Solution Manual For Solar Energy Engineeri G.U. C. Kalogirou

Solar Energy Engineering
Processes and Systems

Second Edition
By:
Soteris A. Kalogirou
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
for
Solar Energy Engineering
Processes and Systems

Second Edition
By:
Soteris A. Kalogirou
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................. 38
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................................. 48
CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................................................. 57
CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................................................................. 61
CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................................................................. 63
CHAPTER 10 ........................................................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER 11 ........................................................................................................................... 74
CHAPTER 12 ........................................................................................................................... 98
CHAPTER 13 ......................................................................................................................... 108
2
CHAPTER 2
2.3 Calculate the solar declination for the spring and fall equinoxes and the summer and
winter solstices.
Using Table 2.1 to estimate day number and Eq. (2.5) the following can be estimated: Spring
equinox is on March 22, day number is 81 and from Eq. (2.5):
 360   360 
δ = 23.45sin  ( 284 + N )  = 23.45sin  ( 284 + 81)  = 0°
 365   365 
Similarly:
Fall equinox is on September 21, day number is 264 and δ=0°
Summer solstice is on June 21, day number is 172 and δ=23.45°
Winter solstice is on December 21, day number is 355 and δ= -23.45°
2.4 Calculate the sunrise and sunset times and day length for the spring and fall equinoxes and
the summer and winter solstices at 45°N latitude and 35°E longitude.
The standard longitude is 30°, therefore longitude correction from Eq. (2.3) is -4(30-35) = 20
min.
Spring equinox is on March 22, therefore from Table 2.1, day number is 81. Using Eq. (2.2):
360 360
B = ( N − 81) = (81 − 81) =0
364 364
From Eq. (2.1): ET=9.87 sin(2B)-7.53 cos(B)-1.5 sin(B) = 9.87 sin(0)-7.53 cos(0)-1.5 sin(0) =
-7.53≈-8 min.
From Exercise 2.3, δ = 0° and from Eq. (2.17): Day Length = 2/15 cos-1[-tan(L) tan(δ)]
Or Day Length = 2/15 cos-1[-tan(45) tan(0)] = 12 hours.
Since solar noon is at the middle of the sunrise and sunset hours, it means that they are 12/2 = 6
hours away from local solar noon. Therefore, sunrise is at 12:00-6:00+0:08-0:20 = 5:48,
sunset time is 12:00+6:00+0:08-0:20 = 17:48.
Similarly:
For fall equinox ET =+7.9≈8 min. Day length =12 hours. Therefore, sunrise is at 12:00-6:00-
0:08-0:20 = 5:32, sunset time is 12:00+6:00-0:08-0:20 = 17:32.
For summer solstice ET =-1.5≈-2 min. Day length = 15.43 hours (15:26). Therefore, sunrise is
at 12:00-7:43+0:02-0:20 = 3:59, sunset time is 12:00+7:43+0:02-0:20 = 19:25.
Winter solstice ET =+1 min. Day length = 8.57 hours (8:34). Therefore, sunrise is at 12:00-
4:17-0:01-0:20 = 7:22, sunset time is 12:00+4:17-0:01-0:20 = 15:56.
2.5 Determine the solar altitude and azimuth angles at 10:00 am local time for Rome, Italy on
June 10.
3
The geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) of Rome can be obtained from
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001769.html. Therefore, Rome is at latitude of 41.54° and
longitude of 12.27°E. From Table 2.1, on June 10, day number is 161. Therefore, from Eq.
(2.5) δ=23°. From Eq. (2.1) on June 10, ET = 0.76 min ≈ 1 min. From Eq. (2.3), AST =
LST+ET±4 (SL - LL) = 10:00+0:01-4(15-12.27) = 9:50 am (9.83 hr).
At 9:50 am the hour angle from Eq. (2.9), is: h=(9.83-12)*15 = -32.55°.
From Eq. (2.12): sin(α) = sin(L) sin(δ)+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h) = sin(41.54) sin(23)+cos(41.54)
cos(23) cos(-32.55) = 0.8398  α = 57.1°.
cos(δ) sin(h) cos(23) sin(−32.55)

From Eq. (2.13): sin(z) = = = −0.912  z = -65.8° (negative
cos(α) cos(57.1)
sign shows that the angle is eastward, which is obvious as 10:00 am is before noon).
2.6 Calculate the solar zenith and azimuth angles, the sunrise and sunset times and the day
length for Cairo, Egypt, at 10:30 am solar time on April 10.
From the web site given in Exercise 2.5, Cairo is at latitude of 30° and longitude of 31°E.
From Table 2.1, on April 10, day number is 100. Therefore from Eq. (2.5) δ=7.5°. At 10:30
am hour angle is from Eq. (2.9), h=(10.5-12)*15 = -22.5°. From Eq. (2.12):
cos(Φ) = sin(30) sin(7.5)+cos(30) cos(7.5) cos(-22.5) = 0.858  Φ = 30.8° and from Eq. (2.11)
α = 59.2°.
cos(7.5) sin(−22.5)
From Eq. (2.13): sin(z) = = −0.741  z = -47.8°.
cos(59.2)
From Eq. (2.1) ET = -1.6 min ≈ -2 min. For Cairo the standard longitude is 30°, therefore
longitude correction from Eq. (2.3) is -4(30-31) = 4 min.
From Eq. (2.17) day length = 12.58 hours (12:35). Therefore, sunrise is at 12:00-6:18-
0:02+0:04 = 5:44, sunset time is 12:00+6:18-0:02+0:04 = 18:20.
2.7 Calculate the sunrise and sunset times and altitude and azimuth angles for London,
England, on March 15 and September 15 at 10:00 am and 3:30 pm solar times.
From the web site given in Exercise 2.5, London is at latitude of 51° and longitude at 0°.
From Table 2.1, on March 15, day number is 74 and on September 15 is 258. Therefore from
Eq. (2.5) on March 15, δ=-2.8° and on September 15, δ=2.2°. At 3:30 pm hour angle is from
Eq. (2.9), h=(15.5-12)*15 = 52.5°. Similarly at 10:00 am h = -30°.
From Eq. (2.12) at 10:00 am on March 15, α = 30.4° and on September 15, α = 35.1°. At 3:30
pm on March 15, α = 20.1° and on September 15, α = 24.4°.
From Eq. (2.13) at 10:00 am on March 15, z = -35.4° and on September 15, z = -37.6°. At 3:30
pm on March 15, z = 57.6° and on September 15, z = 60.5°.
From Eq. (2.1) on March 15, ET = -9.7 min ≈ -10 min and on September 15, ET = 5.7 min ≈ 6
min. London is at longitude of 0°, therefore no longitude correction is required.
From Eq. (2.17) on March 15 day length = 11.54 hours (11:32). Therefore, sunrise is at 12:00-
5:46+0:10 = 6:24, sunset time is 12:00+5:46+0:10 = 17:56.
4
From Eq. (2.17) on September 15 day length = 12.37 hours (12:22). Therefore, sunrise is at
12:00-6:11-0:06 = 5:43, sunset time is 12:00+6:11-0:06 = 18:05.
2.8 What is the solar time in Denver, Colorado, on June 10 at 10:00 am Mountain Standard
Time?
The standard meridian for Mountain Standard Time is 105°. From the web site given in
Exercise 2.5, Denver is at latitude of 39° and longitude at 105°. So, no longitude correction is
required. From Table 2.1, on June 10, day number is 161. From Eq. (2.1) on June 10, ET =
0.76 min ≈ 1 min. Therefore, from Eq. (2.3) AST = LST+ET = 10:00+0:1=10:01 am.
2.9 A flat-plate collector in Nicosia, Cyprus, is tilted at 40° from horizontal and pointed 10°
east of south. Calculate the solar incidence angle on the collector at 10:30 am and 2:30 pm
solar times on March 10 and September 10.
Latitude of Nicosia, Cyprus is 35°N. From Table 2.1, on March 10, day number is 69 and on
September 10 is 253. Therefore, from Eq. (2.5) on March 10, δ=-4.8° and on September 10,
δ=4.2°. At 2:30 pm hour angle is from Eq. (2.9), h=(14.5-12)*15 = 37.5°. Similarly at 10:30
am h = -22.5°. Using Eq. (2.18):
On March 10 at 10:30 am, θ = 16°. At 2:30 pm θ = 43.8°

On September 10 at 10:30 am, θ = 18.3°. At 2:30 pm θ = 44.8°
2.10 A vertical surface in Athens, Greece, faces 15° west of due south. Calculate the solar
incidence angle at 10:00 am and 3:00 pm solar times on January 15 and November 10.
Latitude of Athens, Greece is 38°. From Table 2.1, on January 15, day number is 15 and on
November 10 is 314. Therefore, from Eq. (2.5) on January 15, δ=-21.3° and on November 10,
δ = -17.9°. At 3:00 pm hour angle is from Eq. (2.9), h = (15-12)*15 = 45°. Similarly at 10:00
am, h = -30°. Using Eq. (2.19) for vertical surfaces:
On January 15 at 10:00 am, θ = 50.5°. At 3:00 pm θ = 33.0°

On November 10 at 10:00 am, θ = 53.1°. At 3:00 pm θ = 36.1°
2.11 By using the sun path diagram find the solar altitude and azimuth angles for Athens,
Greece on January 20 at 10:00 am.
To use the sun path diagram the declination is required. For January 20 (day number 20) δ=-
20.3°. Latitude of Athens, Greece is 38° so can use the sun path diagram for 40°N latitude
(see Appendix 3, Fig. A3.3) or interpolate with that at latitude 35°N shown in Fig. 2.17. The
former is selected here. Therefore, α = 24° and z = -30° (actual values α = 25° and z = -31°).
2.12 Two rows of 6 m wide by 2 m high flat-plate collector arrays titled at 40° are facing
due south. If these collectors are located in 35°N latitude, using the sun path diagram find
the months of the year and the hours of day at which the front row will cast a shadow on
5
the second row when the distance between the rows is 3 m. What should be the distance
so there will be no shading?
For a collector length of 2 m and inclination of 40 degrees the actual height is 2xsin(40) =
1.29 m. The actual distance between the collectors is 3-2xcos(40) = 1.47 m. The angle x
shown in Figure below is 41.2°. Using this value on Fig. 2.17 corresponds to a declination of -
13° which form Fig. 2.7 corresponds from end of October to middle of February. From sun
path diagram the minimum solar altitude at noon is 31.5°. Therefore the distance required to
avoid shading completely is 1.29/tan(31.5) = 2.1 m or actual distance between collector rows
is (3-1.47)+2.1 = 3.63 m.
Second
2m collector
First
row
collector
row
1.29 m
40° x=41.2° 40°
1.47 m
3m
2.13 Find the blackbody spectral emissive power at λ = 8 μm for a source at 400 K, 1000 K,
and 6000 K.
Using Eq. (2.34) and the given data, we have:
At T=400K, Ebλ = 128.22 W/m2-μm

At T=1000K, Ebλ = 2260.27 W/m2-μm
At T=6000K, Ebλ = 32623.37 W/m2-μm
2.14 Assuming that the sun is a blackbody at 5777 K. At what wavelength does the
maximum monochromatic emissive power occur? What fraction of energy from this
source is in the visible part of the spectrum in the range 0.38–0.78 μm?
As is given in Chapter 2 by differentiating Eq. (2.34) and equating to zero, the maximum
distribution is equal to λmaxT = 2897.8 μm-K. Therefore as T = 5777K, λmax = 0.502 μm. This
agrees with the maximum shown in Fig. 2.26.
λ1T = 0.38x5777 = 2195.3 μm-K

λ2T = 0.78x5777 = 4506.1 μm-K
From Table 2.4 the fraction of energy between zero and 2195.3 μm-K is 10.0% and the
fraction from zero to 4506.1 μm-K is 56.5%. Therefore, the fraction of energy in the visible
part of the spectrum is 56.1-10 = 46.1%.
2.15 What percentage of blackbody radiation for a source at 323K is in the wavelength
region 6–15 μm?
6
From the given data we have:
λ1T = 6x323 = 1938 μm-K
λ2T = 15x323 = 4845 μm-K
From Table 2.4 the fraction of energy between zero and 1938 μm-K is 5.8% and the fraction
from zero to 4845 μm-K is 61.4%. Therefore, the percentage of the blackbody radiation in the
range 6 to 15 μm is 61.4-5.8 = 55.6%.
2.16 A 2 mm thick glass sheet has a refraction index of 1.526 and an extinction coefficient
of 0.2 cm–1. Calculate the reflectivity, transmissivity, and absorptivity of the glass sheet at
0°, 20°, 40°, and 60° incidence angles.
At normal incidence, θ1 = 0° and θ2 = 0°. From Eq. (2.51) the transmittance can be obtained as
 KL   0.2(0.2) 
 −   − 
cos( θ2 )  cos(0) 
τa = e 
=e 
= 0.961
There is no polarization at normal incidence therefore from Eq. (2.49):

2 2
 n −1   1.526 − 1 
r(0) = r⊥ = r =   =  = 0.043
 n +1  1.526 + 1 
Therefore from Eqs. (2.52a)-(2.52c) we have:

1 − r(0)  1 − r(0) 2    1 − 0.0432 
τ = τα   = 0.961 1 − 0.043    = 0.882
1 + r(0)  1 − ( r τ )2   1 + 0.043  1 − ( 0.043x0.961)2  
 (0) α   
ρ = r(0) (1 + τα τ(0) ) = 0.043(1 + 0.961x0.882) = 0.079
 1 − r(0)   1 − 0.043 
α = (1 − τα )   = (1 − 0.961)   = 0.039
 1 − r(0) τα  1 − 0.043x0.961 
 
At angle of incidence = 20°:
From Eq. (2.44) the refraction angle θ2 is calculated as:

 sin θ1   sin(20) 
θ2 = sin −1   = sin −1   = 13°
 n   1.526 
From Eq. (2.51) the transmittance can be obtained as:

 KL   0.2(0.2) 
−
 cos θ   − 
cos(13) 
τa = e  2
=e 
= 0.960
From Eqs. (2.45) and (2.46):
sin 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) sin 2 (13 − 20 )

r⊥ = = = 0.050
sin 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) sin 2 (13 + 20 )
7
tan 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) tan 2 (13 − 20 )
r|| = = = 0.036
tan 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) tan 2 (13 + 20 )
From Eqs. (2.52a)-(2.52c) we have:

0.960 1 − 0.050  1 − 0.0502  1 − 0.036  1 − 0.0362 
τ=    +  
2 1 + 0.050  1 − ( 0.050x0.960 )2  1 + 0.036  1 − ( 0.036x0.960 )2  
 
= 0.480(0.905 + 0.930) = 0.881
ρ = 0.5 [ 0.050(1 + 0.960x0.905) + 0.036(1 + 0.960x0.930) ] = 0.081
α=
(1 − 0.960 )  1 − 0.050
+
1 − 0.036 
  = 0.04
2  1 − 0.050x0.960 1 − 0.036x0.960 
To avoid showing all the numerical calculation only the answers are given for the other two
cases. For θ=40°; θ2=24.9°, τa=0.957, r⊥ = 0.083, r|| = 0.016, τ=0.868, ρ=0.091 and α=0.043.
For θ=60°; θ2=34.6°, τa=0.953, r⊥ = 0.185, r|| = 0.001, τ=0.802, ρ=0.154 and α=0.047.
2.17 A flat-plate collector has an outer glass cover of 4 mm thick K = 23 m–1 and refractive
index of 1.526, and a tedlar inner cover with refractive index of 1.45. Calculate the
reflectivity, transmissivity, and absorptivity of the glass sheet at a 40° incidence angle by
considering tedlar to be of a very small thickness; i.e., absorption within the material can
be neglected.

 sin θ1   sin(40) 
θ2 = sin −1   = sin −1   = 24.9°
 n   1.526 

 KL   23(0.004) 
 −   − 
 cos θ2   cos(24.9) 
τa = e =e = 0.904
From Eqs. (2.45) and (2.46):
sin 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) sin 2 ( 24.9 − 40 )

r⊥ = = = 0.083
sin 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) sin 2 ( 24.9 + 40 )
tan 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) tan 2 ( 24.9 − 40 )

r|| = = = 0.016
tan 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) tan 2 ( 24.9 + 40 )
From Eqs. (2.52a)-(2.52c) we have:

1 − r⊥  1 − r⊥ 2  1 − 0.083  1 − 0.0832 
τ ⊥ = τα   = 0.904     = 0.765
1 + r⊥  1 − ( r⊥ τα )2  1 + 0.083  1 − ( 0.083x0.904 )  
2
1 − r||  1 − r||2    1 − 0.0162 

τ|| = τα   = 0.904 1 − 0.016    = 0.875
1 + r||  1 − ( r τ )2   1 + 0.016  1 − ( 0.016x0.904 )2  
 || α   
8
ρ⊥ = r⊥ (1 + τα τ⊥ ) = 0.083(1 + 0.904x0.765) = 0.140
ρ|| = r|| (1 + τα τ|| ) = 0.016(1 + 0.904x0.875) = 0.029
 1 − r⊥   1 − 0.083 
α ⊥ = (1 − τα )   = (1 − 0.904 )   = 0.095
 1 − r⊥ τα   1 − 0.083x0.904 
 1 − r||   1 − 0.016 
α|| = (1 − τα )   = (1 − 0.904 )   = 0.096
 1− r τ   1 − 0.016x0.904 
 || α 
To avoid repeating the same calculations the results for the tedlar cover are: r⊥ = 0.067,
r|| = 0.011, τ⊥ = 0.875, τ|| = 0.977, ρ⊥ = 0.126, ρ|| = 0.022, α ⊥ = 0, α|| = 0. These were obtained by
considering τα = 1.0 as thickness is very small. The angle θ2 is 26.3° estimated from Eq. (2.44)
using n = 1.45 (given).
Finally, Eqs. (2.56) and (2.57) can be used as follows:
1  τ τ   τ τ   1  0.765x0.875   0.875x0.977  
τ =  1 2  +  1 2   =  +  = 0.768
2  1 − ρ1ρ2 ⊥  1 − ρ1ρ2 ||  2  1 − 0.14x0.126   1 − 0.029x0.022  
 
 0.768x0.126x0.765  
  0.14 +  
1  τρ τ   τρ τ   1  0.875  
ρ =  ρ1 + 2 1  +  ρ1 + 2 1   =  = 0.134
2  τ2  ⊥ τ 2 ||  2   0.768x0.022x0.875  
    +  0.029 +
0.977 
   
α=1-τ-ρ = 1-0.768-0.134 = 0.098
2.18 The glass plate of a solar greenhouse has a transmissivity of 0.90 for wavelengths
between 0.32 and 2.8 μm and is completely opaque at shorter and longer wavelengths. If
the sun is a blackbody radiating energy to the earth’s surface at an effective temperature of
5770 K and the interior of the greenhouse is at 300 K, calculate the percent of incident
solar radiation transmitted through the glass and the percent of thermal radiation emitted
by the interior objects that is transmitted out.
The incoming solar radiation at 5770K we have:
λ1T = 0.32x5770 = 1846 μm-K

λ2T = 2.8x5770 = 16156 μm-K
From Table 2.4 we get:
E b (0 → λ1T)
= 0.453 = 45.3%
σT 4
E b (0 → λ 2 T)
= 0.974 = 97.4%
σT 4
Therefore the percent of solar radiation incident on the glass in the wavelength range 0.32 to
2.8 μm is:
E b (λ1T → λ 2 T)
= 97.4 − 45.3 = 52.1%
σT 4
The percentage of radiation transmitted through the glass is 0.9x52.1 = 46.9%.
9
For the outgoing infrared radiation at 300K we have:
λ1T = 0.32x300 = 96 μm-K

λ2T = 2.8x300 = 840 μm-K
From Table 2.4 we get:

E b (0 → λ1T)
= 0.0 = 0%
σT 4
E b (0 → λ 2 T)
= 0.0001 = 0.01%
σT 4
The percentage of radiation emitted is 0.9x0.01=0.009%
2.19 A 30 m2 flat plate solar collector is absorbing radiation at a rate of 900 W/m2. The
environment temperature is 25°C and the collector emissivity is 0.85. Neglecting
conduction and convection losses, calculate the equilibrium temperature of the collector
and the net radiation exchange with the surroundings.
To be in equilibrium the collector losses energy at the rate it absorbs energy. The energy
emitted from the collector can be obtained from Eq. (2.71) as: Q12 = A1h r ( T1 − T2 ) . The
( )
radiation heat transfer coefficient is given by Eq. (2.75): h r = ε1σ ( T1 + T2 ) T12 + T22 . So we
have two equations with two unknowns T1 and hr. Using the data given T1=403.7K =130.7°C
and hr=8.515 W/m2-K. The net radiation exchanged with the surroundings is 900x30=27 kW,
estimated also from Q=Aεσ(Τ14-Τ24).
2.20 Two large parallel plates are maintained at 500 K and 350 K, respectively. The hotter
plate has an emissivity of 0.6 and the colder one 0.3. Calculate the net radiation heat
transfer between the plates.
Using Eq. (2.67):
Q/A =
(
σ T14 − T24 ) =
5.67x10−8 ( 5004 − 3504 )
= 673.2 W / m 2
( 1) ( 2 )
1/ ε + 1/ ε − 1 (1/ 0.6 ) + (1/ 0.3 ) − 1
2.21 Find the direct normal and horizontal extraterrestrial radiation at 2:00 pm solar time on
February 21 for 40°N latitude and the total solar radiation on an extraterrestrial horizontal
surface for the day.
From Table 2.1 for February 21, day number = 52. From Eq. (2.5) on February 21, δ=-11.2°.
At 2:00 pm h=30° and from Eq. (2.15) hss=80.4°. From Eq. (2.77):
  360N     360x52   2
G on = G sc 1 + 0.033cos    = 1366 1 + 0.033cos    = 1394.2 W/m
  365     365  
From Eq. (2.12), cos(Φ)= sin(L) sin(δ)+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)

= sin(40) sin(-11.2)+cos(40) cos(-11.2) cos(30) = 0.526 or Φ=58.3°.
10
From Eq. (2.78): GoH=Gonxcos(Φ) = 1394.2x0.526 = 733.3 W/m2.
From Eq. (2.79):

 cos(40)cos(-11.2)sin(80.4)+ 
24x3600x1366   360x52     MJ
Ho = 1 + 0.033cos      πx80.4   = 21.69 2
π   365      sin(40) sin(-11.2)  m
  180  
2.22 Estimate the average hourly diffuse and total solar radiation incident on a horizontal
surface for Rome, Italy, on March 10 at 10:00 am and 1:00 pm solar times if the monthly
average daily total radiation is 18.1 MJ/m2.
From Table 2.1 at March 10, N=69. At 10:00 am h=-30° and at 1:00 pm h=15°. From Eq.
(2.5) δ=-4.8°. From Exercise 2.5, Rome is at latitude of 41.54°Ν. From Eq. (2.15) hss=85.7°.
From Table 2.5 at 40°Ν latitude H o = 27.4 MJ/m2. From Eq. (2.82):
H 18.1
KT = = = 0.661 . Using Eq. (2.105a):
Ho 27.4
HD
= 1.390 − 4.027(0.661) + 5.531(0.661)2 − 3.108(0.661)3 = 0.247
H
Therefore: H D =0.247 H =0.247(18.1) = 4.47 MJ/m2-day
From Eq. (2.83) at 10:00 am:

 π  cos(h) − cos(h ss )  π  cos(−30) − cos(85.7)
rd =   =  = 0.117
 24  sin(h ) −  2πh ss  cos(h )  24  sin(85.7) −  2π85.7  cos(85.7)
ss  360  ss  360 
   
