Covalent and Metallic Bonding

CHAPTER 7
Covalent and Metallic

Bonding
© 2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited 1

Chapter 7 Covalent and Metallic Bonding
7.1 Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons
7.2 Structure and Properties of Covalent

Substances
7.3 Metallic Bond
2
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• describe the formation of a covalent bond by

the sharing of electrons;
• describe the formation of covalent bonds
between non-metallic elements using‘dot and
cross’diagrams;
• deduce the arrangement of electrons in
covalent molecules.
3
What is a Covalent Bond?

• Covalent bonds are formed between atoms of
non-metals.
• Valence electrons are shared between two atoms.
A covalent bond is the bond formed by the

sharing of electrons between two atoms.
• Each atom in the molecule achieves the stable

electronic configuration of a noble gas.
4
Formation of a Molecule
• Covalent bonds can be formed between
– atoms of the same element;
– atoms of different elements.
• A molecule is formed when a group of two or more
atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
• Examples of molecules of elements:
Hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), chlorine (Cl2)
• Examples of molecules of compounds:
Water (H2O), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2),
ammonia (NH3)
5
URL
Example: Hydrogen (H2)
1 1
H H H H
2 2
Each hydrogen atom By sharing electrons, each

has one electron in its atom has two electrons in
outer shell. its outer shell.
Each hydrogen atom has gained a stable duplet configuration.
URL
6
Example: Hydrogen (H2)

‘Dot and cross’ Structural Molecular Model
diagram formula formula
H H H—H H2 H H
This line represents a single covalent bond.
The sharing of two electrons results in the

formation of a single covalent bond.
7
Example: Chlorine (Cl2)
1 2 1 2
8 3 8 3
Cl Cl
7 Cl 4 7 Cl 4
6 5 6 5
Each chlorine atom has The two chlorine atoms combine

seven outer electrons. to share a pair of electrons.
Each chlorine atom has obtained an octet configuration.
Note: ‘Dot and cross’diagrams sometimes

only show outer shell electrons.
8
Example: Chlorine (Cl2)
‘Dot and cross’ Structural Molecular

Model
diagrams formula formula
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl — Cl Cl2 Cl Cl
As in the hydrogen molecule, a single covalent bond

is formed by sharing one pair of electrons.
9
Example: Oxygen (O2)
12 3 8 12
O 4 7O
O O 5 6
87 6 5 43
Each oxygen atom: The two oxygen atoms

• has six outer electrons. combine to share two pairs
of electrons.
• needs two more electrons
to form a stable octet
configuration.
Each oxygen atom has achieved
an octet electronic configuration.
10
Example: Oxygen (O2)

O O O O
O O O O O2
This represents a double covalent bond between the

two oxygen atoms.
The sharing of four electrons results in the formation
of a double covalent bond.
11
Example: Nitrogen (N2)

3 1
4 2
1 5 3 7
N N 2 N 6 4 N 8
7 5
8 6
Each nitrogen atom: The two nitrogen atoms

• has five outer electrons. combine to share three
• needs three more electrons pairs of electrons.
to form a stable octet
configuration.
Each nitrogen atom has achieved an octet electronic
configuration.
12
Example: Nitrogen (N2)

N N N N N N N2 N N
This represents a triple covalent bond between the

two nitrogen atoms.
The sharing of six electrons results in the formation of

a triple covalent bond.
13
Example: Water (H2O)
• A water molecule is formed by:

– two hydrogen atoms
– one oxygen atom O
• In a water molecule,
each hydrogen atom is bonded H H
to the oxygen atom by a single
covalent bond.
Two single
covalent bonds
are formed.
14

• The oxygen atom shares two 7 6
8 5
outer electrons with two hydrogen O
atoms.
1 4
• Each hydrogen atom shares its 2 3
1 1
outer electron with the oxygen
atom. 2
H 2 H
• The oxygen atom achieves an
octet electronic configuration.
• Each hydrogen atom achieves a
duplet electronic configuration.
15

O O O
H 2O H H
H H H H
The sharing of four electrons between oxygen

and hydrogen results in the formation of two
single covalent bonds.
16
Example: Methane (CH4)
• A methane molecule is formed by:

– four hydrogen atoms H H
– one carbon atom
C
• In a methane molecule,
four hydrogen atoms are bonded H H
to one carbon atom by four
single covalent bonds.
17

• The oxygen atom shares four
outer electrons with four hydrogen H 2 H
atoms. 1
1 2 3 2
• Each hydrogen atom shares its 1 4
outer electron with the carbon C
8 5
atom. 1 7 6 2
• The carbon atom achieves an H 2 1
H
octet electronic configuration.
• Each hydrogen atoms achieves a
duplet electronic configuration.
18

H
H H H
C H C H CH4 C H
H
H H H
H
The sharing of four electrons between a carbon atom

and four hydrogen atoms results in the formation of
four single covalent bonds. 19
Example: Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• A carbon dioxide molecule is formed from two oxygen
atoms and one carbon atom.
O C O
• The carbon atom has four outer electrons.

