NATURE OF STATISTICS

STATISTICS - A branch of mathematics that Measurement.

examines and investigates ways to process and Experimental Classification
analyze the date gathered. A researcher may classify
- The study of how to collect, organize, variables according to the
analyze, and interpret numerical function they serve in the
information from data. experiment.
Descriptive Statistics Mathematical Classification
- Involves methods of organizing, Variables may also be
picturing, and summarizing classified in terms of the
information from samples mathematical values.
Inferential Statistics Independent Variables
- Involves methods of using Variables controlled by the
information from a sample to experimenter, and expected to
draw conclusions have an effect on the behavior of
Population the subjects.
Consists of all members of Dependent Variable
the group. Is some measure of the behavior
Sample of subjects and expected to be
A portion, or part, of the influenced by the independent
population of interest variable.
selected for analysis. Continuous Variable
Parameter A variable which can assume any
Numerical index describing of an infinite number of values.
a characteristic of a Discrete Variable
population. A variable which consist of either a
Statistics finite number of values or
Numerical index describing countable number of values.
a characteristic of a Nominal
sample. Used to differentiate
Primary Data classes or categories
Data that comes from the original for purely classification.
source, and are intended to Ordinal
answer specific questions. This applies to data
Secondary Data that can be arranged
Data that are taken from in order.
previously recorded data. Interval
Constant classify order
A characteristic that does not vary. and differentiate
Variable between classes or
A characteristic that can take categories in terms of
different values. degrees of differences.
Qualitative Variable There is no natural zero
Describes an individual by starting point
category or group. Ratio
Quantitative Variable Applies to data that
Has a value or numerical can be arranged in
order. There is a true zero.
Random Sampling
Type of sampling in which
all members have equal
chance of being selected.
- Simple Random Sampling
A process whose members had an
equal
chance of being selected from the
population via random numbers.
- Systematic Sampling
A process of selecting a kth element in
the
population until the desired number of
subjects or respondents is attained
- Stratified Sampling
Subdivide the population into at least
two
different subgroups that share the same
characteristics, then draw a sample
from
each subgroup (or stratum)
- Cluster Sampling
Divide the population into sections (or
clusters); randomly select some of those
clusters;
Non-Random Sampling
A sampling procedure
where samples selected in
a deliberate manner with
little or no attention to
randomization
- Convenience Sampling
A process of selecting a group of
individuals
who (conveniently) are available for
study
- Purposive Sampling
A process of selecting based from
judgment
to select a sample which the researcher
believed, based on prior information,
will
provide the data they need.
- Quota Sampling
Is applied when an investigator survey
collects information from an assigned
number, or quota of individuals
- Snowball Sampling
is a technique in which one or more
members of a population are located
and
used to lead the researchers to other
members of the population
- Voluntary Sampling
A technique when samples are
composed of
respondents who are self-select in the
study/survey
SUMMARY MEASURES
CENTRAL TENDENCY
a summary measure that attempts to describe a
whole set of data with a single value that
represents the middle or centre of its
distribution.
MEAN
It is the average of our data set and it is
easily affected by outliers.
Outlier
is a data point that differs significantly from
other
observations.
MEDIAN
It is the middle value and arranged in
order. It is the opposite of Mean since it won’t
be affected by outliers because it is in the
middle and it can’t be changed.
MODE
Occurs most frequently. It is the most
commonly occurring value in a
distribution.
MIDRANGE
It is the middle point of a range of
numbers. Average of the lowest and
highest scores.
POINT MEASURES
give us a way to see where a certain data point
or value falls in a sample or distribution. A
measure can tell us whether a value is about the
average, or whether it’s a value falls is an
outlier.
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY PERCENTILE RANK
are statistics that describe the - percentage of scores in its frequency
amount of difference and spread in a distribution that are equal to or lower
data set. than it.
RANGE RELIABILITY
The difference between the largest and the refers to how consistently a method measures
smallest measures. something. If the same result can be
INTERQUARTILE RANGE (IQR) consistently achieved by using the same
Half the distance between quartile methods under
Points measures the spread of your data's the same circumstances, the measurement is
middle half. considered reliable.
VARIANCE Test-retest
a measure of dispersion a measure of reliability obtained by
that takes into account the spread of administering the same test twice over a period
all data points in a data set. of time to a group of individuals.
STANDARD DEVIATION Internal consistency
A measure of how dispersed the data is which is the consistency of people’s responses
in relation to the mean. across the items on a multiple-item measure.
Inter-rater reliability
is the extent to which different observers are
consistent in their judgments.
