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Biology Project ON DRUG Resistance IN Bacteria

Biology for Engineers (Shanmugha Arts, Science, Technology and Research Academy)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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BIOLOGY PROJECT ON
DRUG RESISTANCE IN BACTERIA

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

NAME :
Asmaa Khalid Ibrahim Elagib
Class:
XII - A

Under the guidance of

Mr. M.A. Saleem

2021 - 2022

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
SHANTINIKETAN INDIAN SCHOOL
DOHA-QATAR

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SHANTINIKETAN INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA-QATAR

Affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education, Delhi
Approved by the Ministry of Education, State of Qatar

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this biology project report entitled <Drug Resistance in Bacteria =
by Asmaa Khalid Ibrahim Elagib student of class XII-A, submitted in partial
fulfillment of credit for biology practical evaluation of CBSE, during the academic year
2020-2021, is a Bonafide record of work carried out under my guidance and supervision.

Mr. M.A Saleem School Seal Principal Teacher in Biology

Date:
Roll number / Registration number

________________________________________________________________
Submitted for CBSE Practical Examination held on ______________________

External Examiner Internal Examiner

Signature: ……………………. Signature: ………………………..

Name: ………………………... Name: …………………………...
Designation: …………………. Designation: …………………….
School: ……………………….

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INDEX

1. Acknowledgement
2. Introduction
3. What is antibiotic resistance?
4. How do bacteria become resistant?
5. Why is antibiotic resistance in bacteria a
problem?
6. How do resistant bacteria spread?
7. How are resistant bacteria detected?
8. Why are antibiotic resistant infections
increasing?
9. Experiment
10. Examples of antibiotic resistant bacteria
11. Fighting antibiotic resistance
12. Conclusion
13. Bibliography

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to convey my sincere gratitude to my

Biology teacher Mr. Mohammed Abdul Saleem, for his
support and supervision who directed me to complete this
project successfully and to our beloved principal Dr.
Subhash Nair for giving me this golden opportunity to
do this wonderful project on the topic
<Drug Resistance in Bacteria=

I also wish to acknowledge my heart full thanks to my

parents and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this
project within the limited time frame.

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INTRODUCTION
An antibiotic is an agent that either kills or inhibits the growth of a
microorganism. They are drugs most commonly used to treat bacterial
infections. The term antibiotic was first used in 1942 by Selman
Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any
substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the
growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. However this
definition excluded substances that kill bacteria but are not produced by
microorganisms (ie; gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also
excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides.
Penicillin was the first antibiotic discovered. It was discovered by
Alexander Fleming in 1928 and was tremendously used in World War II.
Nevertheless, in the 1930s, the sulfonamides were the first antibiotic
class used clinically. The discovery of antibiotics has dramatically
revolutionized the world of medicine, providing what were thought of as
deadly diseases with a cure. There are now hundreds of antibiotics
classified into several categories, some of these class include the
following:

● Penicillins
● Cephalosporins
● Carbapenems
● Aminoglycosides
● Tetracyclines
● Macrolides
● Fluoroquinolones
● Sulfonamides

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Antibiotics work in different ways. For example, penicillin works by

indirectly causing the bacterium’s cell wall to weaken and burst, hence it
dies. On the other hand, tetracyclines do not kill the bacteria but inhibit
their growth by stopping the bacteria from making proteins. Some
antibiotics can be used to treat a wide variety of diseases while some are
only used to cure certain types of bacteria. Most antibiotics can cause
side effects such as an upset stomach, diarrhea, etc. though some have a
higher risk of causing serious side effects such as hearing damage,
kidney damage, etc. Healthcare practitioners typically choose an
antibiotic to treat an infection based on the type of infection, the
patient’s medical history (ie; allergies to antibiotics) and often laboratory
tests that can determine the bacterium causing the disease and which
antibiotic will work best. It is important for patients to follow
instructions when taking antibiotics so that their infections are treated
effectively and the development of antibiotic resistant-bacteria is
prevented.

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WHAT IS ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE?

Antibiotic resistance is a form of drug resistance whereby some

sub-populations of a microorganism, usually a bacterial species,
are able to survive after exposure to one or more antibiotics. In
other words, antibiotic resistance is when bacteria are able to
survive and grow in the presence of one or more antibiotics.
Pathogens resistant to multiple antibiotics are considered
multidrug resistant (MDR), or more colloquially, superbugs.
Antibiotic resistance is a serious and growing phenomenon in
the contemporary medical world and has emerged as one of the
pre-eminent public health concerns of the 21st century. A World
Health Organization report released on the 30th of April 2014,
states, <this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future,
it is happening now to every region of the world and has the
potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country. Antibiotic
resistance- when bacteria change so antibiotics no longer work
in people who need them to treat infections- is now a major
threat to public health.=

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HOW DO BACTERIA BECOME RESISTANT?

