelong medication. When weaning is carried out, it is recommended to maintain the same dosing
frequency (e.g., TID, BID, SID) and reduce the dose by approximately one quarter to one third per
month for three months. Some patients do not appear to cope well with being fully weaned off
medication and benefit from staying on the LED (lowest effective dose). If a relapse of the behaviour
issue is observed, the dose should be immediately increased to the previous effective dosage and
continued for a longer period.

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Fluoxetine
Licensed as: Reconcile®

Type: SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor)

Description: As the name suggests, SSRI’s such as fluoxetine inhibit the uptake of
serotonin into the presynaptic membrane, while having less effect on the
other neurotransmitter pathways than TCA’s. They therefore have fewer
antihistaminic and anticholinergic effects (and thus fewer side-effects)
than TCA’s. The most commons side-effects of fluoxetine are decreased
appetite and vomiting. Other potential adverse reactions are trembling,
restlessness, other GI disturbances and paradoxical excitement.
Recommended use: Fluoxetine is licensed for separation anxiety in dogs. It is used for long
term treatment of fear and anxiety-related disorders, including
separation anxiety, noise fears, generalised anxiety and compulsive
behaviours. It is particularly indicated when impulsivity is part of the
behaviour response, and when panic is involved. There is a potential risk
of disinhibition of aggression.

Dosage: Dogs: 1-2mg/kg every 24hrs.

Cats: 0.5mg/kg every 24hrs.

Notes Fluoxetine should not be used within 2 weeks of treatment with a MAOI
and an MAOI should not be used within 6 weeks of treatment with
fluoxetine. It antagonises the effects of anticonvulsants so is not
recommended in epileptic patients. It should be used with caution
alongside anticoagulants as there may be an increased risk of bleeding
in the case of tissue trauma. It should not generally be used alongside
other serotonergic agents (including serotonin-related supplements)
although it can be used with care alongside trazodone if both
medications are at the low end of their dose ranges (1mg/kg fluoxetine
with 3-5mg/kg trazodone).
Fluoxetine should be selected in preference to other SSRI’s as it is the
only one with a veterinary licence. Other SSRI’s which can be used in
specific cases are sertraline and paroxetine.

Clomipramine
Licensed as: Clomicalm®
Type: TCA (tricyclic antidepressant)
Description: Clomipramine blocks serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake in the brain,
so reduces anxiety and compulsive behaviour (by increasing serotonin)
and increases arousal and elevates mood (by increasing noradrenaline).
It also has antihistaminic and anticholinergic effects and is an α-1
adrenergic antagonist.
Recommended use: Clomicalm® is licensed for separation anxiety in dogs. It is used to treat
animals displaying behaviours arising from anxiety, separation-related

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 behaviours and various repetitive disorders. Although it is the most
selective TCA for increasing serotonin, it also increases noradrenaline.
Dosage: Dogs: 1-2mg/kg every 12hrs
Cats: 0.25-1mg/kg every 24hrs
Notes: Clomipramine should not be used within 2-3 weeks of treatment with an
MAOI. Because it also blocks receptors of other neurotransmitters such
as α1-adrenergic, acetylcholine and histamine receptors, it causes a
range of side-effects including vomiting, appetite changes, lethargy,
constipation and urinary retention in cats. It also causes testicular
hypoplasia. The effects of other drugs such barbiturates and anaesthetic
agents can be potentiated by clomipramine (see BSAVA formulary). It can
be used in conjunction with benzodiazepines.
There is a wide variation of action between different TCA’s. Other TCA’s
(which do not have a veterinary licence) include amitriptyline and
mirtazapine.

Selegiline
Licensed as: Selgian®
Type: MOAI (Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor)

Description: This medication modifies the concentration of monoaminergic

neurotransmitters, especially phenylethylamine and dopamine by
selectively inhibiting the activity of type-B monoamine oxidase. It also
appears to have neuroprotective properties.