• It needs four more electrons to achieve an octet
configuration.
These come from two oxygen atoms 20

Each oxygen atom shares two of its outer electrons.
O C O
O C O
21

O C O C
O O
O C O CO2
A molecule with two double covalent bonds is formed.

22
7.2 Structure and Properties of

Covalent Substances
7.3 Metallic Bond
23
Substances
Learning Outcomes
• relate the physical properties of covalent

substances to their structure and bonding;
• compare the structures of simple molecular
substances and giant molecular substances to
deduce their properties;
• compare the bonding and structures of
diamond and graphite to deduce their physical
properties.
24
Substances
Bonding and Structure of Simple Molecular

Structures
• Most covalent substances exist as simple molecules.
• Atoms in the molecules are held by strong covalent bonds.
• Molecules are held together by

weak intermolecular forces of Br Br
attraction.
Br Br
Br Br
25
Substances
Melting and Boiling Points

1. Substances with simple molecular structures have low
melting and boiling points.
• Little energy is required to overcome the weak

intermolecular forces holding the molecules together.
• Hence, they have low melting and boiling points.
• They are usually gases or volatile liquids at room

temperature and pressure.
26
Substances
Solubility
2. Substances with simple molecular structures are usually
insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents.
Oil dissolves in dichloromethane but not in water.
An organic solvent
Other examples of organic solvents: Ethanol,

turpentine, benzene
Exceptions: Alcohol and sugar are soluble in water.

27
Substances
Electrical Conductivity
3. Most substances with simple molecular
structures do not conduct electricity in any state.
• Covalent substances have no free mobile ions

or electrons in their solid, liquid or gaseous
states.
• However, hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide and

ammonia form ions when dissolved in water.
Their ions would be mobile and act as charge
carriers to conduct electricity.
28
Substances
Giant Molecular Structures

• Some substances exist as a giant network of
atoms that are covalently bonded.
• These substances are called

giant molecular structures.
• Examples of substances with

giant molecular structures:
graphite, diamond and silicon
dioxide. diamond
29
Substances
Melting and Boiling Points

1. Substances with giant molecular structures have
very high melting and boiling points.
• This is due to the large number of atoms being held

by strong covalent bonds.
• These covalent bonds must first be broken to melt or

boil the substance.
• A large amount of energy is required to overcome

these bonds, leading to high melting and boiling points.
30
Substances
Solubility
2. Substances with giant molecular structures are
insoluble in both water and organic solvents.
• All atoms are held together by strong covalent

bonds and solvent molecules are not strong
enough to break the strong covalent bonds.
31
Substances
Electrical Conductivity
3. Substances with giant molecular structures do not
conduct electricity with the exception of graphite.
• All outer electrons are used to form covalent

bonds (except for graphite).
• There are no free electrons that move through the

structure to conduct electricity.
32
Substances
Diamond
• Allotrope of carbon
Alternate forms of an element
• Each carbon atom covalently

bonded to four other carbon atoms
• Three-dimensional giant lattice
carbon atom
33
Substances
Diamond
carbon atom
• Hard and has high melting
point
• A lot of energy required to break

down the covalent bonds
between the atoms
34
Substances
Diamond
• Does not conduct electricity
• Does not have free electrons

that can move through the
structure to conduct electricity
carbon atom
35
Substances
Graphite
• Allotrope of carbon
• Each carbon covalently

bonded to three other
carbon atoms
• Continuous layer of
hexagons carbon atom
36
Substances
Graphite
• A lot of energy required to break down the

strong covalent bonds between the carbon
atoms
• High melting point
carbon atom
37
Substances
Graphite
• Soft and slippery
• Two-dimensional layers
held by weak intermolecular
forces of attraction
• These layers of carbon

atoms can slide over each
other when a force is
applied.
38
Substances
Graphite
• Conductor of electricity
• Each carbon atom has

one outer electron not
used to form covalent
bonds.
• The electron moves freely

between the graphite
layers.
• We say the electron is

delocalised and carries charge.
URL 39
Substances
Silicon dioxide
silicon
• Found in sand
• Each silicon atom is

covalently bonded to four
oxygen atoms and each
oxygen atom is bonded to oxygen
two silicon atoms.
• High melting point
• Does not conduct

electricity
40

Substances
7.3 Metallic Bond
41
7.3 Metallic Bond
Learning Outcomes
• describe the structure of metals as a lattice of

positive ions in a ‘sea of electrons’;
• relate the physical properties of metals to their

structure.
42
7.3 Metallic Bond
Metallic Bonding
• Metal atoms are held strongly to each other by
metallic bonding to form a giant lattice structure.
• In the metal lattice, metal atoms lose their outer
electrons and become positively-charged ions.
• The outer electrons no longer belong to any metal

atom and are said to be delocalised.
• The outer electrons move freely between the metal
ions like a cloud of negative charge.
A metallic bond is the force of attraction between

positive metal ions and the 'sea of mobile electrons'.
43
7.3 Metallic Bond
Physical Properties of Metals

