BME 4322

ULTRASOUND TECHNIQUES
ULTRASOUND HARDWARE

Irem Demirkan, PhD

irem.demirkan@eng.bau.edu.tr
Physics of Ultrasound
Part 2: Ultrasound hardware

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Ultrasound imaging is based on the ‘pulse-
echo’ principle

• The distance of a reflecting object can be established

by the return time of a short pulse if the speed of the
pulse is known
• For a measured time t and known speed of sound c,
the distance in the pulse-echo technique is given by d:

𝑐𝑡
𝑑=
2

3
 A MODE

• Simplest form of ultrasound

imaging which is based on the
pulse-echo principle.
• A scans can be used to
measure distances.
• A scans only give one
dimensional information
• Not so useful for imaging
• Used for echo-encephalography
and echo-ophthalmoscopy
Amplitude (A) mode ultrasound displays the
ultrasound echoes along one beam, or ‘A Line’

Lmax

Amplitude
Gain
Amplitude
Amplitude

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Time (depth)
Amplitude (A) mode ultrasound displays the
ultrasound echoes along one beam, or ‘A Line’
• Ultrasound scanners assume c = 1540 m/s to locate reflections.
• Due to attenuation in tissue, echoes from similar reflectors will have
different amplitudes depending on their depth.
• For tissue imaging, it is desirable to remove this depth dependence so
that, for example, an image of the liver will appear uniform.
• This is achieved using time gain compensation (TGC), which is a gain
applied to the radiofrequency (RF) amplifier and increases with time
after the pulse is transmitted.
• A-mode places a restriction on pulse repetition frequency such that
enough time can elapse before the next pulse is transmitted for the
echo from the maximum imaging depth of penetration Lmax to return.
Amplitude (A) mode ultrasound displays the
ultrasound echoes along one beam, or ‘A Line’

Restriction on pulse repetition time (Tp) given by Lmax,

the maximum desired depth of penetration for imaging :

2L max
TP =
c

AAPM/RSNA Physics Tutorial for Residents: Topics in US

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 Brightness (B) mode uses each individual
echo strength to build up a 2D image
Amplitude
More reflective structures appear brighter
Time (depth)
Amplitude

Time (depth)
Amplitude

Time (depth)

• An image frame consists of many scan lines built up by sweeping the

ultrasound beam through the scan plane, either mechanically or
using phased arrays.
• Frame rate limited by the how quickly can obtain ultrasound signals
from multiple scan lines. frame rate * line density * FOV = constant. 8
Ultrasound imaging is based on the ‘pulse-echo’
principle :

• The maximum pulse repetition frequency is therefore

𝑐
PRF =
2𝑑
• The frame rate, or number of images produced per
second, is then dependent on the number of scan lines
needed to make up the B-mode image :

!
Frame rate = "#$
9
Block diagram of a typical ultrasound imaging
system and typical operator controls
Beam Signal
Transducer
former processing Image
Produces Display
Focus the Minimize memory
ultrasound pulse
pulse artifacts

Control Function
Output power Increases pulse amplitude (and associated
energy deposited in patient)
Receiver gain Increases size of received signal (but also
noise)
Time gain compensation Compensates for non-uniform acoustic data
Focusing Improves lateral resolution
Frame rate / line density / Product is constant, illustrating important
field of view trade-off
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The transducer

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 An ultrasound transducer is composed of three
main parts
• A pulse of sound waves is
transmitted into the body, and
the echo is detected with the
time of flight used to determine
the depth of the reflector that
generated the echo.
• Ultrasound waves are detected
using a transducer made from a
piezoelectric material.
• Damping material determines
bandwidth.
• Acoustic lens focuses generated
waves and matching layer
maximizes transmission of
produced ultrasound into the
tissue.
Lawrence (2007) Crit Care Med 12
The piezoelectric effect is the appearance of
surface charge in response to applied pressure

• Ultrasound is detected using this effect

• Piezoelectric materials also change dimension in
response to an applied electric field.
• This is used to produce the ultrasound waves by vibrations.
• Lead zirconate (PZT) is typically used in ultrasound
imaging. 13
Piezoelectric elements both generate and
detect ultrasound waves

~ ~

The application of a short (~ 1μs) pulse of high voltage (~ 150 V) causes PZT
contraction and subsequent vibration at a natural resonant frequency
14
 The crystal thickness (l) determines the ultrasound
frequency (f) produced