Parallel Forms Reliability
Measures the correlation between two
equivalent versions of a test. You use it when
Z- SCORES you have two different assessment tools or sets
(also known as a standard scores) of questions designed to measure the same
- Helps to understand where a score lies thing.
in relation to other scores in the Split-half reliability
distribution is a measure of consistency whereby a set of
- Helps to understand where a score lies items that make up a measure is split in two
in relation to other scores in the during the data
distribution
Standard Score VALIDITY
allows us to calculate the probability of a score is the extent to which the data or results
occur within our normal distribution and of a research method represent
enables us to compare two scores that are from the intended variable.
different normal CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
distributions. Evaluates whether a measurement tool really
DEVIATION IQ SCORES represents the thing we are interested in
a standard score with a mean of 100 and a measuring. It’s central to
standard establishing the overall validity of a method.
deviation of 15. CONTENT VALIDITY
T- SCORES Assesses whether a test is representative of all
are standard scores with a mean of 50 and a aspects of the construct.
standard deviation of 10. FACE VALIDTY
SCALED SCORES considers how suitable the content of a test
are standard scores with a mean of 10 and a seems to be on the surface. It’s similar to
standard deviation of 3.
content validity, but face validity is a more
informal and subjective assessment.
CRITERION VALIDITY
evaluates how well a test can predict a concrete
outcome, or how well the results of your test
approximate the results of another test.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
form a bell-shaped curved that is symmetric
about a vertical line through the mean of the
data.
SKEWNESS
a measure of the asymmetry of a
distribution. A distribution is asymmetrical
when
its left and right side are not mirror images.
POSITIVE SKEWED
the mean of the data is greater than the median
(a large number of data-pushed on the right-
hand side).
NEGATIVE SKEWED
The mean of the data is less than the median (a
large
number of data-pushed on the left-hand side).
KURTOSIS
a measure of whether the
data are heavy-tailed or light-tailed
relative to a normal distribution.
Leptokurtic or heavy-tailed distribution
(kurtosis more than normal distribution).
Mesokurtic (kurtosis)
Same as the normal distribution).
Platykurtic or short-tailed Distribution
(kurtosis less than normal distribution).
Parametric Test
• if the data are normally distributed (Shapiro-
Wilk Test/Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test)
• more than 30 samples
• probability sampling technique was used to
select the sample
Pearson’s r
• test used to measure relationship (correlation)
between interval variables
Point Biserial
• test used to measure relationship (correlation)
between interval and nominal
(dichotomous) variables.
Lambda
• test used to measure relationship between
two nominal variables
Gamma
• test used to measure relationship between
two ordinal variables
Eta
• test used to measure relationship between
interval and nominal variables
Linear Regression
• test used to predict the dependent variable
from the given (one) independent
variable.
Multiple Linear Regression
• test used to predict the dependent variable
from several independent variables.
t-test for one sample (One sample t-test)
• used to compare population mean to sample
mean
t-test for dependent sample
• test used to compare means from the same
groups
Example
t-test for independent sample
• test used to compare means from two
different (independent) groups
One-way ANOVA
• test used to compared three or more means.
Chi square (x2)
• test between two nominal variables.
Non-Parametric Test
• if one of the assumptions for parametric test
was violated
Binomial Test
• A non parametric test used to compare two
nominal data (dichotomous)
Spearman rho
• A non parametric test used to measure
relationship (correlation) between interval
variables.
Wilcoxon Signed Ranked Test
• A non parametric test use to compare two
dependent/related groups
Mann Whitney U Test
• A non parametric test use to compare two
independent/different groups
Kruskal Wallis H Test NULL HYPOTHESIS
• A non parametric test used to compared three -the hypothesis that we hope to reject or do not
or more means. reject.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Summary (Counterparts) -the hypothesis that will be accepted.
1. chi-square – Binomial Test TWO TAILED
2. Pearson’s r - Spearman rho -Used for non directional hypothesis.
3. t-test for dependent sample – Wilcoxon ONE TAILED
signed rank test -used for directional hypothesis.
4. t-test for independent sample – Mann TYPE 1 ERROR
Whitney U test -rejected when in fact it is true (FALSE POSITIVE)
5. One-way ANOVA – Kruskal Wallis H Test TYPE II ERROR
-not rejected when in fact it is false(FALSE
STANDARD ERROR NEGATIVE)
-used to estimate the standard deviation of the
sampling distribution
DIFFERENCE OF PROPORTIONS
-used to check if the data is reliable and stable.
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
-is the range of values that you expect your
estimate to fall between a certain percentage of
the time you ran the experiment.
CONFIDENT LEVEL
-is the percentage of times you expect to
reproduce an estimate between the upper and
lower bound of confidence level.
POINT ESTIMATE
-will be whatever statistical estimate you are
making.
CRITICAL VALUE
-tells you how many standard deviation away
from the mean you need to go in order to reach
the desired confidence level to
you confidence interval.
LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
-it is defined if the null hypothesis is assumed to
be accepted or rejected.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
-the process of making inferences or
generalizations on population based on the
results of the study on the samples.
HYPOTHESIS
-assumption made about the probability
distribution of the population.