Similarly at 1:00 pm. rd = 0.132
From Eqs. (2.84b) and (2.84c):
α = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(hss-60) = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(85.7-60) = 0.626

β = 0.6609 - 0.4767 sin(hss-60) = 0.6609 - 0.4767 sin(85.7-60) = 0.454
From Eq. (2.84a) at 10:00 am:
π cos(h) − cos(h ss )
r= ( α + β cos(h) )
24  2πh ss 
sin(h ss ) −   cos(h ss )
 360 
π cos(−30) − cos(85.7)
= ( 0.626 + 0.454cos(−30) ) = 0.119
24  2πx85.7 
sin(85.7) −   cos(85.7)
 360 
Similarly at 1:00 pm. r = 0.141
Therefore, at 10:00 am average hourly total radiation is 0.119x18.1 = 2.1539 MJ/m2 = 2153.9
kJ/m2 and average hourly diffuse radiation is 0.117x4.47 = 0.5230 MJ/m2 = 523 kJ/m2. At
1:00 pm average hourly total radiation is 0.141x18.1 = 2.5521 MJ/m2 = 2552.1 kJ/m2 and
average hourly diffuse radiation is 0.132x4.47 = 0.590 MJ/m2 = 590 kJ/m2.
2.23 Calculate the beam and total radiation tilt factors and the beam and total radiation
incident on a surface titled at 45° toward the equator one hour after local solar noon on
11
April 15. The surface is located at 40°N latitude and the ground reflectance is 0.25. For
that day, the beam radiation at normal incidence is GB = 710 W/m2 and diffuse radiation
on horizontal is GD = 250 W/m2.
From Table 2.1 for April 15, N=105 and δ=9.41°. For one hour after local solar noon h=15°.
From Eq. (2.90a):
sin(L − β)sin(δ) + cos(L − β)cos(δ)cos(h)

RB =
sin(L)sin(δ) + cos(L)cos(δ) cos(h)
sin(40 − 45)sin(9.41) + cos(40 − 45)cos(9.41)cos(15)
= = 1.12
sin(40)sin(9.41) + cos(40) cos(9.41)cos(15)
From the data given G = GB+GD = 710+250 = 960 W/m2. From Eq. (2.99):
GB G  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β) 
R= RB + D   + ρG  
G G  2   2 
710 250  1 + cos(45)   1 − cos(45) 
= 1.12 +   + 0.25   = 1.09
960 960  2   2 
Therefore, from Eq. (2.88) the beam radiation on tilted surface is GBt = GBRB = 710x1.12 =
795 W/m2. Similarly from Eq. (2.99) the total radiation on tilted surface is Gt = G.R =
960x1.09 = 1046 W/m2.
2.24 For a south-facing surface located at 45°N latitude and tilted at 30° from horizontal,
calculate the hourly values of the beam radiation tilt factor on September 10.
From Table 2.1 for September 10, N=253 and δ=4.22°. The estimation can be done using Eq.
(2.90a) for each hour of the day as shown in previous Exercise. The actual estimation is done
at the middle of each hour considered and the hour angle is estimated using Eq. (2.9). The
results are shown in the following table.
Time Actual time used in Eq. (2.90a) h (°) RB

7-8 7:30 -67.5 1.204
8-9 8:30 -52.5 1.258
9-10 9:30 -37.5 1.281
10-11 10:30 -22.5 1.292
11-12 11:30 -7.5 1.297
12-13 12:30 7.5 1.297
13-14 13:30 22.5 1.292
14-15 14:30 37.5 1.281
15-16 15:30 52.5 1.258
16-17 16:30 67.5 1.204
17-18 17:30 82.5 1.005
18-19 18:30 97.5 2.666
2.25 A collector located in Berlin, Germany, is tilted at 50° and receives a monthly average
daily total radiation H equal to 17 MJ/m2-day. Determine the monthly mean beam and
total radiation tilt factors for October for an area where the ground reflectance is 0.2.
Estimate also the monthly average daily total solar radiation on the surface.
12
From the web site shown in Exercise 2.5 the latitude of Berlin Germany is 52.5°N. From
Table 2.5 the monthly average daily total insolation on an extraterrestrial horizontal surface
Ho is equal (by interpolation) to 15.4 MJ/m2. Therefore from Eq. (2.82):
H 17
KT = = = 1.104
Ho 15.4
By considering the average day of October 15 (N=288) shown in Table 2.5 the declination is
δ = -9.6°. Finally, the sunset hour angle from Eq. (2.15) is:
hss = cos-1[-tan(L)tan(δ)] = cos-1[-tan(52.5)tan(-9.6)] = 77.3°
From Eq. (2.105b):
HD
= 0.775 + 0.00653(h ss − 90) − 0.505 + 0.00455(h ss − 90)  cos(115K T − 103)
H
= 0.775 + 0.00653(77.3 − 90) − 0.505 + 0.00455(77.3 − 90)  cos(115x1.104 − 103) = 0.283
From Eq. (2.109): h'ss = min {hss, cos-1 [- tan(L-β) tan(δ)]}

= min {77.3, cos-1 [- tan(52.5-50) tan(-9.6)]} = min {77.3, 89.5} = 77.3°
From Eq. (1.108):
cos(L − β) cos(δ)sin(h 'ss ) + (π /180)h 'ss sin(L − β)sin(δ)

RB =
cos(L)cos(δ)sin(h ss ) + (π /180)h ss sin(L)sin(δ)
cos(52.5 − 50) cos(−9.6)sin(77.3) + (π /180)77.3sin(52.5 − 50)sin(−9.6)
= = 2.337
cos(52.5) cos(−9.6)sin(77.3) + (π /180)77.3sin(52.5)sin(−9.6)
Finally, from Eq. (2.107):
 HD  H D  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β) 
R = 1 −  RB +   + ρ  
 H  H  2 
G
 2 
 1 + cos(50)   1 − cos(50) 
= (1 − 0.283) 2.337 + 0.283   + 0.2   = 1.944
 2   2 
The average daily total radiation on the tilted surface for October is:
H t = RH = 1.944(17) = 33 MJ/m2-day
13
CHAPTER 3
3.1 For a one-cover flat-plate collector of dimensions 3 × 6 m, tilted at 40° from horizontal,
determine the overall heat loss coefficient. The environmental temperature is 10°C and the
wind blows at 4 m/s. The absorber plate is 0.5 mm thick with an emissivity of 0.92. The
glass cover is 3.5 mm thick and located 35 mm from the absorbing plate, and the glass
emissivity is 0.88. The insulation is fiberglass 45 mm thick at the back and 25 mm at the
edges. The mean absorber temperature is 90°C. Estimate the overall heat loss coefficient
using both the detailed and the empirical method and compare the results.
To solve this Exercise the glass cover temperature is guessed and then by iteration is corrected
until a satisfactory solution is reached by satisfying the following equations, obtained by
combining Eqs. (3.15) and (3.17):
(h c,p −g + h r,p −g )(Tp − Tg ) = (h c,g −a + h r,g −a )(Tg − Ta )
However, to save space the correct values are used. All calculations are greatly facilitated by
using a spreadsheet program. In this way various combinations of the glass temperature can be
done easily until the correct value is guessed. Assuming that Tg1 =39.3°C (312.3K), from Eq.
(3.14):
σ(Tp + Tg )(Tp2 + Tg2 ) (5.67x10−8 )(363 + 312.3)(3632 + 312.32 )

h r,p −g = = = 7.177 W/m2-K
(1/ ε ) + (1/ ε ) − 1
p g (1/ 0.92) + (1/ 0.88) − 1
From Eq. (3.18) we have:
h r,g −a = εg σ(Tg + Ta )(Tg2 + Ta2 ) = 0.88(5.67x10−8 )(312.3 + 283)(312.32 + 2832 ) = 5.276 W/m2-K
From Table A5.1, in Appendix 5 the following properties of air can be obtained:
For ½(Tp+Tg) = ½ (363+312.3)=337.7K

ν = 19.82x10-6 m2/s
Pr = 0.700
k = 0.0291 W/m-K
By using the above properties the Rayleigh number Ra can be obtained from Eq. (3.12) and by
noting that β΄=1/T.
gβ 'Pr 3 9.81x0.70x(363 − 312.3)x0.0353

For hc,p-g: Ra = (Tp − Tg )L = = 112523
ν2 337.7x(19.82x10−6 )2
Therefore, from Eq. (3.11):
For hc,p-g:
14
+
 +
 1708[sin(1.8θ)]1.6   Ra.cos(θ) 
0.333  
k  1708 
h c,p −g = 1 + 1.446 1 −  1 − +
   − 1


L  Ra.cos(θ)   Ra.cos(θ)   5830   

+
 
+
  1708[sin(1.8x40)]1.6   112523x cos(40) 
0.333  
0.0291  1708 
= 1 + 1.446 1 −  1 −  +   − 1 
0.035   112523x cos(40)   112523x cos(40)   5830   

= 3.196 W/m2-K
The convection heat transfer coefficient from glass to ambient is the wind loss coefficient
given by Eq. (3.28). In this equation, the characteristic length is the length of the collector
equal to 3 m.
Therefore: hc,g-a=hw=8.6(4)0.6/30.4 = 12.732 W/m2-K
To check if the assumed values of Tg1 and Tg2 are correct the heat transfer coefficients are
substituted into Eqs. (3.15) and (3.17):
Qt /Ac = (hc,p-g+hr,p-g)(Tp-Tg) = (3.196+7.177)(363-312.3) = 525.9 W/m2

Qt /Ac = (hc,g-a+hr,g-a)(Tg-Ta) = (12.732+5.276)(312.3-283) = 527.6 W/m2
The reason that these two answers are not exactly equal, is because of the accuracy of
calculations. The value of Tg which give the exact answer (=526.5) is 312.24K. Finally, Ut can
be calculated from:
−1
 1 1 
Ut =  +  =
 h c,p −g + h r,p −g h c,g −a + h r,g −a
 
−1
 1 1  2
= +  = 6.582 W/m -K
 3.196 + 7.177 12.732 + 5.276 
Empirical method:
From Eq. (3.26): f = (1 − 0.04h w + 0.0005h 2w ) (1 + 0.091Ng )

f = (1-0.04x12.732+0.0005x12.7322)(1+0.091x1) = 0.624
From Eq. (3.27): C = 365.9 (1 − 0.00883β + 0.0001298β2 )

C = 365.9(1-0.00883x40+0.0001298x402) = 312.7
Therefore from Eq. (3.25):
15
1 σ Tp2 + Ta2 ( Tp + Ta )
( )
Ut = +
Ng 1 2N g + f − 1
+ − Ng
ε p + 0.05N g (1 − ε p )
0.33
C  Tp − Ta  1 εg
  +
Tp  N g + f  hw
1 5.67x10−8 (3632 + 2832 )(363 + 283)
= +
1 1 (2x1) + 0.624 − 1
0.33
+ −1
312.7  (363 − 283)  1 0.92 + 0.05x1(1 − 0.92) 0.88
+
363  (1 + 0.624)  12.732
= 7.221 W/m2-K
For the back loss coefficient, Eq. (3.29) can be used. From Table A5.3 the thermal
conductivity of fibreglass is 0.0519 W/m-K. By using the same convection coefficient as
above:
1 1
Ub = = = 1.191 W/m2-K
tb 1 0.045 1
+ +
k b h c,b −a 0.0591 12.732
Similarly for the edge heat loss coefficient, using Eq. (3.30):
1 1
Ue = = = 1.994 W/m2-K
te 1 0.025 1
+ +
k e h c,e −a 0.0591 12.732
Therefore, the overall heat loss coefficient, using Eq. (3.9) is:
U L = U t + U b + U e = 6.582 + 1.191 + 1.994 = 9.767 W/m2-K or using the empirical method is

equal to 7.221+1.191+1.994 = 10.406 W/m2-K. The difference between this value and the one
obtained above is only 6.5%.
3.2 For a two-cover flat-plate collector of dimensions 3 × 6 m, tilted 45° from horizontal,
determine the overall heat loss coefficient. The environmental temperature is 5°C and the
wind blows at 5 m/s. The absorber plate is 0.6 mm thick with an emissivity of 0.15. The
glass covers are 3.5 mm thick with a gap of 20 mm and the bottom one is located 50 mm
from the absorbing plate. The glass emissivity is 0.88. The insulation is fiberglass 50 mm
thick at the back and 30 mm at the edges. The mean absorber temperature is 90°C.
Estimate the overall heat loss coefficient using both the detailed and the empirical method
and compare the results.
To solve this Exercise the two glass cover temperatures are guessed and then by iteration are
corrected until a satisfactory solution is reached by satisfying the following equations, obtained
by combining Eqs. (3.15), (3.17) and (3.22):
(h c,p −g2 + h r,p −g2 )(Tp − Tg2 ) = (h c,g2−g1 + h r,g2−g1 )(Tg2 − Tg1 ) = (h c,g1−a + h r,g1−a )(Tg1 − Ta )
However, to save space the correct values are used. Again here a spreadsheet program can be
used. Assuming that Tg1 =15.6°C (288.6K) and Tg2 = 40.7°C (313.7K), from Eq. (3.14):
16
σ(Tp + Tg2 )(Tp2 + Tg2
2
) (5.67x10−8 )(363 + 313.7)(3632 + 313.72 )
h r,p −g2 = = = 1.298 W/m2-K
(1/ ε ) + (1/ ε ) − 1
p g2
(1/ 0.15 ) (
+ 1/ 0.88 ) − 1
Similarly, for the two covers we have:
2
σ(Tg2 + Tg1 )(Tg2 2
+ Tg1 ) (5.67x10−8 )(313.7 + 288.6)(313.72 + 288.62 )
h r,g2−g1 = =
(1/ ε ) + (1/ ε ) − 1
g2 g1
(1/ 0.88) + (1/ 0.88) − 1
2
= 4.875 W/m -K
h r,g1−a = εg1σ(Tg1 + Ta )(Tg12 + Ta2 )

= 0.88(5.67x10−8 )(288.6 + 278)(288.62 + 2782 ) = 4.540 W/m2-K
From Table A5.1, in Appendix 5 the following properties of air can be obtained:
For ½(Tp+Tg2) = ½ (363+313.7)=338.4K

ν = 19.87x10-6 m2/s
Pr = 0.700
k = 0.0292 W/m-K
For ½(Tg2+Tg1) = ½ (313.7+288.6)=301.2K

ν = 16.90x10-6 m2/s
Pr = 0.708
k = 0.0263 W/m-K
By using the above properties the Rayleigh number Ra can be obtained form Eq. (3.12) and by
noting that β΄=1/T.
gβ 'Pr 3 9.81x0.70x(363 − 313.7)x0.053

For hc,p-g2: Ra = (Tp − Tg2 )L = = 317336
ν2 338.4x(19.87x10−6 )2
gβ 'Pr 9.81x0.708x(313.7 − 288.6)x0.023
For hc,g2-g1: Ra = 2 (Tg2 − Tg1 )L3 = = 16212
ν 301.2x(16.90x10−6 )2
Therefore, from Eq. (3.11):
For hc,p-g2:
+
 + 
1708   1708[sin(1.8θ)]1.6   Ra.cos(θ)  
0.333
k  
h c,p −g2 = 1 + 1.446 1 −  1 −  +   − 1 
L  Ra.cos(θ)   Ra.cos(θ)   5830   

+
 
+
  1708[sin(1.8x45)]1.6   317336x cos(45) 
0.333  
0.0292  1708 
= 1 + 1.446 1 −  1 −  +   − 1 
0.05   317336x cos(45)   317336x cos(45)   5830   

= 2.800 W/m2-K
For hc,g2-g1:
17
+
 + 
1708   1708[sin(1.8θ)]1.6   Ra.cos(θ)  
0.333
k  
h c,g2−g1 = 1 + 1.446 1 −  1 −  +   − 1 
L  Ra.cos(θ)   Ra.cos(θ)   5830   

+
  
+
 1708[sin(1.8x45)]1.6   16212x cos(45) 
0.333  
0.0263  1708 
= 1 + 1.446 1 −   1 − +
   − 1 
0.02   16212x cos(45)   16212x cos(45)   5830   

= 3.029 W/m2-K
The convection heat transfer coefficient from glass to ambient is the wind loss coefficient
given by Eq. (3.28). In this equation, the characteristic length is the length of the collector
equal to 3 m.
Therefore: hc,g1-a=hw=8.6(5)0.6/30.4 = 14.556 W/m2-K
To check if the assumed values of Tg1 and Tg2 are correct the heat transfer coefficients are
substituted into Eqs. (3.15), (3.17) and (3.22):
Qt /Ac = (hc,p-g2+hr,p-g2)(Tp-Tg2) = (2.800+1.298)(363-313.7) = 202.0 W/m2

Qt /Ac = (hc,g2-g1+hr,g2-g1)(Tg2-Tg1) = (3.029+4.875)(313.7-288.6) = 198.4 W/m2
Qt /Ac = (hc,g1-a+hr,g1-a)(Tg1-Ta) = (14.556+4.540)(288.6-278) = 202.4 W/m2
The reason that these three answers are not exactly equal, is because of the accuracy of
calculations. The values of Tg1 and Tg2 which give the exact answer (=201.1) are 288.53 and
313.93 K respectively. Finally, Ut can be calculated from:
−1
 1 1 1 
Ut =  + +  =
 h c,p −g 2 + h r,p −g 2 h c,g 2−g1 + h r,g 2−g1 h c,g1−a + h r,g1−a
 
−1
 1 1 1  2
= + +  = 2.365 W/m -K
 2.800 + 1.298 3.029 + 4.875 14.556 + 4.540 
Empirical method:
From Eq. (3.26): f = (1 − 0.04h w + 0.0005h 2w ) (1 + 0.091Ng )

f = (1-0.04x14.556+0.0005x14.5562)(1+0.091x2) = 0.619
From Eq. (3.27): C = 365.9 (1 − 0.00883β + 0.0001298β2 )

C = 365.9(1-0.00883x45+0.0001298x452) = 316.7
18
1 σ Tp2 + Ta2 ( Tp + Ta )
( )
Ut = +
Ng 1 2N g + f − 1
+ − Ng
ε p + 0.05N g (1 − ε p )
0.33
C  Tp − Ta  1 εg
  +
Tp  N g + f  hw
1 5.67x10−8 (3632 + 2782 )(363 + 278)
= +
2 1 (2x2) + 0.619 − 1
0.33
+ −2
316.7  (363 − 278)  1 0.15 + 0.05x2(1 − 0.15) 0.88
+
363  (2 + 0.619)  14.556
= 2.603 W/m2-K
For the back loss coefficient, Eq. (3.29) can be used. From Table A5.3 the thermal
conductivity of fibreglass is 0.0519 W/m-K. By using the same convection coefficient as
above:
1 1
Ub = = = 1.093 W/m2-K
tb 1 0.05 1
+ +
k b h c,b −a 0.0591 14.556
Similarly for the edge heat loss coefficient, using Eq. (3.30):
1 1
Ue = = = 1.735 W/m2-K
te 1 0.03 1
+ +
k e h c,e−a 0.0591 14.556
Therefore, the overall heat loss coefficient, using Eq. (3.9) is:
U L = U t + U b + U e = 2.365 + 1.093 + 1.735 = 5.193 W/m2-K or using the empirical method is

equal to 2.603+1.093+1.735 = 5.431 W/m2-K. The difference between this value and the one
obtained above is only 4.6%.
3.3 A flat-plate collector 4 m2 in area is tested during the night to measure the overall heat
loss coefficient. Water at 60°C circulates through the collector at a flow rate of 0.06 L/s.
The ambient temperature is 8°C and the exit temperature is 49°C. Determine the overall
heat loss coefficient.
Using Eq. (3.31) Qu = A c G t (τα) − U L ( Tp − Ta )  = mc

 p To − Ti 
 
Qu = 0.06x4180 (60-49) = 2758.8 W
Mean plate temperature is (To+Ti)/2 = (60+49)/2 = 54.5°C. Therefore:
0
( )
Qu = Ac G t (τα) − U L Tp − Ta  = −A c U L ( Tp − Ta ) minus sign indicate that we have only losses
 
and can be ignored. Therefore:
19
Qu 2758.8
UL = = = 14.83 W/m2-K
Ac (Tp − Ta ) 4(54.5 − 8)
3.4 For a two-cover 2 × 6 m flat-plate collector, tilted at 45° from horizontal, determine the
overall heat loss coefficient. The environmental temperature is –5°C and the wind blows
at 8 m/s. The absorber plate is 0.1 cm thick with an emissivity of 0.93 maintained at 80°C.
The glass covers are 0.5 cm thick with a gap of 2.5 cm and the bottom one is located 6 cm
from the absorbing plate. The glass emissivity is 0.88. The insulation is fiberglass 7 cm
thick at the back and 3 cm at the edges.
This Exercise is similar to Exercise 3.2, therefore only the answers are given for the various
parameters as follows:
Values of glass temperatures which solve the Exercise are Tg1=279.96K, Tg2=319.46K
hr,p-g2 = 7.131 W/m2-K hc,p-g2 = 2.423 W/m2-K
2
hr,g2-g1 = 4.817 W/m -K hc,g2-g1 = 3.296 W/m2-K
hr,g1-a = 4.107 W/m2-K hc,g1-a = 22.696 W/m2-K
Ut = 3.771 W/m2-K, Ub = 0.814 W/m2-K and Ue = 1.813 W/m2-K.
Finally, UL = 6.398 W/m2-K.
3.5 A single-glazed 3 × 6 m flat-plate collector faces south, tilted 45° from horizontal. The
collector is located at 35°N latitude, and on March 21 from 2:00 to 3:00 pm, the insolation
on the surface of the collector is 890 W/m2 and the ambient temperature is 8°C. Estimate
the useful energy gain of the collector if:
Overall heat loss coefficient = 5.6 W/m2-°C
Water inlet temperature = 50°C
Mass flow rate through the collector = 0.25 kg/s
Tube inside convection heat transfer coefficient = 235 W/m2-K
Single glazing with n=1.526 and KL = 0.037
Absorber plate is selective with αn = 0.92, thickness = 0.5 mm
Copper tubes are used for risers with 13.5 mm inside diameter, 15 mm outside diameter
and distance between risers 12 cm.
From Appendix 5, k of copper is 385 W/m-K. From Eq. (3.34):

UL 5.6
m= = = 5.394 m-1
kδ 385x0.0005
tanh [ m(W − D) / 2] tanh [5.394(0.12 − 0.015) / 2]

From Eq. (3.42): F = = = 0.974
m(W − D) / 2 5.394(0.12 − 0.015) / 2
From Eq. (3.48) and ignoring bond conductance, since no data were given:
20
1
UL
F' =
 1 1 
W + 
 U L [ D + (W − D)F] πDi h fi 
1
= 5.6 = 0.917
 1 1 
0.12  + 
 5.6 [ 0.015 + (0.12 − 0.015)0.974] πx0.0135x235 
From Eq. (3.58):

 p 
mc  U F'A c   0.25x4180   5.6x0.917x18  
FR = 1 − Exp  − L  = 1 − Exp  −   = 0.878
Ac U L    p  
mc 18x5.6   0.25x4180  
 
For March 21 from Table 2.1, day number is 80. Therefore from Eq. (2.5):
 360   360 
δ = 23.45sin  ( 284 + N )  = 23.45sin  ( 284 + 80 )  = −0.4°
 365   365 
For the mean hour 2:30, hour angle from Eq. (2.8) is h=0.25(150) = 37.5°. Using the data
given, the incidence angle is given by Eq. (2.20):
cos(θ) = sin(L-β) sin(δ)+cos(L-β) cos(δ) cos(h)