Recommended use: It is licensed for dogs as a treatment for behaviour of a purely emotional
origin. It is used for emotional disorders but has minimal anxiolytic effect
because it has little effect on serotonin. It can be useful in fear-related
problems as long as they don’t involve anxiety or reactivity, since its
breakdown products are amphetamines which are stimulants –
especially useful in chronic fear when the animal shows inhibited
responses such as withdrawal, shaking and salivating. It is also useful for
dogs and cats with age-related cognitive dysfunction because it can
enhance learning as well as improving demeanour.

Dosage: Dogs: 0.5-1mg/kg every 24hrs for a minimum of 2 months

Cats: 1mg/kg every 24hrs
Notes: Its onset of action is up to 8 weeks, and it takes up to 12 weeks to reach
maximum effect. Although the BSAVA Formulary states that it can be
stopped suddenly, it is preferable to wean patients off it over a few
weeks. There are several potential drug interactions (see BSAVA
formulary). Selegiline should not be used for 2-3 weeks after TCA’s and 6
weeks after long term use of fluoxetine. It should also not be used in
pregnant or lactating bitches and queens as it may affect prolactin
secretion.

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Imepitoin
Licensed as: Pexion®
Type: This medication acts on GABAA receptors and has a weak calcium-
channel blocking effect.

Recommended use: It is licensed as a treatment for epilepsy and the fear and anxiety
associated with noise phobia in dogs. It can be used as an event
medication prior to predictable sounds e.g. the fireworks season
(McPeake et al., 2017) and as a daily maintenance medication to help to
control anxiety in relation to social stimuli (e.g. crowds, strangers) and
non-social stimuli (e.g. noises, novel items, new environments) in dogs.

Dosage: Dogs: For short-term treatment of noise fears it can be given from 2 days
prior to an expected noise event at 30mg/kg every 12 hours to the end
of the noise event (e.g. fireworks season).
For longer-term treatment of noise fears and other anxiety the dose
range is 10 – 30mg/kg every 12 hours, starting at 10mg/kg and titrating
up as required to 30mg/kg every 12 hours or down to 5mg/kg every 12
hours (depending on the initial response).
Cats: Imepitoin is well-tolerated in healthy cats at 10-30mg/kg every 12
hours but its efficacy in reducing anxiety has not been established.

Notes: Potential side-effects include ataxia and lethargy, appetite increase and
disinhibition of aggression. Sedation can occur at higher doses. Other
generally transient and mild side-effects include polyphagia,
hyperactivity, PU/PD, hypersalivation, vomiting, diarrhoea, prolapsed
nictitating membrane, decreased sight and paradoxical increase in
sensitivity to sound.
It should not be used with severely impaired liver, kidney and heart
function.
As will all psychoactive medication, it should be used in conjunction with
a behaviour modification plan.

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Short-acting event drugs
Event medications are useful for particular events, as their onset of action is quite fast (1-2 hours)
compared to that of long-term maintenance medications. They are useful in the short term to help
prevent fear, anxiety and hyper-arousal associated with potentially stressful events. They may help to
prevent particular behaviours occurring while owners/caregivers make appropriate changes to an
animal’s environment or whilst waiting for maintenance medication to reach clinical efficacy.
Examples of events a patient may find aversive or overwhelming may be: a veterinary visit, house
visitors/a party, fireworks, moving house, a journey, other animals, a holiday, a new family member,
a new household pet, thunderstorms or when starting to training them to settle in a new safe place
etc.

Three of these event drugs (trazodone, clonidine and alprazolam) can be used on their own, or
together for added effect, depending on the individual patient’s needs. Anecdotally, pets recover more
quickly, and without physiological signs of distress, if they have received a benzodiazepine before or
after predictable stressful experiences, e.g. before a grooming session, a physiotherapy session, or a
vet visit (prior to behavioural help to overcome this). However, not all individuals respond well to
specific drugs, so treatment needs to be tailored to the individual.

Trazodone
Type: This is an atypical antidepressant (SARI – Serotonin antagonist and
reuptake inhibitor) with mixed serotonergic agonistic and antagonistic
actions providing both anxiolytic and sedative effects.

Recommended use: It is used before short-term fear-inducing situations including vet visits or
when needed over weeks or months to help patients cope with post-
surgical confinement. It is also used longer term in dogs with chronic
anxiety that is unresponsive to other medications.

