MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

DEFORMATION OF BODIES LECTURE NOTES

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Stress and Strain Relations for Axial Loading
 From
𝑷 𝜹
𝝈≡ 𝝐≡ 𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐
𝑨 𝑳
 We calculate 𝜹 as:
𝑷
𝜹=𝝐∗𝑳= 𝝈
𝑳= 𝑨 𝑳
𝑬 𝑬
 Thus,
𝑷𝑳
𝜹=
𝑨𝑬
Elongation of Bodies
 Elongation of Bodies: The transformation of  Engineering Strain (Axial)
a body from a reference (initial) configuration
to a current configuration.
• Configuration - a set of parameters describing
the position of all the points of the body.
• Ductility (percent elongation) - permanent  True Strain (Axial)
engineering strain after failure.
• Ultimate tensile strength (tensile strength) -
maximum engineering stress
• Yield strength - stress at which permanent
deformation is first observed (based on 0.2%
offset method).  Engineering Shear Strain (we will get back to
 Constitutive Equations this when we discuss Mohr’s Circle).
• Hooke’s Law forAxial Loading

• Hooke’s Law of Shearing

Example of Direct Application of Hooke’s Law

Problem:
A rigid bar AB, 9 m long, is supported
A = 445 mm2
by two vertical rods at its end and in a E = 2 x 105
horizontal position under a load P as
A = 1000 mm2
shown in figure. Find the position of E = 1 x 105 9m
the load P so that the bar AB remains 3m 5m
horizontal. A
From Statics: B
P = xP/9 + (9-x)P/9
P = Fa + Fb 1 = x/9 + 9/9 – x/9 x
Fb = xP/9 1=1 P
Fa = (9-x)P/9
Nothing happened.
Example of Direct Application of Hooke’s Law

For the bar to be in horizontal position, Displacements atA

& B should be same,
A = B 5m

(FaL/AE)A =(FbL/AE)B A = 1000 mm2 A = 445 mm2

E = 1 x 105 9m E = 2 x 105
[P(9-x)/9]*3 = [Px/9]*5
3m
(0.001)(1x105) (0.000445)(2x105)
(9 - x)*3=x*5*1.1236
Fa = P(9-x)/9 Fb = P(x)/9
27-3x = 5.618 x
8.618 x=27 A B
x = 3.13 m Answer. 

x
P
Bars of Varying Sections of Different Materials
 Superposition Principle ofAxial Deformation.
The total deformation is equal to the sum of
deformation in each component.
𝒏
𝑭𝒊𝑳𝒊 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝑘
𝜹=෍ 𝑃3
𝑨𝒊 𝑬 𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

𝐴2 , 𝐸2 , 𝐿2 𝐴3 , 𝐸3 , 𝐿3 𝐴𝑛 , 𝐸𝑛 , 𝐿𝑛
𝐴1 , 𝐸1 , 𝐿1
where:
n = number of components or parts
Fi = Internal load on part i TIP:
Li = Length of part i 1) Conduct static equilibrium analysis of the applied
loads, P1, P2, …, Pk.
Ai = cross sectional area of part iI
Ei = Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) of 2) Based on the resolution of the forces, obtain the
the material for part i internal forces F1, F2, …, Fn on the cross section of
the component.
Illustration

 Example
Determine the deformation of the steel rod
SOLUTION:
shown under the given loads.
• Divide the rod into components at
the load application points.

E  200 GPa
• Apply a free-body analysis on each
D  27.64 mm. d  15.96 mm. component to determine the
internal force

• Evaluate the total of the component

deflections.
Illustration
SOLUTION: Divide the rod into three components: L3  0.4 m.
L1  L2  0.3m.
A1  A2  600 mm 2 A3  200 mm 2

• Apply free-body analysis to each component to

determine internal forces, P  260  103 N
1

P2   7 0  1 0 3 N
P3  1 3 0  1 0 3 N

• Evaluate total deflection,

PiLi 1  P1L1 P2L2 P3L3 

     
i AE
i i E  A1 A2 A3 
1 260103 300 70103300 130103400
 5
  
210  600 600 200 
1.775mm.  1.775mm.
Illustration
Problem 2:
Determine the relative displacement of point D
from O for the elastic steel bar of variable cross
section shown in the figure caused by the
application of concentrated forces P1 = 100 kN
and P1 = 200 kN acting to the left, P2 = 250 kN
and P4 = 50 kN acting to the right.
The respective areas for bar segments OB, BC,
and CD are 1000, 2000,AND 1000 mm2. Let E =
200 GPa.
Example
Continuation of the solution:  Diagrams

Note: 1 mm is a large deformation.