= sin(35-45) sin(-0.4)+cos(35-45) cos(-0.4) cos(37.5) = 0.782. Therefore, θ = 38.5°
From Eq. (3.5):

a 4
= 1 + 2.0345x10−3 θe − 1.99x10−4 θe2 + 5.324x10−6 θ3e − 4.799x10−8 θe
an
4
= 1 + 2.0345x10−3 x38.5 − 1.99x10−4 x38.52 + 5.324x10−6 x38.53 − 4.799x10−8 x38.5 = 0.982
For the transmittance we need to calculate τα and τr. For the former Eq. (2.51) can be used. From
Eq. (2.44) the refraction angle θ2 is calculated as:
 sin θ1   sin(38.5) 
θ2 = sin −1   = sin −1   = 24.1°
 n   1.526 

 KL   0.037 
 −   − 
cos θ2   cos(24.1) 
τa = e 
=e = 0.96
From Eqs. (2.45) and (2.46):
sin 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) sin 2 ( 24.1 − 38.5 )

r⊥ = = = 0.079
sin 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) sin 2 ( 24.1 + 38.5 )
tan 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) tan 2 ( 24.1 − 38.5 )

r|| = = = 0.018
tan 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) tan 2 ( 24.1 + 38.5 )
21
1  1 − 0.079 1 − 0.018 
Therefore from Eq. (2.50a): τr =  +  = 0.909
2  1 + 0.079 1 + 0.018 
Finally from Eq. (2.53): τ ≅ τα τr = 0.96x0.909 = 0.873
From Eq. (3.3) (τα)B = 1.01τ(α/αn)αn = 1.01x0.873x0.982x0.92 = 0.797
From Eq. (3.7): (τα)av ≅ 0.96(τα) B . Therefore, (τα)av ≅ 0.96x0.797 ≅ 0.765
Q u = A c FR G t (τα) − U L ( Ti − Ta )  =18x0.878[890x0.765 – 5.6(50-8)] = 7043 W
3.6 A flat-plate solar collector with dimensions of 1 × 2 m has eight copper riser tubes of 13.5
mm inside diameter, 15 mm outside diameter, mounted on a copper absorbing plate 0.5
mm in thickness, which is at 85°C. Inlet water temperature is 55°C and the flow rate is
0.03 kg/s. Calculate the convection heat transfer coefficient inside the riser pipes, the
outlet water temperature, and the absorbed solar radiation on the collector surface,
assuming a fin efficiency of 95%.
Based on the inside tube diameter, the number of riser tubes and the flow rate, the velocity
inside each tube is given by:
m 
4m 4x0.03
V= = = = 0.026 m/s
Aρ 8πρDi 8x1000π(0.0135)2
2
The Reynolds number is given by: Re = ρVDi/μ = VDi/ν
Here we need to assume collector outlet temperature To and iterate to find the correct solution.
Here however, the correct value is assumed from the beginning equal to 75°C. The properties of
water are determined at the mean temperature = ½(To+Ti) = ½(75+55) = 65°C. Therefore from
Table A5.2, ν = 0.4495x10-6 m2/s and k = 0.647 W/m-K.
Now, Re = VDi/ν = 0.026x0.0135/0.4495x10-6 = 781, Therefore the flow is laminar and thus Nu
= 4.364.
Nu.k 4.364x0.647
h fi = = = 209 W/m2-K
Di 0.0135
From Eq. (3.42) F=tanh(x)/x where x = m(W-D)/2. F is given as 0.95, therefore by performing
the necessary manipulations x = 0.4.
The width of the collector is 1m. Therefore, for 8 riser tubes, 0.015 m outside diameter, W =
(1-8x0.015)/8 = 0.11 m or 11 cm.
Therefore from above m=2x/(W-D) = 2x0.4/(0.11-0.015) = 8.42 m-1
From Eq. (3.34) and noting that k for copper is 385 W/m-K (from Table A5.3):
UL
m= , therefore UL = m2kδ = 8.422x385x0.0005 = 13.65 W/m2-K
kδ
22
From Eq. (3.48) and ignoring bond conductance:
1
UL
F' =
 1 1 
W + 
 U L [ D + (W − D)F] πDi h fi 
1
= 13.65 = 0.823
 1 1 
0.11  + 
 13.65 [ 0.015 + (0.11 − 0.015)0.95 ] πx0.0135x209 
From Eq. (3.58):

 p 
mc  U F'A c   0.03x4180   13.65x0.823x2  
FR = 1 − Exp  − L  = 1 − Exp  −  = 0.754
Ac U L  
 p  
mc 2x13.65   0.03x4180  
 
Qu
From Eq. (3.60): = S − U L (Ti − Ta )
A c FR
Qu
Similarly, from Eq. (3.31): = S − U L (Tp − Ta )
Ac
Solving the latter equation for S, applying to the previous one and performing the necessary
manipulations we get:
Ac FR U L (Tp − Ti ) 2x0.754x13.65(85 − 55)

Qu = = = 2510 W (1)
(1 − FR ) (1 − 0.754)
Qu 2510
But Qu = mc
 p (To − Ti ) . Therefore To = Ti + = 55 + = 75°C (This is equal to the
 p
mc 0.03x4180
assumed value, so no iterations are needed).
The last thing we need to estimate is the absorbed solar radiation. From Eq. (3.31):
Qu
−S
Qu Ac
= S − U L (Tp − Ta ) from which Ta = p +
T
Ac UL
Qu
Similarly, from Eq. (3.60): = S − U L (Ti − Ta ) . Substituting equation for Ta:
A c FR
 Qu 
 −S
Qu A Q
= S − U L  Ti − Tp + c  = S − U L (Ti − Tp ) − u + S
A c FR  UL  Ac
 
 
Qu Q
Separating variables: + u = 2S − U L (Ti − Tp )
A c FR Ac
Qu
Or 2S = (1 + FR ) − U L (Tp − Ti ) . Substituting Qu from Eq. (1) above we get:
A c FR
23
1 + FR  2F 
2S = U L (Tp − Ti ) − U L (Tp − Ti ) = U L (Tp − Ti )  R 
1 − FR  1 − FR 
 FR 
Finally, S = U L (Tp − Ti )   .
 1 − FR 
This is an important relation. Applying the values of the present Exercise:
 0.754 
S = 13.65(85 − 55)   = 1255 W
 1 − 0.754 
3.7 The overall heat loss coefficient of a flat-plate collector is 6.5 W/m2-K. The absorber plate
is 0.4 mm thick and the riser tubes have 10 mm inside diameter and 12 mm outside
diameter. If the distance between the centers of the riser tubes is 12 cm and the tube inside
convection heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m2-K, estimate the collector efficiency
factor when the material used is aluminum and copper.
a. For aluminium k=211 W/m-K (From Table A5.3). Therefore, from Eq. (3.34):
UL 6.5
m= = = 8.776 m-1
kδ 211x0.0004
tanh [ m(W − D) / 2] tanh [8.776(0.12 − 0.012) / 2]

From Eq. (3.42): F = = = 0.931
m(W − D) / 2 8.776(0.12 − 0.012) / 2
1
UL
F' =
 1 1 
W + 
 U L [ D + (W − D)F] πDi h fi 
1
= 6.5 = 0.858
 1 1 
0.12  + 
 6.5 [ 0.012 + (0.12 − 0.012)0.931] πx0.01x250 
b. For copper k=385 W/m-K (From Table A5.3). Therefore, from Eq. (3.34):
UL 6.5
m= = = 6.497 m-1
kδ 385x0.0004
tanh [ m(W − D) / 2] tanh [ 6.497(0.12 − 0.012) / 2]

From Eq. (3.42): F = = = 0.961
m(W − D) / 2 6.497(0.12 − 0.012) / 2
24
1
UL
F' =
 1 1 
W + 
 U L [ D + (W − D)F] πDi h fi 
1
= 6.5 = 0.881
 1 1 
0.12  + 
 6.5 [ 0.012 + (0.12 − 0.012)0.961] πx0.01x250 
This Exercise proves the importance of using higher thermal conductivity material for
absorbing plates.
3.8 A single-glazed air heating collector that has a flow channel behind the absorber that is
1.5 m wide, 3.5 m long, and 5 cm high. The mass flow rate of the air is 0.045 kg/s and the
air inlet temperature is 45°C. The insolation on the tilted collector surface is 920 W/m2
and the collector effective τα is 0.87. When the ambient temperature is 12°C, the overall
heat loss coefficient is 4.5 W/m2-K. If the emissivity of the surfaces of the airflow channel
is 0.9, estimate the outlet air temperature and the efficiency of the collector.
Here we need to assume values for Tp and Tb and find the correct solution by iteration. To
save time the correct values are selected. The values assumed are Tp= 335.7K and Tb=334.1K.
From these two temperatures, the mean air temperature can be determined from:
4(Tm,air )3 = (Tp + Tb )(Tp2 + Tb2 ) from which:
(Tp + Tb )(Tp2 + Tb2 ) 3 (335.7 + 334.1)(335.7 2 + 334.12 )

Tm,air = 3 = = 334.9K
4 4
The radiation heat transfer coefficient from the absorber to the back plate is given by:
σ(Tp + Tb )(Tp2 + Tb2 ) (5.67x10−8 )(334.1 + 335.7)(334.12 + 335.72 )

h r,p −g2 = =
(1/ ε ) + (1/ ε ) − 1
p b
(1/ 0.9 ) + (1/ 0.9 ) − 1
2
= 6.970 W/m -K
From Tm,air the following properties of air can be obtained from Appendix 5:
μ = 2.047x10-5 kg/m-s
k = 0.029 W/m-K
cp = 1008 J/kg-K
From fluid mechanics the hydraulic diameter of the air channel is given by:
 flow cross − sec tional area   Ws 

D = 4  = 4  = 2s = 2x0.05 = 0.1
 wetted perimeter   2W 
The Reynolds number is given by:
25
ρVD mD
 0.045x0.1
Re = = = = 2931
μ Aμ (1.5x0.05)x2.047x10−5
Therefore the flow is turbulent, for which the following equation applies: Nu = 0.0158(Re)0.8 .
Since Nu=(hcD)/k the convection heat transfer coefficient is given by:
k 0.8  0.029 
h c,p −a = h c,b −a =   0.0158 ( Re ) =  0.8 2
 0.0158(2931) = 2.721 W/m -K
D
   0.1 
From Eq. (3.69):

1 1
h = h c,p−a + = 2.721 + = 4.678 W/m2-K
(1/ h c,b −a ) (
+ 1/ h r,p− b) (1/ 2.721) + (1/ 6.970 )
From Eq. (3.72):

h 4.678
F' = = = 0.510
h + U L 4.678 + 4.5
The absorbed solar radiation S = Gt(τα) = 920x0.87 = 800 W/m2. From Eq. (3.74):
1   A U F'  
To = Ti + S − U L (Ti − Ta )  1 − exp  − c L  

UL   m cp  
 1    (1.5x3.5)x4.5x0.510  
= 318 +   800 − 4.5(318 − 285)  1 − exp  −   = 351.8K
 4.5    0.045x1008 
Therefore, the average air temperature is ½(351.8+318) = 334.9K which is the same as the
Tm,air found before.
From Eq. (3.58):

 p 
mc  U F'A c   0.045x1008   4.5x0.510x(1.5x3.5)  
FR = 1 − Exp  − L  = 1 − Exp  −   = 0.448
Ac U L    p   (1.5x3.5)x4.5 
mc  0.045x1008 
 
From Eq. (3.76):

Qu = A c FR S − U L (Ti − Ta )  = (1.5x3.5)x0.448 800 − 4.5(318 − 285)  = 1532 W
Finally, the collector efficiency is:
Qu 1532
η= = = 0.317 or 31.7%
A c G t (1.5x3.5)x920
3.9 A CPC has an acceptance half angle of 16° and its long axis is orientated along the east-
west direction with a tilt of 45°. The collector is located at a latitude of 35°N where, on
March 10 at 1:00–2:00 pm, the beam radiation on horizontal is 1.3 MJ/m2 and the diffuse
is 0.4 MJ/m2. A single glass cover is used on the concentrator with KL = 0.032. Estimate
the absorbed radiation for the hour indicated if specular reflectivity is 0.85 and the
absorptivity values are 0.96 at normal incidence, 0.95 at incidence angle of 20°, 0.94 at
40°, and 0.89 at 60°. What is the useful energy output of the collector per unit aperture
area if the overall heat loss coefficient is 7 W/m2-K, the heat removal factor is 0.88, the
ambient temperature is 10°C, and the inlet fluid temperature is 55°C.
26
From Fig. 3.35 for θc=16° the height to aperture ratio = 2.3 and the concentration ratio = 3.7.
From Fig. 3.34 the average number of reflections of radiation before reaching the absorber is
0.89.
Therefore, from Eq. (3.94): τCPC = ρn = 0.850.89 = 0.865
March 10 corresponds to day number 69 (Table 2.1). At 1:30 pm (middle of 1:00-2:00 pm)
the hour angle h = 22.5° (Eq. (2.8). From Eq. (2.5), δ = -4.8°. As the collector is orientated in
the east-west direction it means that it is south facing, therefore, from Eq. (2.20):
cos(θ) = sin(L-β) sin(δ)+cos(L-β) cos(δ) cos(h)

= sin(35-45) sin(-4.8)+cos(35-45) cos(-4.8) cos(22.5) = 0.921 or θ = 22.9°
From Eq. (2.12): cos(Φ) = sin(L) sin(δ)+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)

cos(Φ) = sin(35) sin(-4.8)+cos(35) cos(-4.8) cos(22.5) = 0.706 or Φ = 45°.
So from Eq. (2.11): α = 90-45 = 45°
cos(δ) sin(h) cos(−4.8) sin(22.5)

From Eq. (2.13): sin(z) = = = 0.539 or z = 32.6°
cos(α) cos(45)
In order to find the various radiation components we need to calculate the relation:
tan-1[tan(Φ)cos(z)] = tan-1[tan(45)cos(32.6)] = 40.1°
From Eq. (3.88a) the condition: 29°≤40.1°≤61° applies, therefore:
G B,CPC = G Bn cos(θ) = 1.3x0.921 = 1.197 MJ/m2
From Eq. (3.88b): GD,CPC = GD/C =0.4/3.7 = 0.108 MJ/m2 as (β+θc) = 45+16 is less than 90°.
Similarly from Eq. (3.88c): GG,CPC = 0 as the same condition applies.
From Eq. (3.93) the effective incidence angle for the beam radiation is:
θe = 44.86 – 0.0716θc +0.00512θc2 – 0.00002798θc3 = 44.86 – 0.0716x16 +0.00512x162 –

0.00002798x163 = 44.9°.
From the Exercise definitions and by interpolation, for the incidence angle of beam radiation
of 22.9° αB= 0.949 and from the effective incidence angle for the diffuse radiation of 44.9°,
αD= 0.928.
For the CPC glass cover transmittance, we need to apply the standard relations given in
Chapter 2. For the incident angle of 22.9° and from Eq. (2.44) the refraction angle θ2 is
calculated as:
 sin θ1   sin(22.9) 
θ2 = sin −1   = sin −1   = 14.8°
 n   1.526 

 KL   0.032 
 −   − 
 cos θ2   cos(14.8) 
τa = e =e = 0.967
27
From Eqs. (2.45) and (2.46):
sin 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) sin 2 (14.8 − 22.9 )

r⊥ = = = 0.053
sin 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) sin 2 (14.8 + 22.9 )
tan 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) tan 2 (14.8 − 22.9 )

r|| = = = 0.034
tan 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) tan 2 (14.8 + 22.9 )
From Eq. (2.52a) we have:

0.967 1 − 0.053  1 − 0.0532  1 − 0.034  1 − 0.0342 
τc,B =    +  
2 1 + 0.053  1 − ( 0.053x0.967 )2  1 + 0.034  1 − ( 0.034x0.967 )2  
 
= 0.4835(0.899 + 0.934) = 0.886
Similarly for the effective incidence angle for the diffuse radiation at 44.9°:
 sin θ1   sin(44.9) 
θ2 = sin −1   = sin −1   = 27.6°
 n   1.526 
 KL   0.032 
 −   − 
 cos θ2   cos(27.6) 
τa = e =e = 0.965
sin 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) sin 2 ( 27.6 − 44.9 )

r⊥ = = = 0.097
sin 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) sin 2 ( 27.6 + 44.9 )
tan 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) tan 2 ( 27.6 − 44.9 )

r|| = = = 0.0096
tan 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) tan 2 ( 27.6 + 44.9 )

0.965 1 − 0.097  1 − 0.097 2  1 − 0.0096  1 − 0.00962 
τc,D =    +  
2 1 + 0.097  1 − ( 0.097x0.965 )2  1 + 0.0096  1 − ( 0.0096x0.965 )2  
 
= 0.4825(0.823 + 0.981) = 0.870
Therefore from Eq. (3.87) and recalling from Chapter 3 that τCPC is effectively the same for all
τCPC,B, τCPC,D and τCPC,G:
0
S = G B,CPC τc,B τCPC,Bα B + G D,CPC τc,D τCPC,D α D + G G,CPC τc,G τCPC,G α G
S = 1.197x0.886x0.865x0.949 + 0.108x0.870x0.865x0.928 = 0.946 MJ/m2
This value can also be estimated more quickly but approximately with Eq. (3.91). For this
purpose, the value of γ is first required given by Eq. (3.92):
 1 G  1  0.4
γ = 1 − 1 −  D = 1 − 1 −  = 0.828
 C  Gt  3.7  1.7
28
In addition, the weighted values of τcover and αr are required as:
τc,B G B + τc,D G D 0.886x1.3 + 0.870x0.4

τcover = = = 0.882
Gt 1.7
α G + α D G D 0.949x1.3 + 0.928x0.4
αr = B B = = 0.944
Gt 1.7
Now from Eq. (3.91): S = G t τcov er τCPC α r γ =1.7x0.882x0.865x0.944x0.828 = 1.01 MJ/m2
Finally from Eq. (3.86):
Qu  U ( T − Ta )   7x3.6 ( 55 − 10 )  2
= FR S − L i  = 0.88 1010 −  = 619.1 kJ/m
Aa  C   3.7 
3.10 A parabolic trough collector has a tubular steel receiver with a glass cover and the
space between the receiver and the glass is evacuated. The receiver is 10 m long and has
an outside diameter of 5 cm and an inside diameter of 4 cm. The glass cover diameter is 8
cm. If the receiver surface is selective with ε = 0.11 and is at 250°C, determine the overall
heat loss coefficient of the receiver when environmental temperature is 24°C, the wind
speed is 2 m/s, and the glass emissivity is 0.92.
The receiver area, Ar = πDoL = πx0.05x10 = 1.57 m2. The glass cover area, Ac = πDcL =
πx0.08x10 =2.51 m2.
Next a glass cover temperature is assumed in order to evaluate the convection and radiation
heat transfer from the glass cover. This is assumed to be equal to 32.6°C = 305.6K. The actual
glass cover temperature will be obtained by iteration. The convective (wind) heat transfer
coefficient hc,c-a = hw of the glass cover can be calculated from Eq. (3.115). First the Reynolds
number needs to be estimated at the mean temperature ½(24+32.6) = 28.3°C. Therefore From
Table A5.1 in Appendix 5 we get:
ρ = 1.173 kg/m3
μ = 1.985x10-5 kg/m-s
k = 0.0263 W/m-K
Now: Re = ρVDc/μ = (1.173x2x0.08)/1.985x10-5 = 9455

Therefore Eq. (3.115b) applies which gives: Nu = 0.3(Re)0.6 = 72.86
And hc,c-a = hw = (Nu)k/Dc = 72.86x0.0263/0.08 = 23.95 W/m2-K
The radiation heat transfer coefficient, hr,c-a for the glass cover to ambient is calculated from
Eq. (2.75):
( )
h r,c−a = εc σ ( Tc + Ta ) Tc2 + Ta2 = 0.92(5.67x10−8 )(305.6 + 297)(305.62 + 297 2 ) = 5.71 W/m2-K
The radiation heat transfer coefficient, hr,r-c between the receiver tube and the glass cover is
estimated from Eq. (3.117):
σ(Tr2 + Tc2 )(Tr + Tc ) (5.67x10−8 )(5232 + 305.62 )(523 + 305.6)
h r,r −c = = = 1.88 W/m2-K
1 Ar  1  1
+
0.05  1 
− 1
+  − 1 
ε r A c  εc  0.11 0.08  0.92 
29
As the space between the receiver and the glass cover is evacuated, there is no convection
heat transfer. Therefore, based on the receiver area, the overall collector heat loss coefficient
is given by Eq. (3.116):
−1 −1
 Ar 1   0.05 1  2
UL =  +  = +  = 1.81 W/m -K
 ( h w + h r,c −a ) A c h r,r −c   ( 23.95 + 5.71) 0.08 1.88 
As UL is based on the assumed Tc value we need to check if the assumption made was correct.
Using Eq. (3.119) we get:
A r h r,r −c Tr + A c (h r,c −a + h w )Ta 1.57x1.88x250 + 2.51(5.71 + 23.95)24

Tc = = = 32.6°C
A r h r,r −c + A c (h r,c −a + h w ) 1.57x1.88 + 2.51(5.71 + 23.95)
This is the same as the value assumed earlier.
3.11 For the previous Exercise, if the collector aperture is 4 m, the receiver tube is steel, the
receiver inside convection coefficient is 280 W/m2-K, and the absorbed solar radiation is
500 W/m2 of aperture area, estimate the useful energy gain of the collector and the
collector outlet temperature. The circulating fluid is oil with a specific heat of 1.3 kJ/kg-K,
circulating at a flow rate of 1 kg/s and entering the receiver at 210°C.
The unshaded collector aperture area, Aa = (4 – 0.08)x10 = 39.2 m2. From Table A5.3 in
Appendix 5, the steel thermal conductivity is 47.6 W/m-K.
The collector efficiency factor can be calculated from Eq. (3.126):

1/ U L 1/1.81
F' = = = 0.992
1 Do  Do Do  1
+
0.05
+
 0.05
ln
0.05 
+ + ln  
U L h fi Di  2k Di  1.81 280x0.04  2x47.6 0.04 
The heat removal factor can be calculated from Eq. (3.58) by using Ar instead of Ac:
 p 
mc  U F'A r   1x1300   1.81x0.992x1.57  
FR = 1 − Exp  − L  = 1 − Exp  −   = 0.991
Ar UL    p   1.57x1.81 
mc  1x1300 
 
The useful energy is estimated from Eq. (3.127) using the concept of absorbed radiation:
Q u = FR SA a − A r U L ( Ti − Ta )  = 0.991[500x39.2 − 1.57x1.81(210 − 24)] = 18900 W
Finally the collector outlet temperature can be estimated from:

Q 18900
 p (To − Ti ) or To = Ti + u = 210 +
Q u = mc = 224.5°C
 p
mc 1x1300
30
CHAPTER 4
4.1 For seven collectors in series, each 1.2 m2 in area, FR1UL1 = 7.5 W/m2-°C, and FR1(τα)1 =
0.79 at a flow rate of 0.015 kg/s-m2, estimate the useful energy collected if water is
circulated through the collectors, the available solar radiation is 800 W/m2, and the ΔT
(=Ti – Ta) is equal to 5°C.
Equation (4.22) can be used to find K as:
A c FR1U L1 1.2x7.5
K= = = 0.1196
 p
mc 0.015x1.2x4180
Equation (4.23) can be used to find FR (τα) series :
 1 − (1 − K) N   1 − (1 − 0.1196)7 
FR (τα) series = FR1 ( τα )1  = 0.79   = 0.557
 NK   7x0.1196 
Similarly, Eq. (4.24) can be used to find FR U L series :
 1 − (1 − K) N   1 − (1 − 0.1196)7  2
FR U L series = F U
R1 L1   = 7.5   = 5.285 W / m °C
 NK   7x0.1196 
Finally, Qu is given by:
Q u = FR (τα) series ( Ac G t ) − FR U L series ( ΔT ) = 0.557x7x1.2x800 − 5.285x5 = 3717W
4.2 Repeat Example 4.2 for September 15 considering that the weather conditions are the
same.
From Table 2.1 day number for September 15 is 258 and δ = 2.22°. Using Eq. (2.20) to
estimate the incidence angle and convert to kJ/m2 by multiplying W/m2 by 3.6. The results are
shown in the following table:
31
Time Ta (°C) Ιt (kJ/m2) ΔT/Gt (°C-m2/kJ) θ (degrees) Kθ Qu (kJ)
6 25 360 0.250 90.4 0 0
7 26 540 0.160 75.6 0.636 0
8 28 900 0.088 61.0 0.873 306.9
9 30 1440 0.050 46.4 0.946 1263.9
10 32 2160 0.030 32.3 0.978 2485.4
11 34 2880 0.020 19.3 0.993 3701.2
12 35 3420 0.016 12.2 0.997 4579.1
13 34 2880 0.020 19.3 0.993 3701.2
14 32 2160 0.030 32.3 0.978 2485.4
15 30 1440 0.050 46.4 0.946 1263.9
16 28 900 0.088 61.0 0.873 306.9
17 26 540 0.160 75.6 0.636 0
18 25 360 0.250 90.4 0 0
Therefore, the total energy collected over the day = 20094 kJ
4.3 Find the FR(τα)n and FRUL for a collector 2.6 m2 in area with the following hour-long test
results:
Qu (MJ) It (MJ/m2) Ti (°C) Ta (°C)
6.05 2.95 15.4 14.5
1.35 3.05 82.4 15.5
For this Exercise, we need first to convert the radiation into W/m2. To do this we multiply the
above numbers with 106 and divide by 3600. The efficiency is estimated by dividing Qu by
(AcIt). The results together with the other numbers are shown in the table below:
Run Gt (W/m2) ΔΤ/Gt (m2-K/W) Efficiency

1 819.4 0.0011 0.789
2 847.2 0.079 0.170
The factor FRUL is estimated from the slope of the line given by:
η2 − η1 0.170 − 0.789
FR U L = = = −7.95
( ΔT / G t )2 − ( ΔT / G t )1 0.079 − 0.0011
The minus sign is because the line has a negative slope.
The intercept of the line with the efficiency axis is obtained from Eq. (4.4):
 T − Ta 
FR (τα) n = η1 + FR U L  i  = 0.789 + 7.95x0.0011 = 0.798
 G t 1
4.4 For a collector with FR(τα)n = 0.82 and FRUL = 6.05 W/m2-°C, find the instantaneous
efficiency when Ti = Ta. If the instantaneous efficiency is equal to 0, Ta = 25°C, and Ti =
90°C, what is the value of solar radiation falling on the collector?
From Eq. (4.4) when Ti=Ta then: η = FR(τα)n = 0.82.
32
When the efficiency is zero from the same equation [Eq. (4.4)]:
 T − Ta 
FR (τα) n = FR U L  i 
 Gt 
FU 6.05
From which: G t = R L ( Ti − Ta ) = (90 − 25) = 480 W/m2
FR (τα) n 0.82
4.5 The data from an actual collector test are shown in the following table. If the collector
area is 1.95 m2 and the test flow rate is 0.03 kg/s, find the collector characteristics FR(τα)n
and FRUL.
Number Gt (W/m2) Ta (°C) Ti (°C) To (°C)

1 851.2 24.2 89.1 93.0
2 850.5 24.2 89.8 93.5
3 849.1 24.1 89.5 93.3
4 855.9 23.9 78.2 83.1
5 830.6 24.8 77.9 82.9
6 849.5 24.5 77.5 82.5
7 853.3 23.9 43.8 52.1
8 860.0 24.3 44.2 52.4
9 858.6 24.5 44.0 51.9
First, we need to estimate the various parameters. The rate of useful energy is estimated from
Eq. (4.2). The efficiency is estimated by dividing Qu by (AcGt). The results are shown in the
table below:
No. Gt (W/m2) Ta (°C) Ti (°C) To (°C) Qu (W/m2) ΔΤ/Gt (m2-K/W) η

1 851.2 24.2 89.1 93.0 490.23 0.0762 0.295
2 850.5 24.2 89.8 93.5 465.09 0.0771 0.280
3 849.1 24.1 89.5 93.3 477.66 0.0770 0.288
4 855.9 23.9 78.2 83.1 615.93 0.0634 0.369
5 830.6 24.8 77.9 82.9 628.50 0.0639 0.388
6 849.5 24.5 77.5 82.5 628.50 0.0624 0.379
7 853.3 23.9 43.8 52.1 1043.31 0.0233 0.627
8 860.0 24.3 44.2 52.4 1030.74 0.0231 0.615
9 858.6 24.5 44.0 51.9 993.03 0.0227 0.593
Then we plot the efficiency against ΔT/Gt as shown in the figure below.
33
0.8
y = -5.9629x + 0.7504
0.7
R2 = 0.9928
0.6
Efficiency
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
2
∆Τ/Gt (m -K/W)
From this graph, the slope and intercept can be obtained either graphically or by using the
curve fitting option of Excel as shown. Therefore:
Intercept = FR(τα)n = 0.7504 and slope = FRUL = 5.9629 W/m2-°C
4.6 For a 5.6 m2 collector with F΄ = 0.893, UL = 3.85 W/m2-°C, (τα)av = 0.79, and flow rate =
0.015 kg/m2s, find FR, Qu, and efficiency when water enters at 35°C, the ambient
temperature is 14.2°C, and It for the hour is 2.49 MJ/m2.
From the data given and from Eq. (3.58):
 p 
mc  U F'A c   0.015x4180   3.85x0.893x5.6  
FR = 1 − Exp  − L  = 1 − Exp  −  = 0.769
Ac U L  
 p  
mc 5.6x3.85   0.015x4180  
 
The useful energy is obtained from Eq. (3.60) modified accordingly:
Q u = A c FR  I t (τα)av − U L ( Ti − Ta ) 
= 5.6x0.769  2.49x106 x0.79 − 3.85x3600(35 − 14.2)  = 7229.6 kJ = 7.23 MJ
Qu 7.23
Finally, the efficiency is given by: η = = = 0.519 or 51.9%.
Ac I t 5.6x2.49
4.7 The characteristics of a 2 m2 water heating collector are FR(τα)n = 0.79 and FRUL = 5.05
W/m2-°C. If the test flow rate is 0.015 kg/m2-s, find the corrected collector characteristics
when the flow rate through the collector is halved.
To solve this Exercise we need to know F΄UL. This can be estimated by using Eq. (4.18)
which is obtained by rearranging Eq. (3.58) and solving for F΄UL, which gives:
 p  FR U L A c 
mc
F'U L = − ln 1 − 
A c   p 
mc
34
Therefore:

mc  F U A  0.015x4180  5.05x2  2
F'U L = − p ln 1 − R L c  = − x ln 1 −  = 5.506 W/m -°C
A c   p 
mc 2  0.015x4180 
Using Eq. (4.18):
 p
mc  U F'A  
0.0075x4180   5.506x2  
1 − Exp  − L c 

Ac  
mc  use 1 − Exp  −  use
  p   2   0.0075x4180  
r= = = 0.919
FR U L test 5.05
Finally from Eq. (4.17):
FR U L
r= use
or FR U L use = r.FR U L test = 0.919x5.05 = 4.641 W/m2-°C
FR U L test
FR (τα) n use
r= or FR (τα) n use = r.FR (τα) n test = 0.919x0.79 = 0.726
FR (τα) n test
4.8 The characteristics of a water heating collector are FR(τα)n = 0.77, FRUL = 6.05 W/m2-°C,
and bo = -0.12. The collector operates for a complete day, which has the characteristics
shown in the following table. Find, for each hour, the useful energy collected per unit of
aperture area and the collector efficiency. Also estimate the daily efficiency.
Time It (kJ/m2) Ta (°C) Ti (°C) θ (°)

8-9 2090 18.5 35.1 60
9-10 2250 20.3 33.2 47
10-11 2520 22.6 30.5 35
11-12 3010 24.5 29.9 27
12-13 3120 26.5 33.4 25
13-14 2980 23.9 35.2 27
14-15 2490 22.1 40.1 35
15-16 2230 19.9 45.2 47
16-17 2050 18.1 47.1 60
From Eq. (4.25):
 1 
K θ = 1 − bo  − 1
 cos ( θ ) 
 
For the useful energy collected per unit of aperture area Eq. (4.3) can be modified by using
the incidence angle modifier as:
Qu
= FR (τα) n I t K θ − FR U L x3.6 ( Ti − Ta )
Aa
Using these equations the table can be completed as follows:
35
Time It (kJ/m2) Ta (°C) Ti (°C) θ (°) Kθ Qu/Aa (kJ/m2) η
8-9 2090 18.5 35.1 60 0.880 1054.6 0.505
9-10 2250 20.3 33.2 47 0.944 1354.6 0.602
10-11 2520 22.6 30.5 35 0.974 1716.9 0.681
11-12 3010 24.5 29.9 27 0.985 2166.1 0.720
12-13 3120 26.5 33.4 25 0.988 2222.3 0.712
13-14 2980 23.9 35.2 27 0.985 2014.8 0.676
14-15 2490 22.1 40.1 35 0.974 1474.5 0.592
15-16 2230 19.9 45.2 47 0.944 1070.0 0.480
16-17 2050 18.1 47.1 60 0.880 757.5 0.369
The daily efficiency can be estimated either from the mean of the values above or by
estimating the totals for Qu/Aa and It and divide the two numbers. The results gives η = 59.3%
for the first case and η = 60.8% for the second.
4.9 For one cover collector system with KL = 0.037 and αn = 0.92, estimate incidence angle
modifier constant (bo) based on (τα) at normal incidence and at θ = 60°. The cover is
made from glass with n = 1.526.
(τα)  1 
The incidence angle modifier is given by Eq. (4.25): K θ = = 1 − bo  − 1

(τα)n  cos ( θ ) 
Therefore, we need to estimate (τα) at normal incidence angle and at an angle of 60°.
For the transmittance we need to calculate τα and τr. For the former Eq. (2.51) can be used.
At normal incidence, θ1 = 0° and θ2 = 0°. From Eq. (2.51) the transmittance can be obtained as
 KL   0.037 
 −   − 
 cos( θ2 )   cos(0) 
τa = e =e = 0.964
There is no polarization at normal incidence therefore from Eq. (2.49):

2 2
 n − 1   1.526 − 1 
r(0) = r⊥ = r =   =  = 0.043
 n + 1   1.526 + 1 
1  1 − 0.043 1 − 0.043 
From Eq. (2.50a): τr =  +  = 0.918
2  1 + 0.043 1 + 0.043 
Finally from Eq. (2.53): τn ≅ τα τr = 0.964x0.918 = 0.885
And from Eq. (3.3): (τα)n = 1.01τnxαn = 1.01x0.885x0.92 = 0.822
At angle of incidence = 60°, from Eq. (3.5):
a 4
= 1 + 2.0345x10−3 θe − 1.99x10−4 θe2 + 5.324x10−6 θ3e − 4.799x10−8 θe
an
4
= 1 + 2.0345x10−3 x60 − 1.99x10−4 x602 + 5.324x10−6 x603 − 4.799x10−8 x60 = 0.934
36
 sin θ1   sin(60) 
θ2 = sin −1   = sin −1   = 34.6°
 n   1.526 

 KL   0.037 
 −   − 
 cos θ2   cos(34.6) 
τa = e =e = 0.956
From Eqs. (2.45) and (2.46):
sin 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) sin 2 ( 34.6 − 60 )

r⊥ = = = 0.185
sin 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) sin 2 ( 34.6 + 60 )
tan 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) tan 2 ( 34.6 − 60 )

r|| = = = 0.0015
tan 2 ( θ2 + θ1 ) tan 2 ( 34.6 + 60 )
0.956 1 − 0.185  1 − 0.1852  1 − 0.0015  1 − 0.00152 

τ=    +  
2 1 + 0.185  1 − ( 0.185x0.956 )2  1 + 0.0015  1 − ( 0.0015x0.956 )2  
 
= 0.478(0.686 + 0.997) = 0.804
An alternative method to estimate τ is by calculating τr with Eq. (2.50a) and then with Eq.
(2.53) to estimate τα, i.e., multiply τr by τα.
Therefore (τα) = 1.01τ(α/αn)αn = 1.01x0.804x0.934x0.92 = 0.698
And the incidence angle modifier is: Kθ = 0.698/0.822 = 0.849
 1 
From above equation: K θ = 1 − bo  − 1
 cos ( θ ) 
 
1 − Kθ 1 − 0.849
or bo = = = 0.151
 1   1 
 − 1  − 1
 cos ( θ )   cos ( 60 ) 
37
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Repeat Example 5.1 for an indoor swimming pool.
As in Example 5.1, the energy balance of the pool is given by: qe + qr + qc + qmuw – qs = qss
All the parameters are the same except the evaporation heat loss, which is now given by Eq.
(5.19).
Here we assume an air speed of 0.04 m/s. The partial pressures for air and water are given by
Eqs. (5.20) and (5.21). By assuming that the temperature of the enclosure to be the same as
the ambient temperature:
Ps = 100(0.004516 + 0.0007178t a − 2.649x10−6 t a2 + 6.944x10−7 t 3a )

= 100(0.004516 + 0.0007178x17 − 2.649x10−6 x17 2 + 6.944x10−7 x173 ) = 1.936 kPa
Ps xRH 1.936x60
From Eq. (5.20): Penc = = = 1.162 kPa
100 100
Saturation water vapour pressure can also be obtained from Eq. (5.21) by using tw instead of ta.
Therefore Pw = 3.166 kPa
From Eq. (5.19), evaporation heat losses are:

q e = ( 5.64 + 5.96vs )( Pw − Penc ) = ( 5.64 + 5.96x0.04 )( 3.166 − 1.162 ) = 11.78 MJ/m2-day
The other quantities are as shown in Example 5.1 except the solar radiation heat gain because
the pool is indoor. Therefore the energy required by the solar system in order to keep the pool
at 25°C is:
qss = qe + qr + qc + qmuw – qs = 11.78+14.198+4.693+24.1 = 54.771 MJ/m2-day or
Qss = 54.771x500 = 27,386 MJ/day = 27.4 GJ/day
5.2 A 100 m2 light colored swimming pool is located in a well-sheltered site, where the
measured wind speed at 10 m height is 4 m/s. The water temperature is 23°C, the ambient
air temperature is 15°C, and relative humidity is 55%. There are no swimmers in the pool,
the temperature of the make-up water is 20.2°C, and the solar irradiation on a horizontal
surface for the day is 19.3 MJ/m2-d. If this pool is to be heated by solar energy, how many
square meters of collectors would be required if their efficiency is 45%?
As before, the energy balance of the pool is given by: qe + qr + qc + qmuw – qs = qss
The velocity at 0.3 m above the pool surface is 0.3x4 = 1.2 m/s. The partial pressures for air is
given by Eq. (5.21):
Ps = 100(0.004516 + 0.0007178t a − 2.649x10−6 t a2 + 6.944x10−7 t 3a )

= 100(0.004516 + 0.0007178x15 − 2.649x10−6 x152 + 6.944x10−7 x153 ) = 1.703 kPa
Ps xRH 1.703x55
From Eq. (5.20): Pa = = = 0.937 kPa
100 100
Saturation water vapour pressure can also be obtained from Eq. (5.21) by using tw instead of ta.
Therefore Pw = 2.807 kPa
38
From Eq. (5.18), evaporation heat losses are:
q e = ( 5.64 + 5.96v 0.3 )( Pw − Pa ) = ( 5.64 + 5.96x1.2 )( 2.807 − 0.937 ) = 23.921 MJ/m2-day
2 2
 t dp   t dp   15   15 
From Eq. (5.25): εs = 0.711 + 0.56   + 0.73   = 0.711 + 0.56   + 0.73  100  = 0.811
 100   100   100   
From Eq. (5.24): Ts = Ta εs = 288 0.811 = 259.4 K
From Eq. (5.22), radiation heat losses are:

24x3600
qr = 6
ε w σ ( Tw4 − Ts4 ) = 0.0864x0.95x5.67x10−8 ( 2964 − 259.44 ) = 14.655 MJ/m2-day
10
From Eq. (5.26), convection heat losses are:

q c = 0.0864 ( 3.1 + 4.1v ) ( t w − t a ) = 0.0864(3.1 + 4.1x1.2)(23 − 15) = 5.543 MJ/m2-day
From steam tables, hfg, the latent heat of vaporization of water at 23°C is equal to 2446.6
MJ/kg. Therefore, the daily evaporation rate is given by Eq. (5.28):
q 5.543x103
mevp = c = = 2.266 kg/m2-day
h fg 2446.6
From Eq. (5.27), the heat losses due to the make-up water are:
q muw = mevp cp ( t muw − t w ) = 2.266x4.18(20.2 − 23) = 26.521 MJ/m2-day (the negative sign is not
used as all above values are losses)
From Eq. (5.29), solar radiation heat gain is:

qs = αH t = 0.85x19.3 = 16.405 MJ/m2-day
Therefore the energy required by the solar system in order to keep the pool at 23°C is:
qss = qe + qr + qc + qmuw – qs = 23.921+14.655+5.543+26.521–16.405 = 54.235 MJ/m2-day or
Qss = 5.424 GJ/day
The efficiency of the solar collectors is given by:
Qss Q 5424
η= or A c = ss = = 625 m2
G t Ac G t η 19.3*0.45
5.3 A water storage tank needs to be designed to hold enough energy to meet a load of 11 kW
for 2 days. If the maximum storage temperature is 95°C and the supply water must have at
least a temperature of 60°C, what size of tank is required?
For 2 days time is equal to 2 days x 24 hours x 60 min x 60 sec = 172800 sec
Load = 11 kW. Therefore energy is 11x172800 = 1,900,800 kJ
39
Qs 1,900,800
From Eq. (5.1): M = = = 12,992 kg
cp ΔTs 4.18x35
Since density of water is 1000 kg/m3, M ≈ 13 m3.
5.4 A fully mixed water storage tank contains 1000 kg of water, has a UA product equal to 10
W/°C, and is located in a room that is at a constant 20°C temperature. The tank is
examined in a 10 h period starting from 7:00 am, where the Qu is equal to 0, 8, 20, 31, 41,
54, 64, 53, 39, 29 MJ. The load is constant and equal to 13 MJ in the first 3 h, 17 MJ in
the next 3 h, 25 MJ in the next 2 h, and 20 MJ the rest of time. Find the final storage tank
temperature if the initial temperature is 43°C.
The estimation time interval is 1 hour. Using Eq. (5.5) and inserting the appropriate constants
we get:
1  3600 
Ts − n = Ts + Q − Ql − 10x 6 ( Ts − 20 ) 
−3  u
(1000x4.18x10 )  10 
By inserting the initial storage tank temperature (43°C), Qu and Ql according to the Exercise
the following table can be obtained:
Hour Qu (MJ) Ql (MJ) Ts (°C)

43
7 0 13 39.9
8 8 13 38.7
9 20 13 40.3
10 31 17 43.6
11 41 17 49.4
12 54 17 58.2
13 64 25 67.5
14 53 25 74.1
15 39 20 78.6
16 29 20 80.8
Therefore, the final storage tank temperature is 80.8°C
5.5 A storage tank needs to be designed to meet a load of 1.2 GJ. The temperature of the
storage tank can vary by 30°C. Determine the storage material volume if the material is
water and concrete.
Qs 1.2x106
For water, from Eq. (5.1): M = = = 9,569 kg ≈ 9.6 m3
cp ΔTs 4.18x30
Qs 1.2x106
For concrete cp = 0.92 kJ/kg-K. Therefore: M = = = 43,478 kg
cp ΔTs 0.92x30
Density of concrete is 2240 kg/m3. Therefore, M = 19.4 m3.
5.6 Repeat Example 5.3 by considering a storage tank of 150 kg and compare the results.
40
By using Eq. (5.6) the new storage tank temperature can be considered as the collector inlet.
This is correct for the present example but is not very correct in practice as some degree of
stratification is unavoidable in the storage tank.
1  3600 
Ts − n = Ts +  Qu − 12x ( Ts − Ta ) 
(150x4.18)  1000 
The results in the case are shown in the following table:
Time Ta (°C) It (kJ/m2) Ti (°C) ΔT/Gt (°C-m2/W) θ (deg.) Kθ Qu (kJ)
6 25 360 40 0.150 93.9 0 0
7 26 540 39.0 0.087 80.5 0.394 0.0
8 28 900 38.3 0.041 67.5 0.807 689.3
9 30 1440 38.8 0.022 55.2 0.910 1635.9
10 32 2160 40.9 0.015 44.4 0.952 2765.0
11 34 2880 44.9 0.014 36.4 0.971 3812.1
12 35 3420 50.2 0.016 33.4 0.976 4460.8
13 34 2880 56.2 0.028 36.4 0.971 3354.0
14 32 2160 59.9 0.046 44.4 0.952 2001.0
15 30 1440 61.0 0.078 55.2 0.910 740.4
16 28 900 59.9 0.128 67.5 0.807 0.0
17 26 540 57.6 0.211 80.5 0.394 0
18 25 360 55.4 0.304 93.9 0 0
Therefore, the total energy collected over the day = 19458.5 kJ
5.7 Repeat Example 5.3 for September 15, considering that the weather conditions are the
same.
In September 15, δ = 2.22°. The rest of calculations are as before. Therefore, just the results
are given here in the following table.
Time Ta (°C) It (kJ/m2) Ti (°C) ΔT/Gt (°C-m2/W) θ (deg.) Kθ Qu (kJ)

6 25 360 40 0.150 90.4 0 0
7 26 540 38.6 0.084 75.6 0.636 0.0
8 28 900 37.5 0.038 61.0 0.873 812.3
9 30 1440 38.6 0.022 46.4 0.946 1722.1
10 32 2160 42.1 0.017 32.3 0.978 2805.3
11 34 2880 47.9 0.017 19.3 0.993 3784.3
12 35 3420 55.6 0.022 12.2 0.997 4351.5
13 34 2880 63.8 0.037 19.3 0.993 3144.3
14 32 2160 68.0 0.060 32.3 0.978 1758.0
15 30 1440 68.3 0.096 46.4 0.946 525.4
16 28 900 65.4 0.150 61.0 0.873 0.0
17 26 540 61.3 0.236 75.6 0.636 0
18 25 360 57.6 0.326 90.4 0 0
Therefore, the total energy collected over the day = 18903.2 kJ
5.8 A solar water heating system with a fully mixed tank has a capacity of 300 L and a UA
value of 5.6 W/°C. The ambient temperature at the place where the tank is located is 21°C.
The solar system has a total area of 6 m2, FR(τα) = 0.82, and FRUL = 6.1 W/m2-°C. At the
hour of estimation, the ambient temperature is 13.5°C and the radiation on the collector
41
plane is 16.9 MJ/m2. If the temperature of the water in the tank is 41°C, estimate the new
tank temperature at the end of the hour.
The useful energy from the collector is estimated with Eq. (3.60):
16.9 
Q u = A c G t FR (τα) − FR U L ( Ti − Ta )  = 6  x0.82 − 6.1x3600x10−6 (41 − 13.5)  = 10.23 MJ
 6 
The losses from the storage tank are given from Eq. (5.32):
Q tl = ( UA )s ( Ts − Tenv ) = 5.6(41 − 21)x3600x10−6 = 0.403 MJ
Finally, the new storage tank temperature can be obtained from Eq. (5.34):
Δt 1
Ts − n = Ts + Qu − Q tl  = 41 + 10.23 − 0.403 = 48.8°C
( Mcp ) (300x4.18x10−3 ) 
5.9 A liquid-based solar heating system uses a heat exchanger to separate the collector loop
from the storage loop. The collector overall heat loss coefficient is 6.3 W/m2-°C, the heat
removal factor is 0.91, and the collector area is 25 m2. The heat capacity rates of the
collector loop is 3150 W/°C and, for the storage loop, is 4950 W/°C. Estimate the thermal
performance penalty that occurs because of the use of the heat exchanger if its
effectiveness is 0.65 and 0.95.
The thermal performance penalty is expressed as the F΄R/FR ratio given by Eq. (5.57):
−1
FR'  Ac FR U L  ( mc  p)
   −1
   25x0.91x6.3  3150 
= 1+ c
− 1  = 1 +  0.65x3150 − 1  = 0.976
FR 

 p )  ε ( mc
( mc c
 p)


min
 3150
 
 
For a heat exchanger effectiveness of 0.95:

−1
FR'  25x0.91x6.3  3150 
= 1 +  − 1  = 0.998
FR  3150  0.95x3150  
5.10 A liquid-based solar heating system uses a heat exchanger to separate the collector
loop from the storage loop. The flow rate of the water is 0.65 kg/s and that of the
antifreeze is 0.85 kg/s. The heat capacity of the antifreeze solution is 3150 J/kg-°C and the
UA value of the heat exchanger is 5500 W/°C. The collector has an area of 60 m2 and an
FRUL = 3.25 W/m2-°C. Estimate the factor FR′/FR .
First, the capacitance rates for the collector and tank sides are required given by:
Cc = ( mc
 p ) = 0.85x3150 = 2677.5 W/°C
c
Cs = ( mc
 p ) = 0.65x4180 = 2717 W/°C
s
From Eq. (5.54), the heat exchanger dimensionless capacitance rate is equal to:
42
C=
( mc
 )p min
=
2677.5
= 0.985
( mc
 )p max
2717
From Eq. (5.53):
UA 5500
NTU = = = 2.054
( mc
 p)
min
2677.5
From Eq. (5.51):
1 − e− NTU(1−C) 1 − e−2.054(1−0.985)
ε= = = 0.676
1 − C.e− NTU(1−C) 1 − 0.985e−2.054(1−0.985)

−1

( )  −1
  p  60x3.25  
F'
 A c FR U L  mc 2677.5
R
= 1 + c
− 1 
 = 1 +  − 1  = 0.966
FR

mc( c 
)
 p  ε mc p ( ) min

 
 2677.5  0.676 ( 2677.5)  

5.11 Compare the performance of an air collector for the case of insulated and uninsulated
ducts. The collector has an area of 30 m2, FRUL = 6.3 W/m2-°C and FR(τα) = 0.7. The
product of mass flow rate-specific heat of air flowing through the collector is 450 W/°C
and the areas of inlet and outlet ducts is 8 m2. The loss coefficient Ud of the insulated duct
is 0.95 W/m2-°C whereas for the uninsulated duct is 9 W/m2-°C. In both cases the global
radiation falling on the collector aperture is 650 W/m2, inlet air temperature is 45°C and
the ambient temperature is 15°C.
(a) For insulated ducts:

(ta ) ' 1 1
From Eq. (5.64b): = = = 0.983
(ta ) U d A d,o 0.95x8
1+ 1+
(mc
 p)
c
450
Therefore: FR(τα)΄ = 0.7x0.983 = 0.688

U d A d,i U d (A d,i + A d,o )
1- + 0.95x8 0.95(8 + 8)
'
From Eq. (5.64c): U L = (mc
 p)
c
A c FR U L 1-
450
+
30x6.3 = 1.046
=
UL U d A d,o 0.95x8
1+ 1+
(mc
 p)
c
450
Therefore: FRUL΄ = 6.3x1.046 = 6.59 W/m2-°C
And from Eq. (3.64a):
Q u = A c  FR (τα) 'G t − FR U 'L ( Ti − Ta )  = 30[0.688x650 – 6.59(45 – 15)] = 7485 W
(b) For uninsulated ducts:

(ta ) ' 1 1
= = = 0.862
From Eq. (5.64b): (ta ) U d A d,o 9x8
1+ 1+
(mc
 p)
c
450
43
Therefore: FR(τα)΄ = 0.7x0.862 = 0.603
U d A d,i U d (A d,i + A d,o )
1- + 9x8 9(8 + 8)
'
From Eq. (5.64c): U L = (mc
 p)
c
A c FR U L 1-
450
+
30x6.3 = 1.381
=
UL U d A d,o 9x8
1+ 1+
(mc
 p)
c
450
Therefore: FRUL΄ = 6.3x1.381 = 8.70 W/m2-°C
And from Eq. (3.64a):
Q u = A c  FR (τα) 'G t − FR U 'L ( Ti − Ta )  = 30[0.603x650 – 8.7(45 – 15)] = 3929 W
Therefore, the addition of insulation improves substantially the performance of the collector.
5.12 A collector is installed in an application that is partially shaded from beam radiation.
The shaded part, which is 25% of the total collector area, receives 250 W/m2 incident
radiation whereas the rest of the collector is exposed to sunshine and receives 950 W/m2.
The flow rate of water flowing through the collector is 0.005 kg/m2-s and the
characteristics of the collector at this flow rate are FRUL = 6.5 W/m2-°C and FR = 0.94.
The ambient temperature is 10°C and the collector inlet temperature is 45°C whereas the
(τα)av is equal to 0.75 for the shaded part and 0.91 for the unshaded part. Calculate the
collector outlet temperature when the flow is from the low to the high intensity zone and
opposite.
(a) Flow from low to high intensity zone
A 2 FR U L 0.75x6.5
From Eq. (5.70): K s =  p
= = 0.233
mc 0.005x4180
As the actual collector area is not given the estimation is done per unit area and the two
areas are quoted as a percentage of the total. Therefore, from Eq. (5.69):
Q u / A c = A1FR (ta )1 (1 - K s ) G t1 + A 2 FR (ta ) 2 G t2 - FR U L éë A1 (1 - K s ) + A 2 ùû (Ti - Ta )

=0.25x0.94x0.75(1-0.233)x250 + 0.75x0.94x0.91x950 – 6.5[0.25(1-0.233)+0.75](45-10)
= 429 W/m2
(b) Flow from high to low intensity zone
A 2 FR U L 0.25x6.5
Similarly: K s =  p
= = 0.078
mc 0.005x4180
And
Q u / A c = A1FR (ta )1 (1 - K s ) G t1 + A 2 FR (ta ) 2 G t2 - FR U L éë A1 (1 - K s ) + A 2 ùû (Ti - Ta )
=0.75x0.94x0.91(1-0.078)x950 + 0.25x0.94x0.75x250 – 6.5[0.75(1-0.078)+0.25](45-10)
= 391.8 W/m2
44
These results show the importance of pumping water first in the shaded part. These results can
be checked by estimating the output from the two zones separately and adding up the results.
For the case (a) from Eq. (5.65), again per unit area as above:
Q u1 / A c = A1FR G t1 (τα)1 − U L ( Ti − Ta )  =0.25[0.94x250(0.75)-6.5(45-10)] = -12.81 W/m2
And from Eq. (5.68):

Q 12.81
To,1 = Ti + u1 = 45 - = 44.39°C
 p
mc 0.005x4180
From Eq. (5.66), again per unit area as above:
Q u 2 / A c = A 2 FR G t 2 (τα) 2 − U L ( To,1 − Ta )  = 0.75[0.94x950x0.91-6.5(44.39-10)]

= 441.82 W/m2
Therefore the total is: Qu1 + Qu2 = 441.82 – 12.81 = 429 W/m2
5.13 A family of seven people lives in a house. Two of them take a bath every day and the
rest take showers. Estimate the daily hot water consumption of the family by considering
two meal preparations, two hand dish washings, and two face or hand washings for each
person.
From the data given in Table 5.6 we get the following consumptions:
2 persons take a bath: 2x60 = 120 l (as no data are given the mean consumption is considered)
5 persons take a shower: 5x15 = 75 l (as no data are given the mean consumption is
considered)
2 meal preparations: 2x20 = 40 (as the family comprise 7 people the high value is considered)
2 hand washings (each): 2x7x10 = 140 l (as no data are given the mean consumption is
considered)
2 dish washings: 2x18 = 36 l (as the family comprise 7 people the high value is considered)
Total daily hot water consumption = 120+75+40+140+36 = 411 l/day
5.14 Determine the solar collector area required to supply all the hot water needs of a
residence of a family of six people in June, where the total insolation is 25700 kJ/m2-d,
assuming a 45% collector efficiency. The demand hot water temperature is 60°C, the cold
water make-up temperature is 16°C, and the consumption per person is 35 L/day. Estimate
also the percentage of coverage (also called solar fraction) for heating the water in
January, where the total insolation is 10550 kJ/m2-d.
From Eq. (5.77): D = Vρc p ( Tw − Tm ) =35x6x10-3x1000x4.18(60-16) = 38623.2 kJ/day
From Chapter 3 the efficiency of the collector is given by:
Qu Q 38623.2
η= .Therefore: A c = u = = 3.34 m 2
H t Ac H t η 25700x0.45
45
Similarly from above equation, the useful energy from collector in January:
Qu = ηHtAc = 0.45x10550x3.34 = 15856.7 kJ/day
15856.7
Therefore solar fraction in January, f = = 0.411 or 41.1%
38623.2
5.15 A commercial building water heating system uses a recirculation loop, which
circulates hot water, to have hot water quickly available. If the temperature of hot water is
45°C, the pipe UA is 32.5 W/°C, the tank UA is 15.2 W/°C, the make-up water
temperature is 17°C, and ambient temperature is 20°C, estimate the weekly energy
required to heat the water with continuous recirculation. The demand is 550 L/d for
weekdays (Monday to Friday) and 150 L/d in weekends.
The total weekly demand is equal to 5x550+2x150 = 3050 l
Hot water load is given from Eq. (5.30):
Qs = Mcp ( Tw − Tmuw ) = 3050x4.18(45 − 17)x10−3 = 357 MJ
Pipe losses are given from Eq. (5.59). For the whole week, as there is continuous
recirculation, are given by:
Qpl = 32.5x7x24x3600(45-20)x10-6 = 491.4 MJ
Similarly the tank losses for the whole week are given by Eq. (5.32):
Qtl = 15.2x7x24x3600(45-20)x10-6 = 229.8 MJ
Load = Ql+Qpl+Qtl = 357+491.4+229.8 = 1078.2 MJ
5.16 A solar collector system has a total area of 10 m2, FR = 0.82, and UL = 7.8 W/m2-°C.
The collector is connected to a water storage tank of 500 L, which is initially at 40°C. The
storage tank loss coefficient-area product is 1.75 W/°C and the tank is located in a room at
22°C. Assuming a load flow of 20 kg/h and a make-up water of 18°C, calculate the
performance of this system for the period shown in the following table and check the
energy balance of the tank.
Hour S (MJ/m2) Ta (°C)
7–8 0 12.1
8–9 0.35 13.2
9–10 0.65 14.1
10–11 2.51 13.2
11–12 3.22 14.6
12–13 3.56 15.7
13–14 3.12 13.9
14–15 2.61 12.1
15–16 1.53 11.2
16–17 0.66 10.1
17-18 0 9.2
46
This Exercise can be solved using Eq. (5.81) for no load heat exchanger:
Δt 
 L c p ( Ts − Tmu ) 
+
Ts − n = Ts + A c FR S − U L ( Ts − Ta )  − ( UA )s ( Ts − Ta ) − m
( p)
Mc 
s

Inserting the various parameters:
10x0.82 S − 7.8x3600x10−6 ( T − T )  + − 1.75x3600x10−6 ( T − 22 ) 

106   s a  s

Ts − n = Ts +
( 500x4180 )  − ( 20x4180x10−6 ) ( Ts − 18) 
 
By using these parameters and the weather data specified the following table can be obtained:
Hour S (MJ/m2) Ta (°C) Ts (°C) Qtl (MJ) Ql (MJ) Qu (MJ)

40
7-8 0 12.1 39.1 0.11 1.84 0
8-9 0.35 13.2 38.2 0.11 1.76 0
9-10 0.65 14.1 37.3 0.10 1.69 0
10-11 2.51 13.2 43.7 0.10 1.61 15.03
11-12 3.22 14.6 52.0 0.14 2.15 19.70
12-13 3.56 15.7 60.5 0.19 2.84 20.82
13-14 3.12 13.9 65.8 0.24 3.56 14.84
14-15 2.61 12.1 68.1 0.28 4.00 9.02
15-16 1.53 11.2 65.9 0.29 4.19 0
16-17 0.66 10.1 63.9 0.28 4.01 0
17-18 0 9.2 61.9 0.26 3.84 0
Totals: 18.21 2.10 31.48 79.41
For the energy balance, the change of internal energy of water is equal to ΣQu-ΣQtl-ΣQl.
Therefore:
500x4180x10-6(61.9-40) = 79.41-2.1-31.48 which gives 45.77 MJ = 45.83 MJ which are

essentially equal.
47
CHAPTER 6
6.1 A building has a peak heating load equal to 18.3 kW and a peak cooling load of 23.8 kW.
Estimate the seasonal heating and cooling requirements if the heating degree days are
1240°C-days, the cooling degree days are 980°C-days, the winter indoor temperature is
23°C, and the summer indoor temperature is 25°C. The design outdoor temperature for
winter is 2°C, and for summer, it is 39°C.
Using Eq. (6.26), the heating requirement is:
86.4x103 Q h 86.4x103 x18.3

Dh = (DD)h = (1240) = 93.4x106 kJ = 93.4 GJ
Ti − To 23 − 2
Similarly for the cooling requirement Eq. (6.27) is used:
86.4x103 Qc 86.4x103 x 23.8

Dc = (DD)c = (980) = 143.9x106 kJ = 143.9 GJ
To − Ti 39 − 25
6.2 Estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient of a wall which has the following layers:
Outside plaster, 2 cm
Brick, 20 cm
Air gap, 2, cm
Polyurethane insulation, 3 cm
Brick, 10 cm
Inside plaster, 2 cm
Using the data shown in Tables A5.4 and A5.5 we get the following list of resistance values:
1. Outside surface resistance = 0.044
2. Plaster 20 mm = 0.020/1.39 = 0.014
3. Brick 20 cm = 0.20/0.25 = 0.8
4. Air gab, 20 mm = 0.020/0.175 = 0.114
5. Polyurethane insulation 30 mm = 0.030/0.025 = 1.2
6. Brick 10 cm = 0.10/0.25 = 0.4
7. Plaster 20 mm = 0.020/1.39 = 0.014
8. Inside surface resistance = 0.12
Total resistance = 2.706 m2-K/W or U= 1/2.706 = 0.370 W/m2-K
6.3 Estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient of the wall in Exercise 6.2 by replacing the
10 cm inside brick with the same thickness of medium-density concrete.
2. Plaster 20 mm = 0.020/1.39 = 0.014
3. Brick 20 cm = 0.20/0.25 = 0.8
4. Air gab, 20 mm = 0.020/0.175 = 0.114
6. Concrete 10 cm = 0.10/1.35 = 0.074
48
7. Plaster 20 mm = 0.020/1.39 = 0.014
6.4 Estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient of the wall in Exercise 6.2 by replacing the
air gap and polyurethane with 5 cm polyurethane.
2. Plaster 20 mm = 0.020/1.39 = 0.014
3. Brick 20 cm = 0.20/0.25 = 0.8
5. Brick 10 cm = 0.10/0.25 = 0.4
6. Plaster 20 mm = 0.020/1.39 = 0.014
6.5 Estimate the U value of a pitched roof that has a ceiling U value = 1.56 W/m2-K, area of
65 m2, and a roof U value = 1.73 W/m2-K. The slope angle of the roof is 35°.
The area of the roof is: 65/cos(35) = 79.4 m2
1 1
Using Eq. (6.37): U R = = = 0.897 W/m2-K
1 1 1 1
+ +
U c U r ( A r / A c ) 1.56 1.73 ( 79.4 / 65)
6.6 A building has a south-facing thermal storage wall with night insulation of Rins = 1.35 m2-
K/W, applied for 6 h. Estimate the monthly heat transfer through the wall into the indoor
space with and without night insulation for the month of January. The following data are
given:
1. Uo = 6.3 W/m2-K
2. w = 0.31 m
3. k = 2.2 W/m-K
4. hi = 8.3 W/m2-K
5. H t = 11.8 MJ/m2-K
6. (τα) = 0.83
7. TR = 23°C
8. Ta = 3°C
9. Aw = 25.1 m2
1 1
From Eq. (6.50) coefficient Uk can be calculated: U k = = = 3.826 W/m2-K
w 1 0.31 1
+ +
k hi 2.2 8.3
49
A. Without night insulation:
From Eq. (6.51) we estimate the outer wall surface temperature ( Uo = Uo):
Tw =
( )
H t ( τα) + U k TR + U o Ta Δt 11.8x106 x0.83 + ( 3.826x23 + 6.3x3) 86400
= = 21.75 °C
( )
U k + U o Δt ( 3.826 + 6.3) 86400
From Eq. (6.52):

Qg = U k A w ( Tw − TR ) N.Δt = 3.826x25.1(21.75-23)x31x86400 = - 0.322 GJ
The minus sign shows that this is a loss not a gain, which as can be seen from case B. below is
due to the high heat losses during the night.
B. With night insulation:
From Eq. (6.48) and by considering F=6/24 = 0.25

 Uo   6.3  2
U o = (1 − F)U o + F   = (1 − 0.25)x6.3 + 0.25   = 4.891 W/m -K
 1 + R U
ins o   1 + 1.35x6.3 
From Eq. (6.51) we estimate the outer wall surface temperature:
Tw =
( )
H t ( τα) + U k TR + U o Ta Δt
=
11.8x106 x0.83 + ( 3.826x23 + 4.891x3) 86400
= 24.78 °C
(U k )
+ U o Δt ( 3.826 + 4.891) 86400
From Eq. (6.52):

Qg = U k A w ( Tw − TR ) N.Δt = 3.826x25.1(24.78-23)x31x86400 = 0.459 GJ
6.7 A house has a south-facing window 1.8 m height, located in 35°N latitude. The overhang
is wide enough so as to neglect the side effects and its length is 0.9 m located 0.6 m above
the top surface of the window. Estimate the shading fraction for a vertical window facing
due south and a window in the same direction and tilted 10° from vertical at 11:00 am and
2:00 pm on July 17.
From Table 2.1, on July 17, δ = 21.18°. The hour angle at 11:00 am is -15° and at 2:00 pm is
30°. From the Exercise data we have: P = 0.9 m, G = 0.6 m, H = 1.8 m and Zs = 0°.
A. For vertical window (β = 90°)
Using Eqs. (2.12) and (2.19) we have:
At 11:00 am:
sin(αc) = sin(L) sin(δ)+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h) = sin(35) sin(21.18)+cos(35) cos(21.18) cos(-15)
= 0.9450
cos(θc) = -cos(L) sin(δ) cos(Zs)+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) cos(Zs)+cos(δ) sin(h) sin(Zs)

= -cos(35) sin(21.18) cos(0)+sin(35) cos(21.18) cos(-15) cos(0)+cos(21.18) sin(-15) sin(0)
= 0.2206
50
Psin(αc ) G 0.9x0.9450 0.6
Therefore, from Eq. (6.53): F = − = − = 1.809
H cos(θc ) H 1.8x0.2206 1.8
As this is more than 1 it means that we have complete shading.
At 2:00 pm:
sin(αc) = 0.8687
cos(θc) = 0.1672
Psin(αc ) G 0.9x0.8687 0.6

Therefore, from Eq. (6.53): F = − = − = 2.264
H cos(θc ) H 1.8x0.1672 1.8
Again here we have complete shading.
B. For tilted window (β = 80°)
Using Eqs. (6.55) and (6.56) we have:
At 11:00 am:
sin(αc) = 0.8924
cos(θc) = 0.3814
Psin(α c ) G 0.9x0.8924 0.6

Therefore, from Eq. (6.53): F = − = − = 0.837 or 83.7%
H cos(θc ) H 1.8x0.3814 1.8
At 2:00 pm:
sin(αc) = 0.8265
cos(θc) = 0.3155
Psin(αc ) G 0.9x0.8265 0.6

Therefore, from Eq. (6.53): F = − = − = 0.976 or 97.6%
H cos(θc ) H 1.8x0.3155 1.8
6.8 A building with a south-facing window with height = 2.5 m and width = 5 m is located in
an area where KT = 0.574, hss = 80°, R B = 0.737, H = 12.6 MJ/m2, and Fw = 0.705. The
ground reflectance is 0.3. Estimate the mean monthly area-average radiation received by
the window when there is no shading and when an overhang with a gap of 0.625 m,
extension 0.5 m on both sides of the window, and projection of 1.25 m is used.
A. No overhang
From Eq. (2.105b):

HD
= 0.775 + 0.00653(h ss − 90) − 0.505 + 0.00455(h ss − 90)  cos(115K T − 103)
H
= 0.775+0.00653(80-90)-[0.505+0.00455(80-90)]cos(115x0.574-103) = 0.343
From Eq. (2.107):

 HD  H D  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β)  
H t = H 1 − RB +   + ρG 
 H  H  2 2
    
 0.343 0.3 
= 12.6 (1 − 0.343) 0.737 + + = 10.15 MJ / m 2
 2 2 
51
B. With overhang
First the relative dimensions are estimated. Therefore:

e = 0.5/2.5 = 0.2, w = 5/2.5 = 2, g = 0.625/2.5 = 0.25 and p = 1.25/2.5 = 0.5
From Table 6.1, Fw-s = 0.411 (by interpolation)
From Eq. (6.59):
 HD  H ρG 
H w = H 1 −  R B Fw + D Fw −s + 
 H  H 2 
 0.343x0.411 0.3 
= 12.6 (1 − 0.343) 0.737x0.705 + +  = 7.08 MJ / m
2
 2 2 
So as can be seen the overhang reduces received radiation by about 30%.
6.9 A solar space and hot water heating system has a collector with FRUL = 6.12 W/m2-°C and
an area of 20 m2. The flow rate in collector-storage heat exchanger of antifreeze and water
is 0.02 kg/s-m2, the heat exchanger has an effectiveness equal to 0.73. What is the ratio
FR′ /FR if the cp of water is 4180 J/kg-°C and that of antifreeze is 3350 J/kg-°C?
First the capacitance rates for the collector and tank sides are required given by:
Cc = ( mc
 p ) = 0.02x20x3350 = 1340 W/°C
c
Cs = ( mc
 p ) = 0.02x20x4180 = 1672 W/°C
s
So the minimum value is for the collector circuit.
From Eq. (5.57):

−1
FR'  Ac FR U L  ( mc  p)
    20x6.12  1340
−1

= 1 + c
− 1  = 1 +  − 1  = 0.967
FR
 ( mc
 p )  ε ( mc
c
 p)


min

 
1340  0.73 (1340 )  