The time for the wave to make a return trip

between the faces of the crystal is one period, T
(units of seconds):
2𝑙
𝑇=
𝑐%&'
1 𝑐%&'
𝑓( = =
𝑇 2𝑙 𝜆
The fundamental mode (maximum pressure) occurs when 𝑙=
2
• Each crystal has a characteristic frequency,
• The largest resonance occurs when the wave travels from one face of the crystal, is reflected
at the opposite face and returns in one period, time T “half wavelength resonance”. 15
Example: Calculating required PZT thickness
• What thickness of PZT is required to produce an ultrasound wave of 5
MHz for imaging soft tissue?
• Speed of sound in PZT cPZT = 3791 ms-1

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 The pulse duration determines ultrasound axial
imaging resolution
• Axial resolution – Ability to discern two closely separated objects in the direction of
beamline.

Spatial Pulse Length

• Spatial pulse length (SPL) is the product of wavelength and the number of wave cycles
constituting the pulse.
• Axial resolution is equal to ½ spatial pulse length (SPL).
• Axial resolution is limited by SPL.
• The shorter the SPL, the better the axial resolution.
• Typically, the SPL of a pulsed beam of ultrasound is of the order of 1 -3 wavelengths of
the beam.
• Since frequency and wavelength are inversely related, the SPL will decrease with
increasing frequency (e.g., the higher the beam frequency, the better the axial
resolution.
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Example: Axial resolution
• What is the axial resolution in soft tissue of a 5 MHz transducer
producing a pulse of 3 cycles duration?
• How much better would this be at 10 MHz?

Frequency = 5MHz
1 cycle takes 1/5000000, 3 cycles take 3/5000000
So SPL = 1540 x (3/5000000) = 0.9 mm
Best possible spatial resolution is SPL/2 = 0.45 mm
At 10MHz ???

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The pulse frequency bandwidth is an important
consideration in transducer design
Long spatial pulse length Short spatial pulse length
Poor axial resolution Good axial resolution
Narrow frequency bandwidth Wide frequency bandwidth

Pulse bandwidth Δ𝑓
~ 1/pulse duration
SPL long SPL short

Energy Energy

f/f0 f/f0
0.8 1 1.2 0.8 1 1.2

• Bandwidth is the width at half maximum or is the width of frequency distribution.

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Example: Bandwidth
• What is the bandwidth of a 5 MHz transducer with a pulse duration of
2 cycles?

2 cycles takes --- 2/50000000,

Bandwidth --- 1/(2/50000000)

The bandwidth is 50% of f0, so a 5MHz imaging pulse is really a

pulse with central frequency 5 MHz but with above half maximum
energy between 2.5 MHz and 7.5 MHz.

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 Impedance matching determines the intensity
of ultrasound emitted Constructive Interference

A
B
A+B

Destructive Interference

Matching 2

Matching 3
Matching
Piezo
(PZT)

(Al)
A
B
A+B

λ λ
L= L=
2 4
The material should have an acoustic impedance of: 𝑍)*+!, = 𝑍%&' + 𝑍+-../0
- Offers the interface between the transducer element and the tissue,
- Minimizes the acoustic impedance differences between the transducer and the patient.
- Optimal impedance matching occurs when the thickness is one quarter of the wavelength – this keeps waves that were
reflected within the matching layer in phase when they exit the layer preventing destructive interference 21
Damping determines the bandwidth of
ultrasound emitted

Matching 2

Matching 3
Matching
Backing (

epoxy)

Piezo
(PZT)
W in

(Al)
Energy

Damped
High sensitivity
Optimal axial resolution
f/f0
0.8 1 1.2 22
Q factor describes how damped an oscillator
is

Matching 2

Matching 3
Matching
Backing (

epoxy)

Piezo
(PZT)
W in

(Al)
𝑓( energy stored per cycle
𝑄= or 𝑄=
Δ𝑓 energy lost per cycle
(𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)

High Q transducer is lightly damped and has a narrow bandwidth, so good for continuous wave ultrasound.

Low Q transducer is highly damped and has a wide bandwidth, so good for pulse echo imaging ultrasound.
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The ultrasound beam

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The simplest ultrasound case is a continuous wave
created by a circular disk of lead zirconate (PZT)
• The pressure (and intensity) field can be calculated using
Huygen’s principle for superposition of wavelets.