Illustration

Example 1::
20 kN 15 kN
A prismatic steel bar having cross sectional area of 15 kN
A=300 mm2 is subjected to axial load as shown in
figure . Find the net increase  in the length of C B A
the bar. 1m 1m 2m
Assume E = 2 x 10 5 MPa.
Solution: 15 A 15
𝒏
𝑭𝒊 𝑳𝒊 0 B
0
𝜹=෍
𝑨𝒊 𝑬 𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 20 20
C
 = 20000*1000/(300*2x105) + 0 + -15000*2000/(300*2 x105)
= 0.33 + 0 - 0.5 = -0.17 mm

A contraction.
Example
Example 4
Square Circular
An aluminum bar 1.8 meters long has a 25 17500 N
mm square c/s over 0.6 meters of its length
and 25 mm circular c/s over other 1.2 meters.
How much will the bar elongate under a
tensile load P=17500 N, if E = 75000 MPa. s = 25 mm d = 25 mm

0.6 m 1.2 m
Solution

 = ∑PL/AE =

= 17500*600/(252*75000) + 17500*1200/(0.785*252*75000)

=0.794 mm
Compounded Bar
 Illustrative System:A solid box enclosed in the
hollow tube and subjected toa compression
force P through right collars.

 Assumption: The internal forces in the 𝑭𝟏 , 𝑨𝟏 , 𝑬𝟏 , 𝑳𝟏

component are uniaxial.
P P
𝑭𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 , 𝑬𝟐 , 𝑳𝟐
 Analysis:
• Same deformation for each component. 𝑭𝒏 , 𝑨𝒏 , 𝑬𝒏 , 𝑳𝒏
• The applied loads will be distributed to
each component.
𝑭𝟏𝑳𝟏 𝑭𝟐𝑳𝟐 𝑭 𝒏𝑳 𝒏
 Equations: 𝜹 = = = ⋯ =
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝑨𝒏𝑬 𝒏
𝒏 𝒏
𝑨𝒊𝑬 𝒊
𝑷=෍ 𝑭𝒊 = 𝜹 ෍
𝑳𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏
Example:

𝜹𝒔𝒕 𝜹𝒂𝒍

14
Stress due to Self Weight
Given: Bar of length l (meter) and area A (m2) rigidly fixed at
one end.  = density of material. LMPN = small strip of bar
dy = thickness of LMPN; y = distance of LMPN from free end.

Analysis:
Force acting down at NP = weight of bar NPTS = Ay
The stress at section NP is:

The total elongation of the bar is

The stress at any section due to self weight of the bar is 

directly proportional to y. Stress at end (y=0): zero; Max.
stress (at (y =l): 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9.81 𝜌𝑙
Since dy is too small, LM and NP are practically identical.
 In comparison, equivalent elongation based
on average stress calculation is:
Strain in Length:
Stress due to Self Weight
Calculation of Deformation based on Average Stress

W = V = Al
𝑾 𝑨𝒍𝜸
𝝈𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑨 =
𝑨
𝝈𝒂𝒗𝒆 =l

/l= 𝝈𝒂𝒗𝒆 /E =l/E

 = l2/E = 9.81 l2
E
Continuously Varying Area
Example:
Example:

18
Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stress
Given: Solid material expands (contracts) upon application
(removal) of heat. The change in length is directly
proportional to change in temperature.