1. Good conductors of electricity
• Outer electrons are able to move freely within the

metal lattice.
• Mobile electrons carry charge, allowing the metal to

conduct electricity.
mobile
electron
44
7.3 Metallic Bond
2. Good conductors of heat
• Movement of the mobile electrons within the metal

lattice allows heat energy to be transferred easily.
mobile
electron
45
7.3 Metallic Bond

3. High densities
• Atoms are packed tightly together with little space

between them.
46
7.3 Metallic Bond

4. High melting points and boiling points
• Strong electrostatic forces exist between positively

charged metallic ions and the negatively charged
electron cloud.
• A large amount of energy

is required to break
strong metallic bonds.
47
7.3 Metallic Bond
5. Malleable
• Metals can be hammered into different shapes.
6. Ductile
• Metals can be drawn into wires without breaking
(ductile).
copper wires
48
7.3 Metallic Bond

(a) Before a force is applied, the metal atoms form an
orderly and rigid arrangement.
(b) When a force is applied, one layer of metal ions slides

over the other through the ‘sea of electrons’.
force is applied
The metallic bonding is not disrupted. 49

7.3 Metallic Bond
Good conductors of electricity

Good conductors of heat
High densities
High melting points
High boiling points
Malleable
Ductile
URL
50
Concept Map
51
Concept Map
52
The URLs are valid as at 15 October 2012.
Acknowledgements
(slide 1) diamond © Billyfoto | Dreamstime.com
(slide 33) diamond © Saperaud | Wikimedia Commons | CC BY 1.0

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/deed.en)
(slide 33) diamond drill bit © Rob and Stephanie Levy | Wikimedia Commons |
CC BY 2.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en)
(slide 38) pencil graphite © Juliancolton | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain
(slide 40) sand © Renee1137 | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain
(slide 42) metal screw © Uwe Hermann | Wikimedia Commons | CC BY-SA 2.5
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/deed.en)
53
(slide 48) copper wire © Scott Ehardt | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain

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CHAPTER 7

Covalent and Metallic

© 2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited 1

7.1 Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons

7.2 Structure and Properties of Covalent

7.3 Metallic Bond

• describe the formation of a covalent bond by

What is a Covalent Bond?

• Valence electrons are shared between two atoms.

A covalent bond is the bond formed by the

• Each atom in the molecule achieves the stable

Example: Hydrogen (H2)

Each hydrogen atom By sharing electrons, each

Each hydrogen atom has gained a stable duplet configuration.

Example: Hydrogen (H2)

This line represents a single covalent bond.

The sharing of two electrons results in the

Example: Chlorine (Cl2)

Each chlorine atom has The two chlorine atoms combine

Each chlorine atom has obtained an octet configuration.

Note: ‘Dot and cross’diagrams sometimes

Example: Chlorine (Cl2)

‘Dot and cross’ Structural Molecular

As in the hydrogen molecule, a single covalent bond

Example: Oxygen (O2)

Each oxygen atom: The two oxygen atoms

Example: Oxygen (O2)

This represents a double covalent bond between the

Example: Nitrogen (N2)

Each nitrogen atom: The two nitrogen atoms

Example: Nitrogen (N2)

This represents a triple covalent bond between the

The sharing of six electrons results in the formation of

Example: Water (H2O)

• A water molecule is formed by:

Example: Water (H2O)

Example: Water (H2O)

The sharing of four electrons between oxygen

Example: Methane (CH4)

• A methane molecule is formed by:

Example: Methane (CH4)

Example: Methane (CH4)

The sharing of four electrons between a carbon atom

Example: Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• The carbon atom has four outer electrons.

Example: Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Example: Carbon dioxide (CO2)

‘Dot and cross’ Structural Molecular Model

A molecule with two double covalent bonds is formed.

7.1 Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons

7.2 Structure and Properties of

7.3 Metallic Bond

• relate the physical properties of covalent

Bonding and Structure of Simple Molecular

• Atoms in the molecules are held by strong covalent bonds.

• Molecules are held together by

Melting and Boiling Points