6.10 A room is maintained at a temperature of TR = 22°C and has a (UA)l = 2850 W/°C.
The ambient temperature is 2°C and the storage tank temperature is 75°C. Estimate the
space load, domestic water heating load, and rate of auxiliary energy required for the
following conditions:
1. Heat exchanger effectiveness = 0.75
2. Flow rate of air side of heat exchanger = 0.95 kg/s
3. Specific heat of air = 1.05 kJ/hg-°C
4. Environmental temperature at the space where storage tank is located = 18°C
5. (UA) of storage tank = 3.4 W/°C
6. Mass flow rate of domestic water = 0.15 kg/s
7. Required domestic water temperature = 55°C
8. Make-up water temperature = 14°C
The space heating load, Qhl, can be estimated from Eq. (6.61):
+
Qhl = ( UA )l ( TR − Ta ) = 2850x(22-2) = 57 kW
52
The maximum rate of heat transferred across the load heat exchanger, Qle(max) is given by Eq.
(6.62):
Qle(max) = εl ( mc
 p ) ( Ts − TR ) = 0.75x(0.95x1.05)x(75-22) = 39.65 kW
a
The space load, Qls, is then given by Eq. (6.63):

+
( )
Qls =  min Qle(max) ,Qhl  = 39.65 kW

The storage tank losses are estimated from Eq. (5.32):
Q tl = ( UA )s ( Ts − Tenv ) = (3.4)x(75-18) = 193.8 W = 0.19 kW
The domestic water heating load, Qw, can be estimated from Eq. (6.64):
Q w = ( mc
 p) ( Tw − Tmu ) = 0.15x4.18x(55-14) = 25.7 kW
w
The rate of auxiliary energy required to cover the domestic water heating load, Qaux,w, is given
by Eq. (6.67):
Qaux,w = ( mc
 p)
+
w
( Tw − Ts ) = 0.15x4.18x(55-75) = -12.5 kW (not considered as it is negative)
The rate of auxiliary energy required, Qaux, to cover the domestic water heating and space
loads is given by Eq. (6.66):
Qaux = ( Qhl + Qaux,w − Q tl − Qls ) = 57 + 0 – 0.19 – 39.65 = 17.16 kW

+
6.11 A liquid solar heating system has a 16 m2 collector and is used to preheat the city
water, which is at a temperature of 12°C. If the tank is fully mixed and the capacitance of
the collector side of the heat exchanger is 890 W/°C and the storage side is 1140 W/°C,
estimate the final temperature in the storage tank at 3:00 pm and the energy balance of the
system for the following parameters and conditions of the system:
1. FR(τα) = 0.79
2. FRUL = 6.35 W/m2-°C
3. Heat exchanger effectiveness = 0.71
4. Storage tank capacity = 1100 liters
5. Storage tank UA = 4.5 W/°C
6. Initial tank water temperature = 40°C
7. Environmental temperature at the space where storage tank is located = 18°C
The meteorological conditions and load flow rate are given in the following table:
Hour It (MJ/m2) Ta (°C) Load flow rate (kg)
9-10 0.95 13 160
10-11 1.35 15 160
11-12 2.45 18 80
12-13 3.65 22 0
13-14 2.35 23 80
14-15 1.55 21 160
53
From Eq. (5.57):
−1

( )  −1
'  mc
 p  16x6.35  
F  AF U 890
R
= 1 + c R L  c
− 1 
 = 1 +  − 1  = 0.955
FR

mc (
 p  ε mc
c 
 p ) ( )
min

 
 890  0.71(890 )  

To solve this Exercise we use Eq. (5.34) in MJ:
Δt
Ts − n = Ts + Q u − Ql − ( UA )s ( Ts − Tenv ) 
10 ( Mc p ) 
−6
s
Where the various parameters in MJ are given by:

+
Qu =  A c F'R (τα)I t − F'R U L x3600x10−6 (Ts − Ta ) 
F'R
F'R (τα) = FR (τα) = 0.79x0.955 = 0.754
FR
F'R
F'R U L = FR U L = 6.35x0.955 = 6.064
FR
 l cp x10−6 (Ts − Tmu )
Ql = m
Using the Exercise parameters into these equations the following table can be obtained:
Hour It Ta (°C) Load flow Qu Ql Qtl Ts-n

(MJ/m2) rate (kg) (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (°C)
9-10 0.95 13 160 10.87 18.73 0.099 38.27
10-11 1.35 15 160 15.78 17.57 0.091 37.86
11-12 2.45 18 80 29.12 8.65 0.089 42.29
12-13 3.65 22 0 43.59 0.00 0.109 51.75
13-14 2.35 23 80 27.72 13.29 0.152 54.86
14-15 1.55 21 160 17.96 28.66 0.166 52.49
Totals: 145.05 86.90 0.71 -
The final temperature at 3:00 pm is 52.87°C.
The change of internal energy of water is given by:
ΔU = 1100x4180x10-6(52.49-40) = 57.43 MJ
The energy balance gives: 145.05-86.90-0.71 = 57.44 MJ

So the check is satisfactory.
6.12 Using the data of previous Exercise, estimate the effect of increasing the effectiveness
of the heat exchanger to 0.92 and the city mains water temperature to 16°C. Each
modification should be considered separately and the result should be compared to those
of previous Exercise. In every case, the energy balance should be checked.
54
A. Increase of the effectiveness of the heat exchanger to 0.92
−1

( )  −1
'  mc
 p  16x6.35  
F AF U 890
R
= 1 + c R L  c
− 1  = 1 +  − 1  = 0.990
FR

(
mc
c 
)
 p  ε mc
 p ( )
min

  
890  0.92 (890 )  

Therefore:
F'R
F'R (τα) = FR (τα) = 0.79x0.99 = 0.782
FR
F'R
F'R U L = FR U L = 6.35x0.99 = 6.287
FR
Using these performance parameters and the same equations as above results in the following
table:

9-10 0.95 13 160 11.28 18.73 0.099 38.36
10-11 1.35 15 160 16.36 17.63 0.092 38.06
11-12 2.45 18 80 30.20 8.72 0.090 42.72
12-13 3.65 22 0 45.20 0.00 0.111 52.52
13-14 2.35 23 80 28.74 13.55 0.155 55.79
14-15 1.55 21 160 18.61 29.29 0.170 53.43
Totals: 150.38 87.91 0.72 -
ΔU = 1100x4180x10-6(53.43-40) = 61.75 MJ

So the increase of the heat exchanger effectiveness increases the useful energy collected from
the collector and the final storage water temperature.
B. Increase of the mains water temperature to 16°C
Using the new mains water temperature and the same equations as above results in the
following table:

9-10 0.95 13 160 10.87 16.05 0.099 38.85
10-11 1.35 15 160 15.77 15.28 0.094 38.94
11-12 2.45 18 80 29.10 7.67 0.094 43.58
12-13 3.65 22 0 43.56 0.00 0.115 53.03
13-14 2.35 23 80 27.69 12.38 0.158 56.32
14-15 1.55 21 160 17.93 26.97 0.172 54.32
Totals: 144.92 78.35 0.73 -
55
ΔU = 1100x4180x10-6(54.32-40) = 65.84 MJ

So the increase of the mains water temperature decreases the load and increases the final
storage water temperature. The useful energy collected is reduced slightly due to the fact that
higher temperature water enters the collector.
56
CHAPTER 7
7.1 An industrial process heating system uses air heated by both solar and auxiliary energy. It
enters the duct supplying the air to the process at 37°C. The solar heat is supplied from a
storage tank and transferred to the air via a water to air heat exchanger with an
effectiveness equal to 0.95. The air temperature is topped by auxiliary energy to 60°C. The
collector area is 70 m2, FR(τα) = 0.82, FRUL = 6.15 W/m2-°C. The fully mixed storage tank
has 4.5 m3 capacity and its UA value is 195 W/°C; it is located in a room with temperature
of 18°C. The capacitance of the collector side of the heat exchanger is 1150 W/°C and of
the storage side is 910 W/°C. The load is required for 8 h a day, from 8:00 am to 4:00 pm
and the air has a constant flow rate of 0.25 kg/s. The heat capacity of air is 1012 J/kg-°C
and the flow rate of water through the load heat exchanger is 0.07 kg/s. For the period
under investigation, the radiation and ambient temperatures shown in the following table
apply. If the initial temperature of the storage tank at the day investigated was 42°C,
estimate the energy supplied to the load and the amount of auxiliary energy required by
the system to cover the load.
Time Ambient temperature (°C) It (MJ/m2)

6-7 10 0
7-8 11 0
8-9 12 1.12
9-10 14 1.67
10-11 16 2.56
11-12 17 3.67
12-13 18 3.97
13-14 16 3.29
14-15 15 2.87
15-16 14 1.78
16-17 12 1.26
17-18 11 0
From Eq. (5.57):

−1

( )  −1
'  mc
 p  70x6.15  1150 
F AF U
R
= 1 + c R L  c
− 1  = 1 +  − 1  = 0.774
FR

mc (
 p  ε mc
c 
 p ) ( )
min

  
1150  0.71( 910 )  

To solve this Exercise we use Eq. (5.34) in MJ:
Δt
Ts − n = Ts + Q u − Ql − ( UA )s ( Ts − Tenv ) 
10 ( Mc p ) 
−6
s
Where the various parameters in MJ are given by:

+
Qu =  A c F'R (τα)I t − F'R U L x3600x10−6 (Ts − Ta ) 
F'R
F'R (τα) = FR (τα) = 0.82x0.774 = 0.635
FR
F'R
F'R U L = FR U L = 6.15x0.774 = 4.760
FR
57
For the load heat exchanger we need to check for the circuit with the minimum capacitance:
( mc
 )
p s = 0.07x4180 = 292.6 W/°C
( mc
 )
p l = 0.25x1012 = 253 W/°C
Ql = εLHx ( mc
 p ) x10−6 (Ts − Tsup ply _ air )
min
Using the Exercise parameters into these equations the following table can be obtained:
Time Ta It Load Qu Ql Qtl Ts-n

(°C) (MJ/m2) flow rate (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (°C)
(kg)
6-7 10 0 0 0.00 0.00 4.680 41.75
7-8 11 0 0 0.00 0.00 4.631 41.50
8-9 12 1.12 900 49.28 3.90 4.583 43.67
9-10 14 1.67 900 73.72 5.77 5.006 47.02
10-11 16 2.56 900 113.26 8.67 5.659 52.28
11-12 17 3.67 900 162.53 13.22 6.685 59.86
12-13 18 3.97 900 175.75 19.78 8.163 67.72
13-14 16 3.29 900 145.35 26.58 9.695 73.52
14-15 15 2.87 900 126.57 31.60 10.826 77.99
15-16 14 1.78 900 78.02 35.47 11.698 79.63
16-17 12 1.26 0 54.85 0.00 12.018 81.91
17-18 11 0 0 0.00 0.00 12.462 81.25
Totals: 979.33 144.99 96.11 -
From the results presented in the table the energy supplied from the tank = 144.99 MJ
The total energy required to supply the load is: 0.25x3600x8x1012(60-37) = 167.59 MJ
Therefore the auxiliary required is: 167.59-144.99 = 22.6 MJ
Energy balance: ΔU = 4500x4180(81.25-42) = 738.29 MJ
From table: 979.33-144.99-96.11 = 738.23 MJ

7.2 The system in Exercise 7.1 uses water at a temperature of 80°C instead of air. If the load is
required for the same period of time, the flow rate of water is 0.123 kg/s, and the heat
capacity of water is 4180 J/kg-°C, estimate the energy supplied to the load and the amount
of auxiliary energy required by the system to cover the load.
For the load heat exchanger we need to check for the circuit with the minimum capacitance:
( mc
 )
p s = 0.07x4180 = 292.6 W/°C
( mc
 )
p l = 0.123x4180 = 514.1 W/°C
By using all other equation as described in Exercise 7.1 the following table is obtained:
58
Time Ta It Qu Ql Qtl Ts-n
(°C) (MJ/m2) (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (°C)
6-7 10 0 0.00 5.00 4.680 41.49
7-8 11 0 0.00 4.49 4.580 41.00
8-9 12 1.12 49.29 4.01 4.486 43.17
9-10 14 1.67 73.73 6.18 4.909 46.50
10-11 16 2.56 113.27 9.51 5.558 51.72
11-12 17 3.67 162.54 14.73 6.576 59.23
12-13 18 3.97 175.76 22.25 8.040 66.97
13-14 16 3.29 145.37 29.99 9.548 72.59
14-15 15 2.87 126.58 35.62 10.645 76.86
15-16 14 1.78 78.04 39.89 11.478 78.28
16-17 12 1.26 54.87 41.31 11.755 78.38
17-18 11 0 0.00 41.40 11.773 75.55
Totals: 979.45 254.37 94.03 -
From table: 979.45-254.37-94.03 = 631.05 MJ

7.3 Repeat Exercise 7.1 for an effectiveness of the load heat exchanger of 0.66 and compare
the results.
By using all equation as described in Exercise 7.1 and the new value of load heat exchanger
effectiveness, the following table is obtained:

2
(°C) (MJ/m ) flow rate (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (°C)
(kg)
6-7 10 0 0 0.00 0.00 4.680 41.75
7-8 11 0 0 0.00 0.00 4.631 41.50
8-9 12 1.12 900 49.28 2.71 4.583 43.74
9-10 14 1.67 900 73.72 4.05 5.019 47.17
10-11 16 2.56 900 113.26 6.12 5.689 52.57
11-12 17 3.67 900 162.52 9.36 6.741 60.35
12-13 18 3.97 900 175.74 14.04 8.259 68.51
13-14 16 3.29 900 145.34 18.94 9.849 74.71
14-15 15 2.87 900 126.55 22.67 11.058 79.64
15-16 14 1.78 900 78.00 25.63 12.020 81.79
16-17 12 1.26 0 54.81 0.00 12.438 84.04
17-18 11 0 0 0.00 0.00 12.877 83.35
Totals: 979.22 103.51 97.84 -
59
From table: 979.22-103.51-97.84 = 777.87 MJ

Therefore the effect of lowering the effectiveness of the load heat exchanger is to lower the
energy supplied from the tank to the load and increase the auxiliary energy required.
7.4 Repeat Exercise 7.2 but the load is required for only 30 min of each hour of operation.
Again for this Exercise the same equations are applied. The results are as follows:

(°C) (MJ/m2) flow rate (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (°C)
(kg)
6-7 10 0 0 0.00 0.00 4.680 41.75
7-8 11 0 0 0.00 0.00 4.631 41.50
8-9 12 1.12 450 49.28 1.35 4.583 43.81
9-10 14 1.67 450 73.72 2.05 5.033 47.35
10-11 16 2.56 450 113.25 3.11 5.724 52.90
11-12 17 3.67 450 162.52 4.78 6.806 60.93
12-13 18 3.97 450 175.73 7.19 8.371 69.44
13-14 16 3.29 450 145.32 9.75 10.031 76.12
14-15 15 2.87 450 126.52 11.76 11.333 81.62
15-16 14 1.78 450 77.96 13.41 12.405 84.39
16-17 12 1.26 0 54.77 0.00 12.946 86.61
17-18 11 0 0 0.00 0.00 13.379 85.90
Totals: 979.08 53.40 99.92 -
From table: 979.08-53.4-99.92 = 825.76 MJ

60
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Estimate the mole and mass fractions for the salt and water of seawater, which has a
salinity of 42,000 ppm.
salinity (ppm) 42000

From salinity we get: mf s = = = 0.042
106 106
Mw 18
From Eq. (8.4) we get: x s = = = 0.0133
 1   1 
Ms  − 1 + M w 58.5  − 1 + 18
mf
 s   0.042 
As xs+xw = 1 we have: xw = 1- xs=1-0.042 = 0.958
From Eq. (8.3) Msw = xsMs+xwMw = 0.013x58.5 + 0.958x18 = 18.02 kg/kmol
Mw 18
Finally from Eq. (8.2): mf w = x w = 0.958 = 0.957
M sw 18.02
8.2 Estimate the mole and mass fractions for the salt and water of brackish water, which has a
salinity of 1500 ppm.
salinity (ppm) 1500

From salinity we get: mfs = = 6 = 0.0015
106 10
Mw 18
From Eq. (8.4) we get: x s = = = 0.00046
 1   1 
Ms  − 1 + M w 58.5  − 1 + 18
 mf s   0.0015 
As xs+xw = 1 we have: xw = 1- xs=1-0.0015 = 0.9985
From Eq. (8.3) Msw = xsMs+xwMw = 0.00046x58.5 + 0.9985x18 = 18 kg/kmol
Mw 18
Finally from Eq. (8.2): mf w = x w = 0.9985 = 0.9985
M sw 18
8.3 Find the enthalpy and entropy of seawater at 35°C.
The temperature of 35°C is equal to 308.15K

From Eq. (8.10):
h s = h so + cps (T − To ) = 12.552 + 0.8368(308.15 − 288.15) = 29.288 kJ/kg
From Eq. (8.11):
61
T  308.15 
ss = sso + cps ln   = 0.04473 + 0.8368x ln   = 0.10088 kJ/kg-K
 To   288.15 
8.4 A solar still has a water and glass temperature equal to 52.5°C and 41.3°C, respectively. The
constants C and n are determined experimentally and are found to be C = 0.054 and n = 0.38.
If the convective heat transfer coefficient from water surface to glass is 2.96 W/m2-K,
estimate the hourly distillate output per square meter from the solar still.
From Eq. (5.21) and the temperatures of the water and glass the partial pressures can be obtained
as:
Pw = 100 ( 0.004516 + 0.0007178t w − 2.649x10−6 t 2w + 6.944x10−7 t 3w )
( )
= 100 0.004516 + 0.0007178x52.5 − 2.649x10−6 x52.52 + 6.944x10−7 x52.53 = 13.54 kPa
Pg = 100 ( 0.004516 + 0.0007178t g − 2.649x10−6 t g2 + 6.944x10−7 t 3g )

( )
= 100 0.004516 + 0.0007178x41.3 − 2.649x10−6 x41.32 + 6.944x10−7 x41.33 = 7.86 kPa
From Eq. (8.26): q ew = 0.0163h cw (Pw − Pg ) = 0.0163x2.96(13.54 − 7.86)x103 = 274.0 W/m2
From steam tables the latent heat of vaporization at 52.5°C (water temperature) is 2376.1 kJ/kg
q ew 274
 w = 3600
From Eq. (8.30): m = 3600 = 0.415 kg/m2
L 2376.1x1000
8.5 An MSF plant has 32 stages. Estimate the Mf/Md ratio, if the brine temperature in first effect
is 68°C and the temperature of the brine in the last effect is 34°C. The mean latent heat is
2300 kJ/kg and the mean specific heat is 4.20 kJ/kg-K.
N 32
From Eq. (8.36): ΔF = ( Tb1 − TbN ) = (68 − 34) = 35.1°C
N −1 31
M f Lm N − 1 2300 (32 − 1)
From Eq. (8.35): = + = + = 16.1
M d cΔF 2N 4.2x35.1 2x32
62
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Find the wavelength of radiation whose photons have energy equal to the band gap of
cuprous sulphide (Cu2S) cell (1.80 eV), compounds of cadmium sulphide (CdS) cell
(2.42 eV), and gallium arsenide (GaAs) cell (1.40 eV).
For cuprous sulphide (Cu2S) cell, the energy band gap is 1.80 eV. From Eq. (9.2):
hC 6.625x10−34 x3x108
λ= = = 6.9x10−7 m or 0.69μm
Ep 1.8x1.6x10−19
For cadmium sulphide (CdS) cell the energy band gap is 2.42 eV, which gives λ = 0.513 μm
and for gallium arsenide (GaAs) cell with energy band gap equal to 1.40 eV, λ = 0.887 μm
All of them are lower than silicon which is 1.12 μm.
9.2 A beam of blue light with wavelength of 0.46 μm and intensity of 1 mW strikes a solar
cell. Estimate the number of photons incident on the cell.
Using Eq. (9.2) and speed of light equal to 300,000=3x108 m/s:
hC 6.625x10−34 x3x108
Ep = = = 4.321x10−19 J
λ 0.46x10−6
Using Eq. (9.3) for the intensity of 1x10-3 W or 1x10-3 J/s:
Ip 1x10−3
np = = = 2.314x1015 photons/s
E p 4.321x10−19
9.3 The dark saturation current of a solar cell is 1.75 × 10–8 A when the cell is at 35°C and
the short-circuit current when in sunlight is 4 A. Estimate the open circuit voltage, the
maximum power output of the cell, and the number and arrangement of cells required to
make a panel to supply 90 W at 12 V.
First the thermal voltage, Vt, need to be estimated from Eq. (9.10) at TC = 308 K (35°C):
kTC 1.381x10−23 x308

Vt = = = 0.0266V
e 1.602x10−19
Voc can be obtained from Eq. (9.9):
 Isc   4 
Voc = Vt ln  + 1 = 0.0266ln  −8
+ 1 = 0.512V
I
 o   1.75x10 
To find maximum power output, we need to know Vmax and Imax. Voltage at maximum power
can be found from Eq. (9.14) by trial and error:
63
 eVmax  eV  Isc  V  V  4
exp  
 1 + max  = 1 + or exp  max 1 + max  = 1 +
 kTC  kTC  Io  0.0266  0.0266  1.75x10−8
Which gives Vmax = 0.44 V (exact value = 0.436)
The current density at maximum power point can be estimated from Eq. (9.16):
eVmax 1.602x10−19 x0.44

Imax =
kTC + eVmax
( Isc + Io ) = −23 −19
1.381x10 x308 + 1.602x10 x0.44
(4 + 1.75x10−8 ) = 3.77 A
Maximum power Pmax is obtained from Eq. (9.5): Pmax = Imax Vmax = 3.77x0.44 = 1.66 W
To get 12 V means that 12/0.44 = 27.3 ~ 28 cells are required in series. To get 90 W means
that 90/1.66 = 54.2 cells are required. Therefore the panel must have 2x28 = 56 cells in total
in two series. The actual output of such panel would be 93 W and 12.3 V.
9.4 A PV system gives 9 A when the solar radiation is 750 W/m2. How many amperes will
it give at 850 W/m2?
As the current is proportional to radiation input the PV will give 9x(850/750) = 10.2 A
9.5 A 6 m2 PV system gives 24 V and 18 A when exposed to solar radiation of 750 W/m2.
Estimate the cells’ efficiency.
The power output is IxV = 18x24 = 432 W.
The efficiency is power output divided by input = 432/(750x6) = 0.096 = 9.6%
9.6 A PV system is required to produce 96 W at 12 V. Using solar cells that have Imax equal
to 250 A/m2 and Vmax equal to 0.4 V, design the PV panel, working at the maximum
power point, if each cell is 80 cm2 in area.
The area of each cell is 80 cm2 = 0.008 m2