Analysis: 𝜹
The linear relation is represented by
𝛼 = ε/ΔT
where
If the bar is constrained: The resulting thermal
𝛼 = Coefficient of Thermal Expansion [1/C]
stress is
 = strain [mm/mm]
𝛿𝐸
T = change in temperature [C] 𝜎𝑡 ℎ = = 𝐸𝛼∆𝑇
𝐿
Since strain is ε =𝛿/L, we have
𝜹 Stress will be compressive if ∆𝑻 is positive.
𝜶= 𝜹 = 𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻)
𝑳∆𝑻 Stress will be tensile if ∆𝑻 is negative.
𝛿 = thermal deflection (deformation), mm
Elongation of Bodies
 Elongation of Bodies: The transformation of  Engineering Strain (Axial)
a body from a reference (initial) configuration
to a current configuration.
• Configuration - a set of parameters describing
the position of all the points of the body.
• Ductility (percent elongation) - permanent  True Strain (Axial)
engineering strain after failure.
• Ultimate tensile strength (tensile strength) -
maximum engineering stress
• Yield strength - stress at which permanent
deformation is first observed (based on 0.2%
offset method).  Engineering Shear Strain (we will get back to
 Constitutive Equations this when we discuss Mohr’s Circle).
• Hooke’s Law forAxial Loading

• Hooke’s Law of Shearing

Bars of Varying Sections of Different Materials
 Superposition Principle ofAxial Deformation.
The total deformation is equal to the sum of
deformation in each component.
𝒏
𝑭𝒊𝑳𝒊 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝑘
𝜹=෍ 𝑃3
𝑨𝒊 𝑬 𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

𝐴2 , 𝐸2 , 𝐿2 𝐴3 , 𝐸3 , 𝐿3 𝐴𝑛 , 𝐸𝑛 , 𝐿𝑛
𝐴1 , 𝐸1 , 𝐿1
where:
n = number of components o parts
Fi = Internal load on part i TIP:
Li = Length of part i 1) Conduct static equilibrium analysis of the applied
loads, P1, P2, …, Pk.
Ai = cross sectional area of part iI
Ei = Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) of 2) Based on the resolution of the forces, obtain the
the material for part i internal forces F1, F2, …, Fn on the cross section of
the component.
Bars of Varying Sections of Different Materials: Additional
Example
Problem: Determine the total elongation or
deformation in the bar.

Solution:
Compounded Bar
 Illustrative System:A solid box enclosed in the
hollow tube and subjected toa compression
force P through right collars.

 Assumption: The internal forces in the 𝑭𝟏 , 𝑨𝟏 , 𝑬𝟏 , 𝑳𝟏

component are uniaxial.
P P
𝑭𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 , 𝑬𝟐 , 𝑳𝟐
 Analysis:
• Same deformation for each component. 𝑭𝒏 , 𝑨𝒏 , 𝑬𝒏 , 𝑳𝒏
• The applied loads will be distributed to
each component.
𝑭𝟏𝑳𝟏 𝑭𝟐𝑳𝟐 𝑭 𝒏𝑳 𝒏
 Equations: 𝜹 = = = ⋯ =
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝑨𝒏𝑬 𝒏
𝒏 𝒏
𝑨𝒊𝑬 𝒊
𝑷=෍ 𝑭𝒊 = 𝜹 ෍
𝑳𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏
Stress due to Self Weight
Given: Bar of length l (meter) and areaA (m2) rigidly fixed at
one end.  = density of material. LMPN = small strip of bar
dy = thickness of LMPN; y = distance of LMPN from free end.

Analysis:
Force acting down at NP = weight of bar NPTS = Ay
The stress at section NP is:

The total elongation of the bar is

The stress at any section due to self weight of the bar is

directly proportional to y. Stress at end (y=0): zero; Max.
stress (at (y =l): 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9.81 𝜌𝑙
Since dy is too small, LM and NP are practically identical.
Strain in Length:
Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stress
Given: Solid material expands (contracts) upon application
(removal) of heat. The change in length is directly
proportional to change in temperature.

Analysis: 𝜹
The linear relation is represented by
𝛼 = ε/ΔT
where
If the bar is constrained: The resulting thermal
𝛼 = Coefficient of Thermal Expansion [1/C]
stress is
 = strain [mm/mm]
𝛿𝐸
T = change in temperature [C] 𝜎𝑡 ℎ = = 𝐸𝛼∆𝑇
𝐿
Since strain is ε =𝛿/L, we have
𝜹 Stress will be compressive if ∆𝑻 is positive.
𝜶= 𝜹 = 𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻)
𝑳∆𝑻 Stress will be tensile if ∆𝑻 is negative.
𝛿 = thermal deflection (deformation), mm
Thermal Stresses
• Atemperature change results in a change in length or thermal strain.
There is no stress associated with the thermal strain unless the
elongation is restrained by the supports.