• Every point on the transducer surface is considered to

emit a spherical wave.

• The resulting pressure field is found by summing all the

waves, taking into account the phase of each
contribution.

• The mathematical integral is difficult to solve and is

typically treated numerically.

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 Considering the axial behaviour along the z
axis normal to the centre of the disk:
Length of near field
r 2 2 a2
a >> λ ⇒ z'max =
λ
Transducer radius a Iz
z
Last axial max

Iz "π %
I0
= sin 2 $
#λ ( )
a2 + z2 − z '
& z

Near field Far field

“Fresnel” “Fraunhofer”
• The pattern of the ultrasound intensity obeys Iz/I0, with repeating maxima and minima until the last axial maximum
occurs when a2 is much larger than the wavelength squared.
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• Most diagnostic ultrasound occurs in the near field zone.
In the far field regime, the cylindrical ultrasound
beam diverges
Near field : Adjacent
to the transducer
θ face,

• The ultrasound beam propagates as a longitudinal wave from transducer surface into
propagation medium, and exhibits two distinct patterns : a slightly converging beam out to a
distance speficied by the geometry and frequency of the transducer (the near field), and a
diverging beam beyond that point (the far field).
• The beam is cylindrical in shape close to the transducer (Fresnel zone) then becomes conical
further away (Fraunhofer zone).
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In the far field regime, the cylindrical
ultrasound beam diverges
Beam divergence angle
θ
Lateral behaviour
θ

On axis:
Iz 1
∝ 2
I0 z

I z 2J1 ( kasin θ )
Off axis: ∝
I0 kasin θ where J1 is a Bessel function of the first kind

Beam spreading angle or beam divergence :

3.83 0.61λ
sin θ = = 28
Lawrence (2007) Crit Care Med
ka a
Lateral resolution is determined by beam
divergence
• Ability to differentiate objects that are located side to side or perpendicular to the
beam axis.
• Dependent on focal depth,
Effective beam diameter is approximately equal to half the transducer diameter.

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The ultrasound beam can therefore be
shaped by adjusting transducer geometry

a2
z'max =
λ
a = 1cm, f = 2 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1 ⇒ λ = 0.77mm
z'max = 13cm, θ = 2.7!
a = 1cm, f = 4 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1 ⇒ λ = 0.39mm
z'max = 25.6cm, θ = 1.4!
a = 0.5cm, f = 2 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1
z'max = 3.2cm, θ = 5.4! 30
Lawrence (2007) Crit Care Med
The ultrasound beam can therefore be
shaped by adjusting transducer geometry

a2
z'max =
λ
a = 1cm, f = 2 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1 ⇒ λ = 0.77mm
z'max = 13cm, θ = 2.7!
a = 1cm, f = 4 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1 ⇒ λ = 0.39mm
z'max = 25.6cm, θ = 1.4!
a = 0.5cm, f = 2 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1
z'max = 3.2cm, θ = 5.4! 31
Lawrence (2007) Crit Care Med
The ultrasound beam can therefore be
shaped by adjusting transducer geometry

Directly affects frequency and hence wavelength, then

radius also plays in for distance and dispersion.

a2
z'max =
λ
a = 1cm, f = 2 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1 ⇒ λ = 0.77mm
z'max = 13cm, θ = 2.7!
a = 1cm, f = 4 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1 ⇒ λ = 0.39mm
z'max = 25.6cm, θ = 1.4!
a = 0.5cm, f = 2 MHz, c = 1540 ms−1
z'max = 3.2cm, θ = 5.4! 32
Lawrence (2007) Crit Care Med
Side lobes are much weaker than the main
lobe but can be responsible for artefacts

• The strong reflecting surface of the central structure lies in the side lobes of the beam directed at angles
away from the perpendicular. The echoes from the side lobes are misplaced (arrows).
• Side lobe artifacts occur where side lobes reflect sound from a strong reflector that is outside of the
central beam, and where the echoes received are mapped into the main beam, creating unwanted
artifacts.
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Some terminology
• Transmission Field - the “corridor” along
which transmitted waves travel and the
associated intensity pattern.
• Reception Zone - the region in which a point
source of ultrasound must lie if it is to produce
a detectable signal at the receiving transducer.
• Ultrasound beam - the product of the
transmission field and the reception zone.
• In the simple case of a single disc transducer
the transmission field and reception zone
have the same shape and size.
• The ultrasound beam will have a narrower
width than both the transmission field and the
reception zone.
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Using a curved transducer or acoustic lens
allows for focusing of the ultrasound beam
a2 a2
z'max = z'max =
λ λ
a d
z z
λd
∝
2a

Lateral resolution is best

in the focal zone !