From Eq. (9.5): Pmax = Imax Vmax =250(W/m2)x0.008(m2)x0.4(V) = 0.8 W
To get 12 V we need 12/0.4 = 30 cells in series
To get 96 W we need 96/0.8 = 120 cells, which means that the panel must have 120 cells in 3
series of 30 to give the required output.
9.7 Estimate the daily load and the peak power required by a PV system that have the
following equipment connected:
- 4 lamps 15 W each, operated from 6:00 pm – 11:00 pm
- Television 80 W, operated from 6:00 pm – 11:00 pm
- Computer 150 W, operated from 4:00 pm – 7:00 pm
- Radio 25 W, operated from 11:00 am – 6:00 pm
- Water pump 50 W, operated from 7:00 am – 10:00 am
64
The daily energy use is equal to:
(4x15 W)x(5 hr)+(80 W)x(5 hr)+(150 W)x(3 hr)+(25 W)x(7 hr)+(50 W)x(3 hr) = 1475 Wh
To find the peak power a time-schedule diagram is required as shown below. The various
loads are indicated with the sequence numbered as shown in the list.
400
Maximum power (290 W)
350
300
Power (W)
250
Maximum power line
200
150
#3
100
#2
50 #1
#5
0 #4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time
As can be seen the peak power occurs between 6:00 and 7:00 pm and is equal to 290 W.
9.8 A remote cottage has the following loads. Estimate the daily load and peak power to be
satisfied by a 24 V PV system.
Appliance Type Power (W) Day time run (hr) Night time run (hr)
5 lamps dc 11 W each 0 5
Television ac 75 W 2 4
Computer ac 160 W 4 3
Radio dc 25 W 3 1
Water pump dc 60 W (6 A start 1 1
current)
Stove ac 1200 W 2 1
The loads for this application are separated according to type of power. As no information is
given about the time-schedule of the loads these are assumed to occur simultaneously.
Type of Type of Power (W) Run time Energy per Day time Nighttime
appliance power (hrs) day (Wh) load (Wh) load (Wh)
Lamps dc 5x11 = 55 W 5 275 0 275
Television ac 75 W 6 450 150 300
Computer ac 160 W 7 1120 640 480
Radio dc 25 W 4 100 75 25
Water pump dc 60 W 2 120 60 60
Stove ac 1200 W 3 3600 2400 1200
Daily dc load = 275+100+120 = 495 Wh/day

Daily ac load = 450+1120+3600 = 5170 Wh/day
Peak dc load = 55+25+6x24 = 224 W (The starting power of the pump is used as 6x24>60 W)
65
Peak ac load = 75+160+1200 = 1435 W
9.9 Using the loads of Exercise 9.8, estimate the expected daily energy requirement if the
efficiency of the inverter is 91%, of the battery is 77%, and of the distribution circuit is
96%.
Expected daily loads are (from Example 9.5):

- Day dc = 75+60 =135 Wh (from PV system)
- Night dc = 275+25+60 = 360 Wh (from battery)
- Night ac = 300+480+1200 = 1980 Wh (from battery)
- Day ac = 150+640+2400 = 3190 Wh (from PV system through the inverter)
The various energy requirements are obtained as follows:

- Day dc energy is obtained from Eq. (9.44): E d,dc = E A ηdist , so, EA= 135/0.96=140.6 Wh
- Night dc energy is obtained from Eq. (9.45): E d,dc,bat = E A ηbat ηdist , so, EA=360/(0.77x0.96)
= 487.0 Wh
- Night ac energy is obtained from Eq. (9.46): E d,ac,bat = E A ηbat ηinv ηdist , so, EA=1980/(0.77
x0.91x0.96) = 2943.5 Wh
- Day ac energy is obtained from Eq. (9.47): E d,ac = E A ηinv ηdist , so, EA=3190/(0.91x0.96) =
3651.6 Wh
Expected daily energy requirement = 140.6+487+2943.5+3651.6 = 7222.7 Wh
9.10 If the array and the power conditioning system losses are 10%, find the total energy
delivered for a grid connected system, assuming the efficiency of the inverter equals
90%, of the distribution circuit equals 95%, and a grid absorption rate of 90%. The
energy delivered by the PV array is 500 Wh.
The energy of the array that is available to the load and battery, EA, is obtained from Eq.
(9.39):
E A = E PV (1 − LPV ) (1 − LC ) = 500x(1-0.1)(1-0.1) = 405 Wh
From Eq. (9.41): E grid = E A ηinv =405x0.9 = 364.5 Wh
Finally, the actual energy delivered, Ed, is obtained from Eq. (9.42):
E d = E grid ηabs ηdist = 364.5x0.95x0.9 = 311.6 Wh
Therefore by considering all these losses much smaller (62%) amount of energy, of the energy
delivered by the PV array is a finally delivered to the grid.
9.11 A south-facing PV panel is installed at 35° in a location which is at 40°N latitude. If, on
May 15 noon, the beam radiation is 685 W/m2 and the diffuse radiation is 195 W/m2,
both on a horizontal surface, estimate the absorbed solar radiation on the PV panel. The
thickness of glass cover on PV is 2 mm, the extinction coefficient K is 4 m–1, and
ground reflectance is 0.2.
66
From Table 2.1, on May 15, δ = 18.79°. First the effective incidence angles need to be
calculated. For the beam radiation the incidence angle is required, estimated from Eq. (2.20):
cos(θ) = sin(L-β) sin(δ)+cos(L-β) cos(δ) cos(h) = sin(40-35) sin(18.79)+cos(40-35) cos(18.79)

cos(0) = 0.971 or θ = 13.8°
For the diffuse and ground reflected components Eq. (3.4) can be used:
θe,D = 59.68 – 0.1388β + 0.001497β2 = 59.68 – 0.1388(35) + 0.001497(35)2 = 56.7°
θe,G = 90 – 0.5788β + 0.002693β2 = 90 – 0.5788(35) + 0.002693(35)2 = 73.0°
Next we need to estimate the three incidence angle modifiers. At an incidence angle of 13.8°
the refraction angle from Eq. (2.44):
sin(θr) =sin(θ)/1.526 = sin(13.8)/1.526 = 0.156 or θr = 9°
Using Eq. (9.30) with K=4 m-1 and L = 0.002 m:
 1  sin 2 (θ − θ) tan 2 (θ − θ)  
(τα)B = e−[KL / cos( θr )] 1 −  2 r + 2
r
 
 2  sin (θr + θ) tan (θr + θ)  
 1  sin 2 (9 − 13.8) tan 2 (9 − 13.8)  
= e−[0.008/ cos(9)] 1 −  2
+ 2   = 0.9490
 2  sin (9 + 13.8) tan (9 + 13.8)  
At normal incidence, as shown in Chapter 2, Section 2.3.3, Eq. (2.49), the term in the square
2
 n −1
bracket of Eq. (9.30) is replaced with: 1 −   . Therefore:
 n +1
− KL
  n − 1 2  −0.008
  1.526 − 1 2 
(τα)n = e 1 −   =e 1 −    = 0.9490
  n + 1     1.526 + 1  
(τα)B 0.9490
And from Eq. (9.28): K θ,B = = =1
(τα)n 0.9490
For the diffuse radiation:
sin(θr) =sin(θ)/1.526 = sin(56.7)/1.526 = 0.5477 or θr = 33.21°
Using Eq. (9.30):
 1  sin 2 (θr − θe,D ) tan 2 (θr − θe,D )  

−[KL / cos( θr )]
(τα)D = e 1 −  + 
 2  sin (θr + θe,D ) tan (θr + θe,D )  
2 2
 1  sin 2 (33.21 − 56.7) tan 2 (33.21 − 56.7)  

= e−[0.008/ cos(33.21)] 1 −  2
+ 2   = 0.9118
 2  sin (33.21 + 56.7) tan (33.21 + 56.7)  
(τα)D 0.9118
And from Eq. (9.28): K θ,D = = = 0.9608
(τα)n 0.9490
67
For the ground reflected radiation:
sin(θr) =sin(θ)/1.526 = sin(73)/1.526 = 0.6267 or θr = 38.81°
Using Eq. (9.30):
 1  sin 2 (θ − θe,G ) tan 2 (θr − θe,G )  

(τα)G = e−[KL / cos( θr )] 1 −  2 r + 
 2  sin (θr + θe,G ) tan (θr + θe,G )  
2
 1  sin 2 (38.81 − 73) tan 2 (38.81 − 73)  

= e−[0.008/ cos(38.81)] 1 −  2
+ 2   = 0.7719
 2  sin (38.81 + 73) tan (38.81 + 73)  
(τα)G 0.7719
And from Eq. (9.28): K θ,G = = = 0.8134
(τα)n 0.9490
For the estimation of the air mass the zenith angle is required, obtained from Eq. (2.12):
cos(Φ) = sin(L) sin(δ)+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h) = sin(40) sin(18.79)+cos(40) cos(18.79) cos(0)

= 0.9323 or Φ = 21.21°
The air mass is obtained from Eq. (9.27):

1 1
m= −1.634
= = 1.072
cos(Φ ) + 0.5050(96.08 − Φ ) cos(21.21) + 0.5050(96.08 − 21.21) −1.634
It should be noted that effectively the same result is obtained using Eq. (2.81):
1 1
m= = = 1.073
cos(Φ) cos(21.21)
From Eq. (9.26):
M = α0 + α1m + α 2 m 2 + α3 m3 + α 4 m 4
= 0.935823 + 0.054289x(1.072) − 0.008677x(1.072)2 + 0.000527x(1.072)3 − 0.000011x(1.072)4
= 0.9847
From Eq. (2.88):
cos(θ) cos(13.8)
RB = = = 1.042
cos(Φ) cos(21.21)
Now using Eq. (9.29):
  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β)  
S = (τα)n M G B R B K θ, B + G D K θ, D   + GρG K θ,G  
  2   2 
  1 + cos(35)   1 − cos(35)  
= 0.9490x0.9847 685x1.042x1 + 195x0.9608   + 880x0.2x0.8134  
  2   2 
= 838.3 W / m 2
68
9.12 If, for a PV module operating under NOCT conditions, the cell temperature is 44°C,
determine the cell temperature when this module operates at a location where Gt = 725
W/m2, V = 1 m/s, Ta = 35°C, and the module is operating at its maximum power point.
The dark saturation current of a solar module is 1.7 × 10–8 A/m2 and the short-circuit
current is 250 A/m2.
First we need to assume a cell efficiency, say 10%. Then using Eq. (9.35):
 Gt  η   725   0.1 
TC = ( TNOCT − Ta,NOCT )   1 − e  + Ta = (44 − 20)   1− + 35 = 54.3°C
 G t,NOCT   (τα)  
 800   0.9 
Then the value of TC is used to find Vmax with Eq. (9.14):
 eVmax  eV  Isc  1.602x10−19 Vmax  1.602x10−19 Vmax  250

exp  
 1 + max  = 1 + or exp  −23 
 1 + −23  = 1 +
 kTC  kTC  Io  1.381x10 x327.3  1.381x10 x327.3  1.7x10−8
This gives Vmax = 0.57 V (exact value = 0.574)
Using Eq. (9.17):

2
eVmax 1.602x10−19 x0.572
Pmax =
kTC + eVmax
( Isc + Io ) = −23 −19
1.381x10 x327.3 + 1.602x10 x0.57
(250 + 1.7x10−8 )
2
= 135.8 W/m
Pmax 135.8
From Eq. (9.18): ηmax = = = 0.187 = 18.7%
Pin 725
Using this value as the cell efficiency and starting from the beginning we get:
 Gt  η   725   0.187 
TC = ( TNOCT − Ta,NOCT )   1 − e  + Ta = (44 − 20)   1 − 0.9  + 35 = 52.2°C
G
 t,NOCT   ( τα )   800  
From Eq. (9.14):
 1.602x10−19 Vmax  1.602x10−19 Vmax  250

exp  −23 
 1 + −23  = 1 + , which gives Vmax = 0.57 V
 1.381x10 x325.2  1.381x10 x325.2  1.7x10−8
As this value is the same as the value obtained before it means that the Pmax and ηmax would be
the same as before so the new cell temperature is 52.2°C.
9.13 Using the simple design method, design a PV system using 60 W, 12 V panels and 145
Ah, 6 V batteries. The PV system is required to offer 3 days of storage, the battery
efficiency is 75%, and the depth of discharge is 70%. The location where the system is
located has 6 h of daylight during wintertime and the application is 24 V with a load of
1500 Wh.
The number of PV panels required is obtained from:
69
Number of panels = 1500(Wh/day) / [6(hr/day)x60(W/panel)] = 4.2, round off to 5 panels
As the system voltage is 24 V and each panel produces 12 V two panels will need to be
connected in series to produce the required voltage so an even number is required, therefore
the number of PV panels is increased to 6.
Since three days of storage are required:
1500(Wh/day)x3(days)/(0.75x0.7) = 8571.4 Wh
Number of batteries required = 8571.4(Wh) / [145(Ah)x6(V)] = 9.9, rounded off to 10
batteries.
Again as the system voltage is 24 V and each battery is 6 V, we need to connect 4 batteries in
series, so the number of batteries to use here is either 8 (with the possibility of not having
enough power for the third day) or 12 (for more safety).
70
CHAPTER 10
10.1 In a simple Rankine steam cycle, the boiler gives steam at 60 bar and 550°C. The
condenser operates at 0.1 bar. If both pump and turbine efficiencies are 90%, estimate
the cycle efficiency.
A schematic of this cycle is shown in Fig. 10.10. At point 1 we have saturated liquid at a
pressure of 0.1 Bar. Therefore, from steam tables: h1 = 192 kJ/kg, and υ1 = 0.00101 m3/kg.
υ(P2 − P1 )
From Eq. (10.5): 1 W2΄ = h 2΄ − h1 = from which:
ηpump
υ1 (P2 − P1 ) 0.00101(60 − 0.1)102
h 2΄ = h1 + = 192 + = 198.7 kJ/kg.
ηpump 0.9
At point 3, P3 = 60 Bar and T3 = 550°C. Therefore, from superheated steam tables:

h3 = 3539 kJ/kg and s3 = 7.023 kJ/kg-K.
At point 4, s4 = s3 = 7.023 kJ/kg-K. At this point the pressure is 0.1 Bar and saturated vapor
entropy is s4g = 8.149 kJ/kg-K. Since s4 < s4g we have wet steam. Also from steam tables s4f =
0.649 kJ/kg-K. Since s4 = s4f + xs4fg:
s 4 − s 4f 7.023 − 0.649
x= = = 0.8499
s4g − s 4f 8.149 − 0.649
And h4 = h4f + xh4fg. From steam tables: h4f = 192 kJ/kg and h4fg =2392 kJ/kg. Therefore:
h4 = 192+0.8499x2392 = 2225 kJ/kg. From Eq. (10.1):
h 4' = h 3 − ηturbine (h 3 − h 4 ) = 3539 − 0.9(3539 − 2225) = 2356 kJ/kg.
(h 3 − h 4΄ ) − (h 2΄ − h1 )
The cycle efficiency is obtained from Eq. (10.6): η =
(h 3 − h 2΄ )
(h − h 4΄ ) − (h 2΄ − h1 ) (3539 − 2356) − (198.7 − 192)
η= 3 = = 0.352 or 35.2%
(h 3 − h 2΄ ) (3539 − 198.7)
10.2 In a reheat Rankine cycle, a CSP system gives steam at 50 bar and 400°C. After
expansion in the high-pressure turbine to 6 bar, the steam is reheated again to 400°C
and expands again in the low-pressure turbine to a pressure of 0.1 bar in a dry saturated
steam condition. If the steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and the pump
and high-pressure turbine efficiency is 85%, determine the efficiency of low-pressure
turbine, the work output of the two turbines, the work input to the pump (both per unit
mass of working fluid), the heat added by the CSP system, and the cycle efficiency. If
the solar radiation is 900 W/m2 and the CSP system operates at 40% efficiency, how
many square meters of collectors are required if the steam flow rate is 1 kg/s?
At point 3, P3 = 50 Bar and T3 = 400°C. From superheated steam tables: h3 = 3196 kJ/kg and
s3 = 6.646 kJ/kg-K.
71
At point 4, s4 = s3 = 6.646 kJ/kg-K and P4 = 6 Bar. From steam tables s4g =6.761 kJ/kg-K and
s4f =1.931 kJ/kg-K, therefore steam is wet. The dryness fraction is:
s4 − s4f 6.646 − 1.931

x= = = 0.976
s4fg 6.761 − 1.931
At the same pressure h4f =670 kJ/kg and h4fg = 2087 kJ/kg. Therefore:
h4 = h4f + xh4fg = 670+0.976x2087 = 2707 kJ/kg. To find h4΄ we need to use Eq. (10.1) for
turbine efficiency:
h4΄ = h3 – ηturbine(h3 – h4) = 3196 – 0.85(3196-2707) = 2780 kJ/kg
Work output from high-pressure turbine = h3-h4΄ = 3196-2780 = 416 kJ/kg
At point 5, P5 = 6 Bar and T5 = 400°C. From superheated steam tables: h5 = 3270 kJ/kg and s5
= 7.707 kJ/kg-K.
At point 6, s6 = s5 = 7.707 kJ/kg-K. From the Exercise definition P6 = 0.1 Bar and steam is dry
saturated. From steam tables: s6f = 0.649 kJ/kg-K and s6g = s6΄ = 8.149 kJ/kg-K. Therefore, at
point 6 we have a wet vapor and its dryness fraction is:
s6 − s6f 7.707 − 0.649

x= = = 0.941
s6fg 8.149 − 0.649
At a pressure of 0.1 Bar hf = 192 kJ/kg and hfg = 2392 kJ/kg, therefore:
h6 = hf + xhfg = 192 + 0.941x2392 = 2443 kJ/kg and h6΄ from steam tables at saturated vapor
point is h6΄ = 2584 kJ/kg. The low-pressure turbine efficiency is obtained from Eq. (10.1):
h 5 − h 6΄ 3270 − 2584
ηturbine = = = 0.83 or 83%.
h 5 − h 6 3270 − 2443
Work output from low-pressure turbine = h5-h6΄ = 3270-2584 = 686 kJ/kg
At point 1 the pressure is also 0.1 Bar. Therefore from steam tables at saturated liquid state we
have: υ1 = 0.00101 m3/kg and h1 = 192 kJ/kg.
From Eq. (10.5) the work input to the pump is:

υ (P − P ) 0.00101(50 − 0.1)x102
h 2΄ − h1 = 1 2 1 = = 5.929 kJ/kg
ηpump 0.85
Therefore h2΄ = 192+5.929 = 197.9 kJ/kg.
The total work of the system is: (h 3 − h 4΄ ) + (h 5 − h 6΄ ) − (h 2΄ − h1 ) = (3196-2780)+(3270-2584)-

(197.9-192) = 1096.1 kJ/kg
The heat input by the CSP plant is: (h 3 − h 2΄ ) + (h 5 − h 4΄ ) = (3196-197.9)+(3270-2780)

= 3488.1 kJ/kg
Finally the cycle efficiency is η = 1096.1/3488.1 = 0.314 or 31.4%.
72
The heat power required is 3488.1(kJ/kg)x1(kg/s) = 3488.1 kW. The actual output of the CSP
is 900x0.4 = 360 W/m2. Therefore, the collector area required is: 3488.1x103/360 = 9689.1 m2
≈ 9690 m2.
10.3 Repeat Example 10.2 for a turbine and pump efficiency of 90%. Also estimate the
boiler heat required.
From Example 10.2: h1 = 251 kJ/kg, h2 = 251.5 kJ/kg, h3 = 640 kJ/kg, h4 = 646 kJ/kg, h5 =
3421 kJ/kg, h6 = 2775 kJ/kg, h7 = 2267 kJ/kg and f=0.154.
With the addition of the efficiency terms the states affected are at points 2, 4, 6 and 7.
At point 2, P2 = 5 Bar and h2 = 251.5 kJ/kg
Similar as above from Eq. (10.2): h2΄= h1+(h2-h1)/ηpump = 251+(251.5-251)/0.9 = 251.56 kJ/kg
At point 4, P4 = 60 Bar and h4 = 646 kJ/kg
Similar as above: h4΄= h3+ (h4-h3)/ηpump = 640+ (646-640)/0.9 = 646.7 kJ/kg
Boiler heat required = h5-h4΄= 3421-646.7 = 2774.3 kJ/kg
At point 6, h6 = 2775 kJ/kg and P6 = 5 Bar. Similar as above:
h 6' = h 5 − ηturbine (h 5 − h 6 ) = 3421 - 0.9(3421-2775) = 2839.6 kJ/kg
h 6' − h 7'
At point 7, h7 is found to be equal to 2267 kJ/kg. Now: ηturbine = . Thus:
h6 − h7
h 7' = h 6' − ηturbine (h 6 − h 7 ) = 2839.6 - 0.9(2775-2267) = 2382.4 kJ/kg
Finally the cycle efficiency is obtained from Eq. (10.8):
(h 5 − h 6' ) + (1 − f )(h 6' − h 7' ) − (1 − f )(h 2' − h1 ) − (h 4 '− h 3 )

η=
(h 5 − h 4 )
(3421 − 2839.6) + (1 − 0.154)(2839.6 − 2382.4) − (1 − 0.154)(251.56 − 251) − (646.7 − 640)
= = 34.6%
(3421 − 646)
So the addition of realistic efficiencies to the pumps and turbine reduced the cycle efficiency
by 3.9%.
10.4 Find the transmittance of a solar pond for a maximum depth of 2 m.
From Eq. (10.11):

4
τ(x) =  αi e− bi x =0.237e-0.032x2+0.193e-0.45x2+0.167e-3x2+0.179e-35x2 = 0.301
i =1
73
CHAPTER 11
11.1 A house located at 45°N latitude with UA = 156 W/°C has a solar energy system which
includes 30 m2 collectors and a 2250 L storage tank. The collector heat exchanger
parameters, obtained from standard collector tests, are FR′ (τα)n = 0.80 and FR′U L = 4.25
W/m2-°C. The load heat exchanger has Z = 2.5, the radiation on the collector surface
H t = 13.5 MJ/m2 and (τα) /(τα)n = 0.94. The domestic water heating load is 1.9 GJ per
month. For the month of January, estimate the solar fraction and contribution. The
average ambient temperature of the location in January is 3°C and the degree days are
730.
The house heating load is given by Eq. (6.24), i.e., Dh = (UA) (DD)h = 156x730x24x3600 =
9.84 GJ. Therefore the total load is 9.84+1.9 = 11.74 GJ.
The storage tank size is 2250 l / 30 m2 = 75 l/m2 so no correction is required.
From Eqs. (11.8) and (11.9):
FR' − A 30
X = FR U L (Tref − T a )Δt c = 4.25 (100 − 3) x31x24x3600x = 2.82
FR L 11.74x109
FR'  (τα)  Ac 30
Y = FR (τα) n   Ht N = 0.80x0.94x13.5x106 x31x = 0.804
FR  (τα) n  L 11.74x109
The correction for the heat exchanger size is given as 2.5. Therefore Y needs to be corrected;
using Eq. (11.16):
Yc  0.139   0.139 
= 0.39 + 0.65exp  −  = 0.39 + 0.65exp  −  = 1.005
Y  Z   2.5 
Therefore Yc = 0.804x1.005 = 0.81. From Fig. 11.2 or Eq. (11.13):
f = 1.029x0.81 - 0.065x2.82 - 0.245x0.812 + 0.0018x2.822 + 0.0215x0.813 = 0.52

The solar contribution for the month of January is 11.74x0.52 = 6.11 GJ
11.2 If, in Exercise 11.1, Z = 0.75 and the storage tank size is halved, what is the new value
of solar fraction and contribution?
The X correction is obtained from Eq. (11.14):

−0.25
X c  M w ,a 
=  = 0.5-0.25 = 1.189
X  M w ,s 
Therefore, Xc = 2.82x1.189 = 3.35
The correction for Y is obtained from Eq. (11.16):
74
Yc  0.139   0.139 
= 0.39 + 0.65exp  −  = 0.39 + 0.65exp  −  = 0.93
Y  Z   0.75 
Therefore Yc = 0.804x0.93 = 0.75. From Fig. 11.2 or Eq. (11.13):
f = 1.029x0.75 - 0.065x3.35 - 0.245x0.752 + 0.0018x3.352 + 0.0215x0.753 = 0.445