• Treat the additional support as redundant and apply the principle of

superposition.
T   T L  P  PL
AE
  thermal expansion coef.
• The thermal deformation and the deformation from the redundant
support must be compatible.
𝑃𝐿
𝛼 Δ𝑇 𝐿 + =0
𝐴𝐸
𝜹 = 𝜹 𝑻 + 𝜹𝑷 = 𝟎
𝑃 = −𝐴𝐸𝛼 Δ𝑇
𝑃
𝜎 = = −𝐸𝛼 Δ𝑇
𝐴
Managing thermal stress
 Most structures, small or large, are made of two or more materials that are
clamped, welded or otherwise bonded together. This causes problems when
temperatures change.

 Railway track will bend and buckle in exceptionally hot weather (steel, high α,
clamped to mother earth with a much lower α).

 Bearings seize, doors jam

 Thermal distortion is a particular problem in equipment designed for precise
measurement or registration like that used to make masks for high-performance
computer chips, causing loss of accuracy when temperatures change.
Continuously Varying Area
Statically Indeterminate Problems

“Statically Indeterminate” means that the number of unknowns exceeds the number of
available equations of equilibrium.
Statics (equilibrium analysis) alone cannot solve the problem

nR = # of reactions (or unknowns)

nE = # of equilibrium equations

If nR = nE: statically determinate

- forces in each member only depend on equilibrium.
If nR > nE: statically indeterminate
too many unknowns, must invoke a constraint such as a deformation relation.
Static Indeterminacy

• Structures for which internal

forces and reactions cannot
be determined from statics
alone are said to be statically
indeterminate.

• In general, a structure will be

statically indeterminate
whenever it is held by more
supports than are required to
maintain its equilibrium.
Static Indeterminacy

• Redundant reactions are

replaced with unknown loads
which along with the other
loads must produce compatible
deformations.

• Superposition: Deformations
due to actual loads and
redundant reactions are
determined separately and then
added or superposed.

𝜹 = 𝜹𝑳 + 𝜹𝑹 = 𝟎
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration
Problem: Determine the reactions at A and B for
the steel bar and loading shown, assuming a
close fit at both supports before the loads are
applied.

General Solution Strategy:

• Consider the reaction at B as redundant,
release the bar from that support, and solve
for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads.
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the
redundant reaction at B.
• Require that the displacements due to the
loads and due to the redundant reaction be
compatible, i.e., require that their sum be
zero.
• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied loads
and the reaction found at B.
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration
SOLUTION:
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied • Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant
loads with the redundant constraint released, constraint,
P1  0 P2  P3  600103 N P4  900103 N P1  P2  RB

A1  A2  400106 m 2 A3  A4  250106 m 2 A1  400106 m 2 A2  25010 6 m 2

L1  L2  L3  L4  0.150 m L1  L2  0.300 m

L   Pi Li  1.125109
δR    
Pi Li   1.95103 RB
i AiEi E i Ai Ei E
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration

• Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to

the redundant reaction be compatible,
𝛿 = 𝛿 𝐿 + 𝛿𝑅 = 0
1.125 × 109 1.95 × 103 𝑅𝐵
𝛿= − =0
𝐸 𝐸
𝑅𝐵 = 577 × 103N = 577 kN

• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

 Fy  0  R A  300 kN  600 kN  577 kN
RA  323kN

RA  323kN
RB  577kN
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration
Problem: The figure shows a rigid barABC hinge atA
and suspended at two points B and C by two bars BD
and CE made of aluminum and steel respectively. D E
The bar carries a load of 2000 kg midway between B
and C. The cross sectional area of aluminum bar BD Aluminum P = 20 kN St eel
and steel bar CE are 3 an 2 square mm, respectively. 1m
Determine the load taken by the two bars BD and CE.
Use 69 GPa and 196 GPa for the modulus of elasticity
ofAluminum and Steel. A B C
Required: FBD and FCE.
Assumption: No horizontal reaction atA. 1m 1m
Analysis:
Unknown forces: 3 forces (Reaction atA, Internal
force at bar BD and at bar CE.) Bar BD: Bar CE:
Material:Aluminum Material: Steel
Static Equilibrium will only give us the 2 equations. ABD = 3 mm2 ACE = 2 mm2
We use Compatibility condition and Hooke’s Law to EAl = 69 GPa ESt = 69 GPa
establish the third equation that will complete the
solution.
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration
Solution: Sum of Fy is zero: 𝑭𝑨 + 𝑭𝑩𝑫 + 𝑭𝑪𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵
Sum of Moment atA: 1 𝐹𝐵𝐷 + 2 𝐹𝐶𝐸 = (1.5)20 LBD = 1m LCE = 1m
ABD = 3 mm2 ACE = 2 mm2
𝑭𝑩𝑫 = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝑭𝑪𝑬 EAl = 69 GPa ESt = 196 GPa

Compatibility: Rod ABC is rigid and will remain straight. Due to load
P, ABC will rotate at pt. A with small deflection. For compatibility,
deformations at BD and CE must follow the geometry shown. By
similar triangle and by Hooke’s Law, we get, P=
𝐹𝐶𝐸𝐿𝐶𝐸 𝐹 𝐿 20 kN
𝛿𝐶𝐸 = 2𝛿𝐵𝐷 = 2 𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷 𝐅𝐁𝐃 𝐅𝐂𝐄
𝐴𝐶𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑡 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐸𝐴𝑙
Thus, 𝐹𝐶𝐸 (1) 𝐹𝐵𝐷(1)
=2 𝑭𝑪𝑬 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟖𝟕𝟒𝑭𝑩𝑪 A 0.5 m
(2)(196) (3) (69)
𝐅𝐀
Solving the 3 equations simultaneously, we obtain
1m 1m
𝑭𝑩𝑫 = 𝒌𝑵 FBD = 2.3324 kN
FCE= 8.8338 kN 𝛿𝐵𝐷 𝛿𝐶𝐸
𝑭𝑪𝑬 = 𝒌𝑵 FA = 8.8338 kN
Note: An exaggeration
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration
Problem: The rigid bar BDE is supported by two
links AB and CD. Link AB is made of aluminum
(E = 70 GPa) and has a cross sectional area of
500 mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of (600
mm2). For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.
Analysis:

1.Apply a free-body analysis to the bar BDE to find the

forces exerted by links AB and DC.

2. Evaluate the deformation of links AB and DC or the

displacements of B and D.

3. Work out the geometry to find the deflection at E

given the deflections at B and D.
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration

Solution:
Free body: Bar BDE

෍ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

0 = − 30kN × 0.6m + 𝐹𝐶𝐷 × 0.2m

𝐹𝐶𝐷 = +90kN [𝑇]

෍ MD = 0

0 = − 30kN × 0.4m − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 × 0.2m

𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −60kN [𝐶]
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration

Solution:
Displacement of B:
𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝐵 = 𝐴𝐸

−60 × 103N 0.3m

=
500 × 10−6m2 70 × 109Pa

= −514 × 10−6m

B  0.514mm
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration

Solution:
Displacement of D:
𝑷𝑳
𝜹𝑫 = 𝑨𝑬

90×103N 0.4m
=
600 × 10−6m2 200 × 109Pa

= 300 × 10−6m

 D  0.300 mm 
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration

Solution:
Displacement of E:
BB  BH original
DD HD
0.514 mm  200 mm x final
0.300 mm x
x  73.7 mm
EE  HE
DD HD
E  400  73.7 mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
 E  1.928mm  E  1.928 mm 
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration

 Example:
Statically Indeterminate System: Illustration

Steel

Brass

NOTE: MUDDY USE OF VARIABLES. YOUR

JOB IS TO MAKE YOUR OWN SOLUTION.
Homework: Problem No. 1
 Derive a general formula for the
elongation of bars 1 and 2.
Homework: Problem No. 2

27
Homework: Problem No. 3

28
Homework: Problem No. 4

29
Homework: Problem No. 5

30