Dosage: Dogs: For events – 3-10 mg/kg given 1-2 hours before the event.
For short-term anxiety associated with hospitalisation – 4mg/Kg every 12
hours, titrated up to 10-12mg/kg as necessary (max 300mg per dose and
600mg over 24 hours).
For chronic anxiety – 3-5mg/kg every 12 hours, titrated upwards every 7-
10 days if required to 10mg/kg (max dose of 300mg for dogs >40kg).
Higher doses cause sedation without increased anxiolysis.
Cats: 15-25mg/cat (can go up to 50mg/cat) every 24hrs if needed, or
given 1 hour before an event (travel or vet/examination-related anxiety).

Notes: Trial dosing of trazodone on a normal day is recommended to assess the

time of onset (as in some cases it may be more than 2 hours) and to
determine its effect when no fear-inducing stimuli are present.
Doses may need to be increased if used long term as tolerance can
develop. Lower end doses may be used adjunctively with SSRIs (e.g.
Fluoxetine) and TCAs (e.g. Clomipramine) but not MAOIs (e.g. Selegiline).

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 Potential side-effects include sedation, vomiting, and diarrhoea.
Paradoxical side effects such as excessive vocalisation and agitation have
been reported but are quite rare.
Use with caution in renal patients. Also use with caution in animals with
cardiac problems as it may cause hypotension. Contra-indicated in those
with glaucoma, severe liver disease, history of seizures or urinary
retention. Should not be used with drugs metabolised by cytochrome
P450. Ketoconazole, itraconazole and carbamazepine affect blood levels
of trazadone.

Serotonin Syndrome: If a patient is prescribed more than one serotonergic medication (or
serotonin-enhancing nutraceutical) at the same time, or a high dose of a single serotonergic
medication, they have an increased risk of developing Serotonin Syndrome. This can involve mental,
neuromuscular or autonomic effects. Mild/early signs are restlessness, pacing, tremors, panting,
agitation, diarrhoea and vomiting. More severe signs include seizures, hyperthermia tachycardia etc.
and death can occur in extreme cases. Although rare, owners/caregivers should be informed of this
risk. Stopping the medication is usually curative but benzodiazepines can be used when myoclonus
and hypothermia are present and propranolol can be used in severe cases.

Dexmedetomidine
Licensed as: Sileo®
Type: Agonist at peripheral and central α-2 adrenoceptors producing dose-
dependent sedation, muscle relaxation and analgesia. It is licensed for
the alleviation of acute sound sensitivity and associated anxiety

Description: A gel formulation containing 0.1mg/ml

Recommended use: It is applied to a patient’s buccal mucosa before events, e.g. a vet visit or
predicted fireworks.
It is useful for one-off events or if owners/caregivers have to do
something that the patient finds aversive, before they have been
prepared for it.

Dosage: Dogs: This medication is used “as and when needed”. It is recommended
to be administered 30-60 minutes before the onset of noise and dosing
can be repeated after 2-3 hours for up to 5 doses.
Cats: Not licensed in cats – administration likely to be difficult.

Notes: Suitability for an individual depends on how comfortable they are with
handing around the mouth.

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Clonidine (Catapres)
Type: It is a selective α2-adrenergic agonist and reduces the release of
noradrenaline from the locus coeruleus.
Recommended use: It can be used to treat panic disorders and fear-based behaviour
problems in dogs, for patients who experience high arousal with fear.

Dosage: Dogs: 0.01-0.05mg/kg (with a maximum dose of 0.9mg) as needed, either

before an event or every 12 hours.
Onset of action is approximately 30 minutes and duration is 3-4 hours. It
can be used over longer term but may take 1-2 weeks to achieve its full
effect.
Cats: No established dose – anecdotal dose 0.025 – 0.1mg/cat every 12
hours.
Notes: 0.1mg sized tablets are available from human pharmacies. Be aware that
the tablets come in microgram sizes. Because of the tablet sizes, many
tablets are required to dose a large dog.
It is easier to administer than Sileo® to dogs who do not accept handling
of their mouths but does not have a veterinary licence.
It should be withdrawn gradually to avoid hypertension.
Use cautiously in patients with renal or cardiovascular disease. Do not
use concurrently with opiates, barbiturates or hypotensive agents such
as beta-blockers.