There are several ways for bacteria to become antibiotic-resistant. The main one is through
selective pressure. Selective pressure takes place when not all the bacteria are susceptible to
the antibiotic used to treat the infection and the surviving bacteria can continue to multiply.
This creates a bacterial population that is resistant to the antibiotic to which the bacteria was
exposed. Selective pressure is a natural process that can be slowed but not stopped.
Antibiotic overuse helps speed up selection for resistant bacteria.

Bacteria can also acquire resistance when they pass genetic material back and forth from one
bacteria to another. One way they can do this is through plasmids. Plasmids are pieces of
bacterial DNA that can be transferred between bacteria. Some plasmids enable the bacteria to
produce an enzyme that can make antibiotics purely useless. When the plasmid is inserted
into other bacteria, antibiotic resistance can spread quickly among bacteria. Additionally
when a bacterium’s genetic material spontaneously mutates, those genetic changes can create
resistance. Over time, bacteria can acquire more than one type of resistance through different
mechanisms. This is what leads to so-called <superbugs=. Antibiotic resistant bacteria can
spread from one person to another, resulting in the spread of hard-to-treat or untreatable
infections.

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WHY IS ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN

BACTERIA A PROBLEM?
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a serious global public health threat.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2
million people in the U.S develop antibiotic resistant infections each
year, and at least 23,000 people die from these infections. Resistant
infections also place a burden on individuals and the medical system.
Research shows that resistant infections can lead to longer hospital stays,
more doctor visits, longer recovery times, and higher medical expenses.
Antibiotic resistance has been shown to place a $20 billion burden on
the healthcare system annually.
When alternative drugs are available to treat antibiotic resistant
infections, they tend to be less effective, produce more side effects, and
are more expensive.
Antibiotic resistant bacteria can cause infections that are hard to treat or
untreatable. Examples include the following:

● Urinary tract infection

● Blood infection (septicemia)
● Pneumonia
● Wound and skin infection
● Sexually transmitted diseases (especially gonorrhea)
● Tuberculosis

Who is most at risk?

Resistant bacterial infections can affect anyone but some groups are at
higher risk than others. These include people:

● Undergoing chemotherapy
● Undergoing complex surgery

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● Receiving dialysis for end-stage renal disease

● Receiving therapy that suppresses the immune system
(immunosuppressive)
● With organ or stem cell transplants
● Who are very young or elderly
● Who are hospitalized

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HOW DO RESISTANT BACTERIA

SPREAD?
Resistant bacteria can spread throughout the environment in a number of
ways :
● Person-to-person: infected people can spread resistant bacteria to
others whether they have symptoms or not. This can happen
through direct contact, indirect contact like coughing, or when
someone leaves germs behind on a surface, like a keyboard or door
knob. This is why good hand washing practice is important to
prevent the spread of resistant bacteria.
● Animal-to-person: humans and animals can also pass resistant
bacteria back and forth. Resistant bacteria are common in the guts
and feces of livestock that receive antibiotics. Those bacteria can
be transferred to people who are close in contact with those
animals, such as farmers or veterinarians.
● Food contamination: resistant bacteria can also end up in food as a
result of agricultural uses of antibiotics. Eating contaminated food
may or may not cause symptoms, but bacteria can spread to other
people either way.
● In healthcare facilities: the spread of resistant bacteria in healthcare
facilities is of special concern. When many sick people are close
together and the usage of antibiotics is high, it creates an
environment ripe for developing resistant bacteria. Improper
sanitation and crowding increase the risk of healthcare-associated
infections. Resistant bacteria also spread when infected people are
transferred within or between healthcare facilities. Common
healthcare-associated infections include catheter-related urinary
tract infections, ventilator-associated pneumonia and
post-operative wound infections.
● International travel: when international travelers visit regions
where resistance is high, they can come into contact with resistant

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bacteria and move them to new locations. People hospitalized

while traveling are also at risk for spreading resistant bacteria.