35
Lawrence (2007) Crit Care Med
The beam former
(and array designs)

36
Transducer arrays can be used to build up B-
mode images • Transducer elements in a linear array that are fired
simultaneously produce an effective transducer width
equal to the sum of the widths of the individual
elements.
• Individual beams interact with constructive and
destructive interference to produce a collimated beam.
• In a linear array, we typically have 256 – 512 discrete
transducer elements, grouped into 15 – 20 adjacent
elements that are activated simultaneously.

1D Linear: Enables beam steering; can be

unfocused or focus in one axis

2D Square: Spherical or single axis focus, imaging in 3D,

more complex design and manufacturing
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Transducer arrays have the added advantage
of enabling directionality and focusing

• By activating all groups at the same time but introducing a time delay between pulsing of the
groups, we can generate an angled wavefront for beam steering (planar) or we can focus. This is
approach is called phased array ultrasound.
• With a phased-array transducer, the beam is formed by interaction of the individual wave fronts
from each transducer, each with a slight difference in excitation time.
• Minor phase differences of adjacent beams form constructive and destructive wave summations
that steer of focus the beam profile.
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http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/transducers/
Phased arrays enable electronic beam steering,
removing mechanical complexity

39
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/transducers/
 Phased arrays enable beamforming (focusing)
on the transmit or receive signals

• A phased array transducer assembly uses all

elements to produce ultrasound beam.
• Focusing is achieved by implementing a
programmable delay time for the excitation of
the individual transducer elements.
• Phase differences of the individual ultrasound
pulses result in a minimum beam diameter
(focal distance) at a predictable depth.
• Beamforming refers to the process of steering
(angular deviation, changing the direction) and
focusing the acoustic pulses.

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 Side lobes must be reduced for high quality imaging
• Side lobes are present in the transmission fields and reception zones of arrays or occurs in a
forward direction along the main beam,
• Apodization, a beam-forming process, is used to reduce these:
• On transmission, inner array elements are excited more than outer.
• On reception, different amplifications are performed in each array element.
• Grating lobes can arise from the periodic nature of the linear and phased array designs, emitted
from the array surface at very large angles.
𝑛𝜆 Where m = 1, 2, 3 …, 𝜆 = wavelength, and 𝑥 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = centre − centre distance between elements
𝑥

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Several different scanning geometries can be
employed
• Annular arrays consist of concentric
annuli of PZT
• Axially symmetric focusing
• Single scan line requires mechanical
scanning
• Curvilinear array
• Similar operation to linear array
• Smaller contact area required
• Intra-cavity probes
• Avoid problems with strong reflections
e.g. air in the bowel
• Intra-vascular probes
• Operate at high frequencies to give high
resolution

42
Several different scanning geometries can be
employed

43
GE Healthcare
The signal processor

44
Pre-processing is typically performed on the
analogue signals

Gain applied to the entire ultrasound signal

Amplification applied as a function of arrival

time to the recorded ultrasound signal

45
http://199.116.233.101/index.php/Ultrasound_Instrumentation
Digital signal processing includes
demodulation and compression

46
http://199.116.233.101/index.php/Ultrasound_Instrumentation
Summary (1)
• Impedance mismatch causes acoustic reflections
• Ultrasound can undergo reflection, refraction, absorption and
scattering in tissue
• Depends on the angle of incidence, size of the object relative to the
ultrasound wavelength, acoustic impedance
• Resolution must be traded against penetration depth because
• High frequency ultrasound provides better spatial resolution
• but high frequency ultrasound is strongly attenuated in tissue

47
Summary (2)
• The pulse echo approach is used to form a brightness (B) mode ultrasound
image
• Transducers are composed of:
• A piezoelectric element to generate and detect acoustic waves
• Matching elements to maximise coupling of acoustic waves to the piezoelectric
element
• Backing material for damping to create a short pulse length and improve axial
resolution
• The finite transducer size results in a far field divergence of the beam and
addition of side lobe imperfections
• Focusing can partially compensate for this
• Transducers are commonly combined into arrays for imaging
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Next up: ultrasound imaging
modalities!

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