Alprazolam (Xanax)
Type: Benzodiazepine
Description: It potentiates GABA binding to the GABAA receptor therefore increasing
the activity of GABA (a major inhibitory transmitter) within the CNS
resulting in anxiolysis and a range of cognitive effects including inhibition
of memory.

Recommended use: It can be given as an event medication for anxiolysis and to reduce
memory. Human studies suggest that it may provide retrograde
amnesia. It is useful for any event which the patient may perceive to be
traumatic, but is not appropriate for use when an animal is being trained
as it may impair learning.
Examples of when it may be useful:
• Situational use for phobic events e.g. fireworks, thunderstorms.
• While a patient is going through a desensitisation program to the
veterinary experience but they need an urgent veterinary procedure
(The medication helps them to get through the procedure without
retaining a strong memory of it which could set back the
desensitisation).
• After a dog fight or attack, or a car accident/road traffic collision or
something the dog may have perceived as traumatic, to potentially

9
 be able to provide retrograde amnesia and therefore prevent the dog
feeling traumatised.
Dosage: Dogs: Dose rates for anxiolysis are 0.01-0.1mg/kg p.o. as needed up to 4
times daily.
Depending on the results of initial dose trials at the low end of the dose
range (approx. 0.02mg/kg) and if necessary at mid-range (0.04-
0.05mg/kg), the dose can be titrated up or down to the minimum
effective dose.
Cats: 0.125-0.25mg/cat

Notes: Alprazolam (and other benzodiazepines) should be trialled on a quiet,

uneventful day when the owner/caregiver is present to establish the
effect on the individual of the dose given and ensure that they don’t
experience paradoxical excitement, sedation or ataxia.
Diazepam may be an appropriate alternative if trial dosing indicates that
it is effective for an individual.
Lorazepam in another benzodiazepine that can be used but there is a
lack of controlled studies to support its use.
Longer-term use of benzodiazepines can lead to dependence so any
animal who has been given them for 2 weeks or more should be gradually
weaned off rather than stopping them abruptly.

Gabapentin
Type: This is a Schedule 3 drug. The precise mechanism of action is unknown,
but it appears to bind to a specific modulating protein of voltage-gated
calcium channels resulting in a decreased release of excitatory
neurotransmitters. Gabapentin is structurally related to GABA and does
increase levels of GABA in the CNS but does not appear to alter GABA
binding, uptake or release.
Recommended use: For the control of seizures and to treat chronic (especially neuropathic)
pain. It is also used in the treatment of generalised anxiety, impulsivity,
mood disorders and self-trauma, particularly when there is a pain
component (e.g. acral lick dermatitis and feline idiopathic cystitis, either
alone or in conjunction with SSRI’s such as fluoxetine). Can be helpful as
an anxiolytic prior to vet visits, either alone or in conjunction with
trazodone. In cats it is effective as a sole agent in this context, but
anecdotally may be less effective in dogs.
Dosage: Dogs: 10-20mg/kg every 6-8 hours. Higher doses may be used as a “one-
off” as needed for events (20-30mg/kg), for example, pre-vet visit when
combined with another event medication, e.g. trazodone.
Cats: 5-10mg/kg every 8-12 hours. Higher doses may be
used as a “one-off” as needed for events (50mg-100mg/CAT), given 1-2
hours before an event (for example, travel or vet examination).

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 Notes: In some cases, patients become more anxious and hypervigilant rather
than calmer. Side effects include mild sedation and ataxia. Gradual
withdrawal is required.
Use with care if renal disease or severe hepatic disease. Do not give at
same time as antacids. Avoid oral solutions containing xylitol.