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HOW ARE RESISTANT BACTERIA

DETECTED?
To manage resistant bacteria, first they need to be identified in
individuals, healthcare facilities and the food supply. There are a variety
of laboratory tests used for identifying resistant bacteria. These include:
● Antimicrobial susceptibility testing: Bacteria are cultured from the
site of infection, identified, then exposed to antibiotics to learn
which are most effective. Test results are used to choose the best
drug for treatment and to monitor how resistance may change
overtime.
● Molecular testing and whole genome sequencing of the bacterial
DNA: These techniques rapidly identify specific bacterial genes
that can confer resistance or the entire bacterial genome. The tests
are used to see how infections are related or identify outbreaks.
● Carbapenemase production test: This test uses a culture to
determine if microbes produce an enzyme called carbapenemase
that can destroy carbapenem antibiotics. If the bacteria produce the
enzyme then carbapenem antibiotics will be ineffective.
● Colonization screening: This process is used in healthcare facilities
to identify people who may be carrying resistant bacteria but not
showing symptoms. Once carriers are identified, further screening
may lead to additional actions to prevent further spread and
infection.

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WHY ARE ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANT

INFECTIONS INCREASING?
The development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a natural process
that can be slowed but not stopped. Resistance is currently developing at
an alarming rate because of inappropriate and unnecessary use of
antibiotics. Inappropriate use in healthcare settings include using
antibiotics when they are not needed for treatment, prescribing the
wrong type of antibiotic for treatment, and prescribing antibiotics for an
inappropriate duration of time.

According to the CDC, an antibiotic prescription is inappropriate half of

the time. For instance, antibiotics do not resolve viral infections such as
the common cold, influenza (flu), most bronchitis, most sore throats and
the majority of sinus infections. However, unnecessary antibiotic use for
these viral infections is still widespread.

In animals consumed by humans, antibiotics are sometimes added to

livestock’s food and water to promote growth and prevent disease. More
than half of the antibiotics currently made are used to enhance livestock
growth. This contributes to bacteria becoming resistant to drugs
important for human health.

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EXPERIMENT

AIM:
To study the drug resistance in bacteria using antibiotics.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

1. Sterilized Petri dishes

2. Sterilized culture tubes with media
3. Transfer loops
4. Forceps
5. Flask
6. Beaker
7. Burner
8. Penicillin
9. Aureomycin
10. Hay
11. Alcohol
12. Agar
13. Starch
14. Distilled water

PROCEDURE:

1. To 200ml of distilled water in a flask add, I added 8 grams of agar

powder and 2 grams of starch. Then, putting a few pieces of dry
hay into the medium, I covered the flask with an inverted beaker.
Boil the medium for 5 minutes and then allow the medium to cool
down to reach room temperature. After that, I placed the flask in a
warm place. Within 2-3 days, formation of scum of cloudy
suspension appeared on the medium, indicating the growth of
Bacillus subtilis.

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2. Take the tubes including the agar medium and heat them in warm
water to cause the agar to melt. Allow each test tube to cool so I
can hold it in my hand and the agar remains liquid. After removing
the cotton plug, I passed the mouth of the test tube through the
bunsen burner twice. I dipped the transfer loop in alcohol before
flaming it and allowing it to cool. Picking up a loop full of
bacterial culture from the flask, I transferred it quickly to the warm
agar in the culture tube. I flamed the loop and the mouth of the
culture tube before putting back the cotton plug. Rolling the
culture tube of warm agar in between the palms of my hands, I
mixed the bacteria with the agar well.

3. I prepared my sterilized Petri dishes before removing the cotton

plug and flaming the mouth of the tube another time. I then lifted
the cover of the Petri dish at an angle of 45 degrees and quickly
poured the medium of the culture tube into the bottom half of the
Petri dish. Moving the covered Petri dish around the tabletop to
distribute the medium evenly, I allowed the agar to cool. After that
I prepared 2 Petri dishes and marked them as A & B.

4. I prepared Penicillin and Aureomycin by dissolving both powder

drugs in distilled water. Then I cut out a few discs of filter paper
1cm in diameter. Then I soaked a disc in each of the Penicillin and
Aureomycin solutions. I dipped the forceps in alcohol before
quickly passing its tip over the bunsen flame. Using the sterilized
forceps, I put the Penicillin and Aureomycin soaked discs at two
distant sites of Petri dish A. Considering Petri dish B as control.
Then I kept both the Petri dishes, undisturbed, in a warm place to
allow the bacteria to grow. I then observed the Petri dishes for
several days.

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OBSERVATIONS:

The area around the antibiotic discs in the Petri dishes will be clear. In
other areas, colonies of bacteria are observed. Then I examined the clear
areas of the Petri dishes for a few more days. Very few colonies may
appear in said clear areas. These are the colonies of resistant strains of
bacteria.