Disinhibition of aggression
There is often a concern about so-called 'disinhibition of aggression' which could be associated with
some anxiolytic drugs, particularly benzodiazepines. This is based on the idea that some animals
might inhibit an aggressive response when they are fearful and the medication reduces this fear
sufficiently for them to react aggressively. There is little scientific evidence for this and the initial idea
came from human psychiatry 50 or so years ago (Denenberg, 2021). It is now considered likely that
any aggression associated with the use of benzodiazepines is related to feelings of dysphoria and
restlessness. Anecdotally, it is more likely to occur in animals who have pre-existing poor impulse
control.
Overall, it is generally the case that appropriately addressing a patients’ underlying emotional state
through the use of anxiolytics, and the changes in behaviour that this leads to, are more significant
than the small risk of increasing aggression, but owners/care-givers should be warned of the
possibility. They should be advised to take safety precautions and monitor their pets carefully,
especially if there are children in the family.

Facilitating a smoother veterinary visit

An event medication can be given before a veterinary visit, to avoid any risk of the patient having a
perceived negative experience which could affect how they feel about veterinary visits in future.

Prior to its use for a veterinary visit, the drug should be trialled on a normal day at home to ensure
that no adverse effects or excitation occur. It can then be given the night before and the morning of
the vet visit. After administration, caregivers
should provide a non-stressful non-
stimulatory environment for their pet while
the medication takes effect (so ensure it is
given in plenty of time at home before the
stresses of a car journey, a busy car park and
waiting room).

A subcutaneous injection using a new narrow

bore (orange) needle for sedative agents is
less likely to cause pain to a patient than an
intramuscular one.

Allowing them to calmly relax after a sedative

injection on their own bed brought from
home, in their caregiver’s company, in a
quiet, darkened room, can help patients feel
more comfortable and secure. It is then

11
possible to administer further agents to induce full GA if required and reverse the sedation as and
when appropriate. The calm state of the patient makes it easier to perform other procedures that
might be necessary at the same time, for example, vaccinations, blood samples, checking teeth,
checking ears, radiographs if indicated/suspicious of pain, trimming nails (of course), expressing anal
glands, clipping fur short. The latter is useful for patients who are overwhelmed by being groomed to
allow caregivers time to work on desensitising them to grooming before the next session is required.

References
Crowell-Davis, S.L., Seibert, L.M., Sung, W. et al (2003) “Use of clomipramine, alprazolam, and behaviour
modification for treatment of storm phobia in dogs” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 222:
746-748
Denenberg, S. and Thompson, A. (2020) “Small Animal Veterinary Psychiatry” CABI
Engel, O., Masic, A., Landsberg, G. et al. (2018) “Imepitoin shows benzimidazole-like effects in models of
anxiety.” Frontiers in Pharmacology 9: 1225

King, J.N., Simpson, B.S., Overall, K.L. et al (2000) “Treatment of separation anxiety in dogs with clomipramine:
results from a prospective, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, multicenter clinical
trial.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 67: 255-275

King, J.N., Overall, K.L., Appleby, D. et al. (2004) “Results of a follow-up investigation to a clinical trial testing the
efficacy of clomipramine in the treatment of separation anxiety in dogs.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 89:
233-242

Korpivaara, M., Laapas, K. Huhtinen, M. et al. (2017) “Dexmetedomidine oromucosal gel for noise-associated
acute anxiety and fear in dogs – a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study.” Veterinary
Record 180: 356

McPeake, K. et al. (2017) “Noise sensitivities in dogs: a new licensed treatment option.” Veterinary Record 180:
353-355

McPeake, K. and Mills, D. (2017) “The use of imepitoin (Pexion) on fear and anxiety related problems in dogs – a
case series.” BMC Veterinary Research

Mills, D.S., Demontigny-Bedard, I., Gruen, M., et al (2020) “Pain and problems behavior in cats and dogs.”
Animals, 10(2): 318

Ogata, N. and Dodman, N.H. (2011) “The use of clonidine in the treatment of fear-based behaviour problems in
the dog: an open trial.” Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 6: 130-137

Simpson, B.S., Landsberg, G.M. Reisner, I.R. et al. (2007) “Effects of reconcile (fluoxetine) chewable tablets plus
behaviour management for canine separation anxiety.” Veterinary Therapeutics 8: 18-31

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