CONCLUSION:

Antibiotic drugs killed most of the bacteria strain, hence the areas
appeared clear. However a few strains which were resistant survived and
produced colonies later. This proves that the resistant strain to
antibiotics was present in the bacterial population.

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EXAMPLES OF ANTIBIOTIC
RESISTANT BACTERIA
In 2013, the CDC identified the top 18 antibiotic resistance threats in the
U.S. They classified the threats as urgent, serious and concerning.
Urgent and serious threats require more aggressive monitoring and
prevention, while concerning threats require monitoring and response to
occasional outbreaks. Concerning threats have a lower risk of occurring
or there are more therapies remaining for those infections. Some key
examples from each threat level category follow below.

❖ URGENT:
- Carbapenem - resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE):
Carbapenem - resistant Escherichia coli (E.Coli) and Klebsiella are
increasing in medical facilities and they are resistant to all or
nearly all antibiotics available today. They are responsible for 600
deaths and 9,000 resistant infections in the U.S every year.

- Drug-resistant gonorrhea:
This sexually transmitted infection (STI) is increasingly resistant to
cephalosporins, the best option to treat such STIs. When
cephalosporins are no longer a therapy choice, gonorrhea treatment
becomes much more complex at best and untreatable at worst. Of
the 280,000 estimated cases in the U.S each year, 246,000 are
resistant to all currently available antibiotics.

❖ SERIOUS:
- Drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB):
Tuberculosis is among the world’s most common infectious
diseases and a frequent cause of death globally. When TB is
resistant to first-line drugs , treatment becomes complex,
challenging and less effective. Of the 9,272 TB cases reported in
the U.S in 2016, 674 were drug-resistant.

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- Extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae:

These bacteria have an enzyme that lets them destroy a variety of
penicillins and related strong antibiotics such as cephalosporins.
Beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae cause 1,700 deaths
in the U.S. each year.

- Drug-resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella:

These resistant infections usually cause diarrhea, fever, and
cramps. Those infections that spread to the blood can be
life-threatening. There are 100,000 resistant Salmonella infections
in the U.S. annually.

- Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA):

S. aureus is one of the most common causes of bacterial infections
in the industrialized world. MRSA was one of the first described
antibiotic-resistant bacteria. It is resistant to penicillin-like beta
lactam antibiotics, though there are other antibiotics that are still
effective against it. MRSA is responsible for more than 11,000
deaths in the U.S. each year, more than HIV / AIDS, emphysema,
and homicide combined.

❖ CONCERNING:
- Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA):
Staphylococcus aureus is a common type of bacteria on the skin. It
can enter the body through catheters or surgical procedures and
cause infection. Vancomycin-resistant S. aureus is very rare, with
only 14 cases confirmed in the U.S. and 1 in Brazil. Vancomycin is
a powerful antibiotic used to treat serious infections. There are few
treatment options once bacteria become vancomycin-resistant.

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FIGHTING ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

What can be done to slow the development of antibiotic resistance in
bacteria?
Aggressive action is necessary to slow the development of new resistance in
bacteria and to prevent existing resistance from spreading. These actions can
occur at multiple sources, from individuals seeking treatment and their
healthcare practitioners, to health departments, healthcare facilities, regional
laboratories, and government agencies. The following sections explain what is
being done to combat antibiotic resistance and how people can help.

Preventing infection:
Preventing infections reduces the need to use antibiotics and the chances that
resistance will develop. Infections can be prevented through immunization, safe
food handling, frequent and thorough hand washing, good disinfection practices
in healthcare settings, and using antibiotics as prescribed to prevent reinfection.

Surveillance:
Surveillance for emerging and existing antibiotic resistant bacteria is an
important step in developing strategies to combat such bacteria. The CDC
sponsors a number of surveillance programs to track resistant bacteria. For
example, the National Healthcare Safety Network allows healthcare facilities to
electronically report infections, antibiotic use, and resistance. The CDC’s
Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network provides support for rapid detection and
confirmation of emerging antimicrobial resistance threats through laboratory
infrastructure throughout the U.S. Clinical microbiology laboratories,
commercial laboratories, and state public health laboratories are all involved in
surveillance and detection efforts. The CDC, FDA, and USDA also collaborate
on a program to track resistances often transmitted through food. These
networks support local healthcare facilities, laboratories, and health departments
so they can detect outbreaks of drug-resistant bacteria faster and respond to
them before they can spread more widely.

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Antibiotic stewardship:
Changing how antibiotics are used may be the single most important action to
combat resistance, according to the CDC. Using antibiotics only when necessary
and appropriate in people and animals is known as antibiotic stewardship. Many
healthcare facilities have stewardship programs to guide best practices for
antibiotic use. These stewardship practices include only prescribing antibiotics
when needed, choosing proper drugs, and choosing appropriate doses and
durations. Stewardship programs have been shown to improve care, shorten
hospital stays, and reduce pharmacy costs at healthcare facilities.

Improving diagnostic tools:

When a patient is seriously ill and healthcare practitioners don’t have a
diagnosis for an infection, they may administer multiple antibiotics until they
find the best one for treatment, or simply prescribe a broad-spectrum
antibiotic(s). This may harm the individual’s good bacteria (normal flora) and
creates selective pressure that contributes to resistance. Accurate diagnosis is an
important step towards appropriate antibiotic use. Typically, matching an
unknown infection to an antibiotic is done by culturing bacteria to identify
them, then exposing the microbes to different antibiotics to learn which therapy
works best. Results from these susceptibility tests usually take 24-48 hours,
though some can take weeks. These wait times can hinder appropriate antibiotic
use. Fortunately, new techniques that can detect bacteria independent of culture
(known as <culture independent diagnostic tests= or CIDTs), such as real time
molecular testing, are removing some of those barriers to appropriate antibiotic
use.

Developing new antibiotics:

Since antibiotic resistance is a natural process that can be slowed but not
stopped, new antibiotics will always be necessary. Growing concern about
antibiotic resistance has spurred new drug development. Between 2000 and
2010, the FDA approved five new antibiotics for clinical use. Between 2010 and
2015, the agency approved eight new therapeutic agents. The FDA is trying to
make antibiotic development and approval more efficient so new treatment
options are available for infections.

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How can you help?

While bacterial resistance is an alarming global problem, there are many
solutions for slowing its spread and development. Everyone has a role to
play in this fight, even by taking simple actions such as hand washing
and avoiding unnecessary treatment with antibiotics.
● Prevent infections by staying current on immunizations,
making a habit of frequent and thorough hand washing, and
practicing safe food handling.
● Learn when antibiotics are needed for infections. For example,
they will not work for viral infections, such as the flu or the
common cold.
● Avoid pressuring healthcare practitioners to prescribe
unnecessary antibiotics.
● Take antibiotics exactly as your healthcare practitioner
prescribes.
● Avoid saving antibiotics for later or using someone else’s
prescription. This could lead to taking the wrong antibiotic for
an infection, allowing bacteria to multiply. If you have left over
antibiotics, talk to your healthcare practitioner or pharmacist
about the proper way to dispose of them.
● Take steps to prevent infection while in healthcare facilities
such as hospitals. These steps include:
- Finding out what the facility is doing to protect against
antibiotic resistance
- Asking that anyone touching you wash their hands first
- Washing your own hands often
- Letting your healthcare practitioner know if you’ve been
transferred from another facility

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Healthcare professionals can:

● Adopt and promote antibiotic stewardship programs.
● Strive to be precise in dosage and antibiotic selection when
writing prescriptions.
● Know what infections are present in their facility.
● Request immediate alerts when the lab identifies resistant
infections.
● Remove temporary medical devices (e.g., catheters) as soon as
they are unnecessary.

Healthcare facility leaders can:

● Enforce CDC antibiotic resistance guidance.

● Make sure their facility can identify infections and alert staff.
● Know infection and resistance trends in nearby facilities.
● Promote antibiotic stewardship.

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CONCLUSION

In this project I covered what antibiotic resistance is and how it is

present in bacteria. I also delved into how harmful it is and how much it
is affecting our world today. I conducted an experiment to prove its
presence and learnt a lot about this intriguing topic. Antibiotic resistant
bacteria is a great danger however if we all educate ourselves on its
nature, occurrence and ways of prevention, I believe we can move
forward a lot more even if we don’t put a full stop to it. I hope you
enjoyed reading through my project.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Comprehensive Laboratory Manual In Biology-XII
2. Biology Text For Class XII – NCERT
3. http://www.wikipedia.org/
4. http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/a/antibiotic_resistance.htm
5. http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Ant
ibiotic_resistant_bacteria
6. http://www.rxlist.com/antibiotic_resistance-page3/drugs-condition.
htm
7. https://labtestsonline.org/articles/antibiotic-resistance-bacteria

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