11.3 A space heating system is located in Boulder, Colorado. Estimate the monthly and
annual solar fraction and contribution if the following characteristics apply:
Collector area = 40 m2
Collector F΄R(τα)n = 0.78
Collector F΄RUL = 4.21 W/m2-°C
(τα) /(τα) n = 0.96
Collector slope = 45°
Storage volume = 150 l/m2
Load heat exchanger Z=2 (standard size)
Building UA = 250 W/K
Hot water load = 2.45 GJ per month (constant)
Ground reflectance = 0.2
The climatic data and the heating degree days for Boulder, Colorado are taken form Appendix
7 and shown in the following table:
Month H (MJ/m2) Ta (°C) Clearness Heating °C

index K T degree days
January 8.64 -1.3 0.57 608
February 11.88 0.8 0.58 492
March 15.84 3.9 0.58 448
April 20.16 9.0 0.58 280
May 22.32 14.0 0.56 141
June 24.84 19.4 0.60 39
July 24.12 23.1 0.59 0
August 21.60 21.9 0.59 0
September 18.00 16.8 0.60 80
October 13.68 10.8 0.61 238
November 9.36 3.9 0.57 433
December 7.56 -0.6 0.55 386
The loads need to be estimated first. For the month of January, from Eq. (6.24):
Dh = (UA) (DD)h = 250(W/K)x24(hr/day)x3600(J/Wh)x608(°C-days) = 13.13 GJ
The monthly heating load (including hot water load) = 13.13+2.45 = 15.58 GJ. The results for
all months are shown in the following table:
75
Month Heating °C Dh (GJ) Dw (GJ) L (GJ)
degree days
January 608 13.13 2.45 15.58
February 492 10.63 2.45 13.08
March 448 9.68 2.45 12.13
April 280 6.05 2.45 8.50
May 141 3.05 2.45 5.50
June 39 0.84 2.45 3.29
July 0 0.00 2.45 2.45
August 0 0.00 2.45 2.45
September 80 1.73 2.45 4.18
October 238 5.14 2.45 7.59
November 433 9.35 2.45 11.80
December 386 8.34 2.45 10.79
Total: 97.34
Next we need to estimate the monthly average daily total radiation on the tilted collector
surface from the daily total horizontal solar radiation, H . For this estimation the average day
of each month is used, shown in Table 2.1 together with the declination for each day. For each
of those days the sunset hour angle, hss, is required given by Eq. (2.15) and the sunset hour
angle on the tilted surface, h΄ss, given by Eq. (2.109). The calculations for the month of
January are as follows (latitude also given in Appendix 7):
From Eq. (2.15): hss = cos-1[-tan(L) tan(δ)] = cos-1[-tan(40) tan(-20.92)] = 71.3°
From Eq. (2.109): h'ss = min {hss, cos-1 [- tan(L-β) tan(δ)]} = min {71.3°, cos-1 [- tan(40-45)
tan(-20.92)]} = min {71.3°, 91.9°} = 71.3°
From Eq. (2.105c):

HD 2 3
= 1.391 − 3.560K T + 4.189K T − 2.137K T
H
= 1.391-3.560x0.57+4.189x0.572-2.137x0.573 = 0.33
cos(L − β)cos(δ)sin(h 'ss ) + (π /180)h 'ss sin(L − β)sin(δ)

From Eq. (2.108): R B =
cos(40 − 45)cos(−20.92)sin(71.3) + (π /180)71.3sin(40 − 45)sin(−20.92)
= = 2.35
cos(40)cos(−20.92)sin(71.3) + (π /180)71.3sin(40)sin(−20.92)
Ht  HD  H D  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β) 
From Eq. (2.107): R = = 1 −  RB +   + ρ  
H  H  H  2 
G
 2 
 1 + cos(45)   1 − cos(45) 
= (1 − 0.33) 2.35 + 0.33   + 0.2   = 1.89
 2   2 
And finally H t = RH = 1.89x8.64 = 16.33 MJ/m2. The calculations for all months are shown
in the following table:
76
Month N δ (°) hss (°) h΄ss (°) HD / H RB R H t (MJ/m2)
Jan. 17 -20.92 71.3 71.3 0.33 2.35 1.89 16.33
Feb. 47 -12.95 78.9 78.9 0.32 1.83 1.55 18.41
Mar. 75 -2.42 88.0 88.0 0.36 1.38 1.22 19.32
Apr. 105 9.41 98.0 89.2 0.36 1.03 1.00 20.16
May 135 18.79 106.6 88.3 0.37 0.83 0.87 19.42
Jun. 162 23.09 111.0 87.9 0.34 0.75 0.81 20.12
Jul. 198 21.18 109.0 88.1 0.35 0.79 0.84 20.26
Aug. 228 13.45 101.6 88.8 0.35 0.94 0.94 20.30
Sep. 258 2.22 91.9 89.8 0.34 1.23 1.13 20.34
Oct. 288 -9.6 81.8 81.8 0.33 1.67 1.43 19.56
Nov. 318 -18.91 73.3 73.3 0.33 2.20 1.78 16.66
Dec. 344 -23.05 69.1 69.1 0.34 2.53 1.99 15.04
We can now move in the f-chart estimation. This Exercise will require only an X correction.
From Eq. (11.14):
−0.25
X c  M w,a  −0.25
 150 
=  =  = 0.841
X  M w ,s   75 
For the month of January:
FR' − A 40
X = FR U L (Tref − T a )Δt c = 4.21(100 − (−1.3) ) x31x24x3600x = 2.93
FR L 15.58x109
FR'  (τα)  Ac 40
Y = FR (τα) n   Ht N = 0.78x0.96x16.33x106 x31x = 0.97
FR  (τα) n  L 15.58x109
And Xc = 2.93x0.841 = 2.46. This value together with Y give from Eq. (11.13) f = 0.638 and
a contribution of 15.58x0.638 = 9.94 GJ. The calculations for the other months are shown in
the following table.
Month H t (MJ/m2) Ta (°C) L (GJ) X Xc Y f fL

January 16.33 -1.3 15.58 2.93 2.46 0.97 0.638 9.94
February 18.41 0.8 13.08 3.09 2.60 1.18 0.752 9.84
March 19.32 3.9 12.13 3.57 3.00 1.48 0.877 10.64
April 20.16 9.0 8.50 4.67 3.93 2.13 1 8.50
May 19.42 14.0 5.50 7.05 5.93 3.28 1 5.50
June 20.12 19.4 3.29 10.69 8.99 5.50 1 3.29
July 20.26 23.1 2.45 14.16 11.91 7.68 1 2.45
August 20.30 21.9 2.45 14.38 12.09 7.69 1 2.45
September 20.34 16.8 4.18 8.69 7.31 4.37 1 4.18
October 19.56 10.8 7.59 5.30 4.46 2.39 1 7.59
November 16.66 3.9 11.80 3.55 2.99 1.27 0.777 9.17
December 15.04 -0.6 10.79 4.21 3.54 1.29 0.758 8.18
Total load: 97.34 Total contribution: 81.73
It should be noted that the values of f marked in bold are outside the range of the f-chart
correlation and a fraction of 100% is used as during these months the solar system covers
fully the load. From Eq. (11.12) the annual fraction of load covered by the solar system is:
77
F=
f L
i i
=
81.73
= 0.840 or 84%
L i 97.34
11.4 A space heating system is located in an area where H t = 13.5 MJ/m2, Ta = –2°C, and
the degree days are 550. The system uses an air heating system of standard
configuration, with standard air flow rate and storage size. Estimate the solar fraction
and contribution in January if the hot water load is 1.95 GJ and the system has the
following characteristics:
Building UA = 325 W/°C
Collector F΄R(τα)n = 0.78
Collector F΄RUL = 3.45 W/m2-°C
(τα) /(τα)n = 0.94
The space heating load is estimated from Eq. (6.24), i.e., Dh = (UA) (DD)h =
325x550x24x3600 = 15.44 GJ. Therefore the total load is 15.44+1.95 = 17.39 GJ.
From Eqs. (11.8) and (11.9):
FR' − A 35
X = FR U L (Tref − T a )Δt c = 3.45 (100 − (−2) ) x31x24x3600x = 1.90
FR L 17.39x109
FR'  (τα)  Ac 35
Y = FR (τα) n   Ht N = 0.78x0.94x13.5x106 x31x = 0.62
FR  (τα) n  L 17.39x109
From Fig. 11.2 or Eq. (11.13): f = 0.432

11.5 In Exercise 11.4, what collector area is required to cover 50% of the load?
This is solved by trial and error, i.e., keeping all data the same as above modify the collector
area until f = 0.50. This can very easily be solved with a spreadsheet program. The correct
answer is X = 2.28, Y = 0.74 and Ac = 42 m2.
11.6 A house with UA = 350 W/K has an air space heating system and is located in
Springfield, Illinois. The collectors are double glazed, inclined 50° and face 30° east of
south. Estimate the monthly and annual solar fraction and contribution of the system,
which uses air collectors that have the following characteristics:
Collector FR(τα)n = 0.65
Collector FRUL = 5.45 W/m2-°C
Air flow rate = 15 l/m2-s
Storage capacity = 0.2 m3/m2 of rocks
Hot water load = 1.95 GJ per month (constant)
78
The climatic data and the heating degree days for Springfield, Illinois are taken form
Appendix 7 and shown in the following table:
Month H (MJ/m2) Ta (°C) Clearness Heating °C

index K T degree days
January 7.56 -4.3 0.49 703
February 10.44 -1.8 0.51 564
March 13.32 4.9 0.48 417
April 18.00 11.8 0.52 201
May 21.60 17.5 0.54 92
June 23.40 22.7 0.56 4
July 23.04 24.7 0.57 0
August 20.52 23.2 0.56 4
September 16.56 19.6 0.55 24
October 12.24 13.1 0.54 174
November 7.92 6.1 0.48 368
December 6.12 -1.3 0.44 608
The loads need to be estimated first. For the month of January, from Eq. (6.24):
Dh = (UA) (DD)h = 350(W/K)x24(hr/day)x3600(J/Wh)x703(°C-days) = 21.26 GJ
The monthly heating load (including hot water load) = 21.26+1.95 = 23.21 GJ. The results for
all months are shown in the following table:
Month Heating °C Dh (GJ) Dw (GJ) L (GJ)

degree days
January 703 21.26 1.95 23.21
February 564 17.06 1.95 19.01
March 417 12.61 1.95 14.56
April 201 6.08 1.95 8.03
May 92 2.78 1.95 4.73
June 4 0.12 1.95 2.07
July 0 0.00 1.95 1.95
August 4 0.12 1.95 2.07
September 24 0.73 1.95 2.68
October 174 5.26 1.95 7.21
November 368 11.13 1.95 13.08
December 608 18.39 1.95 20.34
Total: 118.94
Next we need to estimate the monthly average daily total radiation on the tilted collector
surface from the daily total horizontal solar radiation, H . For this estimation the average day
of each month is used, shown in Table 2.1 together with the declination for each day.
As the calculations are similar to the ones presented in Exercise 11.3 they are not repeated
again. The results for all months are shown directly in the following table:
79
Month N δ (°) hss (°) h΄ss (°) HD / H RB R H t (MJ/m2)
Jan. 17 -20.92 71.3 71.3 0.40 2.42 1.85 13.99
Feb. 47 -12.95 78.9 78.9 0.38 1.86 1.54 16.08
Mar. 75 -2.42 88.0 88.0 0.45 1.38 1.20 15.98
Apr. 105 9.41 98.0 88.3 0.41 1.00 1.00 18.00
May 135 18.79 106.6 86.6 0.39 0.78 0.87 18.79
Jun. 162 23.09 111.0 85.7 0.37 0.70 0.82 19.19
Jul. 198 21.18 109.0 86.1 0.36 0.74 0.84 19.35
Aug. 228 13.45 101.6 87.6 0.37 0.90 0.94 19.29
Sep. 258 2.22 91.9 89.6 0.38 1.21 1.13 18.71
Oct. 288 -9.6 81.8 81.8 0.39 1.69 1.42 17.38
Nov. 318 -18.91 73.3 73.3 0.41 2.26 1.74 13.78
Dec. 344 -23.05 69.1 69.1 0.45 2.62 1.88 11.51
Then we need to estimate (τα) /(τα)n . For this estimation we need to know S and then apply
Eq. (11.10) to find the required parameter. From Eqs. (3.4a) and (3.4b):
θe,D = 59.68 – 0.1388β + 0.001497β2 = 59.68 – 0.1388x50 + 0.001497x502 = 57°
θe,G = 90 – 0.5788β + 0.002693β2 = 90 – 0.5788x50 + 0.002693x502 = 68°
From Fig. 3.24, for double glazed collector, (τα)D /(τα)n = 0.85 and (τα)G /(τα)n = 0.62
Here we can assume a (τα)n = 0.9. This cancels out in subsequent calculations. Therefore:
(τα)D = (τα)n x0.85 = 0.9x0.85 = 0.765
(τα)G = (τα)n x0.62 = 0.9x0.62 = 0.558
For the beam radiation use Fig. A3.8(c) to find equivalent angle for each month and Fig 3.24
to get (τα) /(τα)n . The 12 angles from Fig. A3.8(c) are 41, 42, 43, 47, 49, 50, 50, 48, 46, 43, 42
and 41 from which 12 values are obtained from Figure 3.24 (for double glazing) and the
corresponding values are given in the table noting that:
(τα)
(τα)B = (τα)n = 0.90x0.96 = 0.864
(τα)n
The way to calculate S is shown in Example 11.12. The results for all months are shown in
the following table.
Month (τα)/(τα)n (τα)B S (MJ/m2) (τα) /(τα)n
Jan. 0.96 0.864 11.41 0.91
Feb. 0.96 0.864 12.91 0.89
Mar. 0.95 0.855 12.43 0.86
Apr. 0.93 0.837 13.55 0.84
May 0.92 0.828 13.82 0.82
Jun. 0.91 0.819 13.91 0.81
Jul. 0.91 0.819 14.17 0.81
Aug. 0.92 0.828 14.42 0.83
Sep. 0.93 0.837 14.37 0.85
Oct. 0.95 0.855 13.81 0.88
Nov. 0.96 0.864 11.18 0.90
Dec. 0.96 0.864 9.38 0.91
80
We can now move in the f-chart estimation. The dimensionless parameters X and Y are
estimated from Eqs. (11.8) and (11.9), noting that for air systems F΄R/FR = 1:
FR' − A 50
X = FR U L (Tref − T a )Δt c = 5.45x1(100 − (−4.3) ) x31x24x3600x = 3.28
FR L 23.21x109
FR'  (τα)  Ac 50
Y = FR (τα) n   Ht N = 0.65x1x0.91x13.99x106 x31x 9
= 0.55
FR  ( τα ) n  L 23.21x10
Storage tank correction is obtained from Eq. (11.18):
−0.30
X c  M b,a  −0.30
 0.2 
=  =  = 1.069
X  M b,s   0.25 
Flow rate correction is obtained from Eq. (11.19):

0.28 0.28
Xc  m
   15 
= a  =  = 1.1202
X m s   10 
Therefore: Xc = 3.28x1.069x1.1202 = 3.93
When these values are used in Eq. (11.13) they give f = 0.268. The complete calculations for
all months of the year are shown in the following table:
Month X Y Xc f fL
Jan. 3.28 0.55 3.93 0.268 6.22
Feb. 3.53 0.69 4.23 0.358 6.81
Mar. 4.77 0.95 5.71 0.462 6.73
Apr. 7.76 1.84 9.29 0.749 6.01
May 12.73 3.28 15.24 0.925 4.38
Jun. 26.38 7.32 31.59 1.000 2.07
Jul. 28.18 8.10 33.75 1.000 1.95
Aug. 27.08 7.79 32.43 1.000 2.07
Sep. 21.19 5.79 25.37 1.000 2.68
Oct. 8.80 2.14 10.54 0.806 5.81
Nov. 5.07 0.92 6.07 0.428 5.60
Dec. 3.63 0.52 4.35 0.223 4.54
Total: 54.87
From Eq. (11.12) the annual fraction of load covered by the solar system is:
F=
 fi Li = 54.87 = 0.461 or 46.1%
 Li 118.94
11.7 Calculate the solar contribution of a thermosiphon solar water heating system located in
a place where local latitude is 40°, for the month of March. The system has the
following characteristics:
81
1. Slope of collector = 45°
2. Monthly average solar radiation on collector surface = 15900 kJ/m2-day
3. Monthly average ambient temperature = 9.1°C
4. Monthly average clearness index = 0.53
5. Number of collector panels = 2
6. Collector area per panel = 1.5 m2
7. Collector test FRUL = 19.0 kJ/h-m2-°C
8. Collector FR(τα) = 0.82
9. Collector test flow rate = 71.5 kg/h-m2
10. Number of risers per panel = 8
11. Riser diameter = 0.012 m
12. Combined header length per panel = 2 m
13. Header diameter = 0.028 m
14. Tank-collector connecting pipe length = 2.1 m
15. Collector-tank connecting pipe length = 1.1 m
16. Connecting pipe diameter = 0.028 m
17. Number of bends in connecting pipe = 2
18. Connecting pipe heat loss coefficient = 11.1 kJ/h-m2-°C
19. Storage tank volume = 170 L
20. Storage tank height = 1 m
21. Storage tank diameter = 0.465 m
22. Daily load draw off = 160 L
23. Mains water temperature = 16°C
24. Auxiliary set temperature = 60°C
25. Height H1= 0.07 m
26. Height H2= 1.09 m
27. Height H3= 2.2 m
28. Height H5= 1.31 m
Due to the large number of calculations the exact solution is not shown here. The procedure
followed is exactly the same as the one presented in Example 11.10. By using an initial guess
of flow rate equal to 100 kg/m2, the difference between the friction and the thermosiphon
head is 35% and the new flow rate estimated from Eq. (11.42) is 124.2 kg/m2. When this is
used as the new flow rate the difference is -8.4% and the new flow rate given is 119.4 kg/m2.
This now gives a difference of 2.9% and a new flow rate equal to 121.3 kg/m2. Finally, when
this new flow rate is used the difference is 0.8%, which is below the threshold of 1%
considered as satisfactory, and the solar contribution at this final flow rate is 0.74.
11.8 A collector is used in an application located at 40°N latitude and has a slope of 45°. If,
for January, the average daily radiation on horizontal is 11.9 MJ/m2 and the critical
radiation level for the collector is 156 W/m2, estimate the daily utilizability and the
utilizable energy for the month. Ground reflectance = 0.2.
For January the mean day from Table 2.1 is N=17 and δ = -20.92°. From Eq. (2.15) the sunset
time hss = 71.3°. From Eqs. (2.84b, 2.84c and 2.84a) we have:
α = 0.409 + 0.5016.sin(hss-60) = 0.409 + 0.5016xsin(71.3-60) = 0.507

β = 0.6609 - 0.4767.sin(hss-60) = 0.6609 - 0.4767xsin(71.3-60) = 0.567
82
rn = ( α + β cos(h) )
24  2πh ss 
 360 
π cos(0) − cos(71.3)
= ( 0.507 + 0.567 cos(0) ) = 0.174
24  2π(71.3) 
sin(71.3) −   cos(71.3)
 360 
 π  cos(h) − cos(h ss )  π  cos(0) − cos(71.3)

rd,n =   =  = 0.162
 24   2πh ss   24   2π(71.3) 
sin(h ss ) −   cos(h ss ) sin(71.3) −   cos(71.3)
 360   360 
From Eq. (2.90a):

R B,n =
sin(L)sin(δ) + cos(L)cos(δ)cos(h)
sin(40 − 45)sin(−20.92) + cos(40 − 45) cos(−20.92)cos(0)
= = 1.979
sin(40)sin(−20.92) + cos(40)cos(−20.92) cos(0)
From Table 2.5 at 40°N latitude Ho = 15.2 MJ/m2. Therefore from Eq. (2.82), K T = 11.9/15.2
= 0.78
For a day in which H = H , from Eq. (11.32b):
HD
= 1.0 + 0.2832K T − 2.5557K T2 + 0.8448K 3T
H
= 1.0 + 0.2832x0.78 − 2.5557(0.78) 2 + 0.8448(0.78)3 = 0.07
Then from Eq. (11.31):

 r H  r H
  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β) 
R n = 1 − d,n D  R B,n +  d,n D
  + ρG  
 rn H   rn H
 2   2 
 0.162x0.07   0.162x0.07   1 + cos(45)   1 − cos(45) 
= 1 − 1.979 +    + 0.2   = 1.935
 0.174   0.174   2   2 
From Eq. (2.109):

h'ss = min {hss, cos-1 [- tan(L-β) tan(δ)]} = min {71.3, cos-1 [- tan(40-45) tan(-20.92)]} = min
{71.3, 91.9} = 71.3°
From Eq. (2.108):

cos(L − β)cos(δ)sin(h 'ss ) + (π /180)h 'ss sin(L − β)sin(δ)
RB =
cos(40 − 45) cos(−20.92)sin(71.3) + (π /180)71.3x sin(40 − 45)sin(−20.92)
= = 2.346
cos(40) cos(−20.92)sin(71.3) + (π /180)71.3x sin(40)sin(−20.92)
From Eq. (2.105c):

HD 2 3
= 1.391 − 3.560K T + 4.189K T − 2.137K T = 1.391 − 3.560x0.78 + 4.189x0.782 − 2.137x0.783 = 0.149
H
From Eq. (2.107):
83
Ht  HD  H D  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β) 
R= = 1 − RB +   + ρ  
H  H  H  2 
G
 2 
 1 + cos(45)   1 − cos(45) 
( )
= 1 − 0.149 x2.346 + 0.149 
2
 + 0.2 
2
 = 2.153
   
Now,
R n 1.935
= = 0.90
R 2.153
From Eq. (11.55), the dimensionless average critical radiation level is:
I 156x3600
X c = tc = = 0.140
rn R n H 0.174x1.935x11.9x106
From Eq. (11.56):

A = 2.943 − 9.271K T + 4.031K T2 = 2.943 – 9.271x0.78 + 4.031(0.78)2 = –1.836
B = −4.345 + 8.853K T − 3.602K T2 = – 4.345 + 8.853x0.78 – 3.602(0.78)2 = 0.369
C = −0.170 − 0.306K T + 2.936K T2 = –0.170 – 0.306x0.78 + 2.936(0.78)2 = 1.378
 R  2 
Φ = exp   A + B  n    X c + CX c  
  R  
{ }
= exp  −1.836 + 0.369 ( 0.90 )  0.14 + 1.378(0.14) 2  = 0.778
Finally, the month utilizable energy is: NH t Φ = NHRΦ = 31x11.9x2.153x0.778

= 617.9 MJ/m2
11.9 Using the Φ method, estimate the total energy collection in March of a collector located
at 35°N latitude that has the following characteristics:
Collector FR(τα) = 0.81 (constant value)
Collector inclination = 40°
KT = 0.55
H o = 29.6 MJ/m2
Ta = 1°C
Ti = 45°C
For March the mean day from Table 2.1 is N=75 and δ = -2.42°. From Eq. (2.15) the sunset
time hss = 88.3°. The estimations are carried out for 5 hour pairs as shown in the table that
follows. Here the only calculations for the first hour are presented. From Eqs. (2.84b, 2.84c
and 2.84a) we have:
α = 0.409 + 0.5016.sin(hss-60) = 0.409 + 0.5016xsin(88.3-60) = 0.647

β = 0.6609 - 0.4767.sin(hss-60) = 0.6609 - 0.4767xsin(88.3-60) = 0.435
84
r= ( α + β cos(h) )
24  2πh ss 
 360 
π cos(7.5) − cos(88.3)
= ( 0.647 + 0.435cos(7.5) ) = 0.142
24  2π(88.3) 
sin(88.3) −   cos(88.3)
 360 
 π  cos(h) − cos(h ss )  π  cos(7.5) − cos(88.3)

rd =   =  = 0.132
 24   2πh ss   24   2π(88.3) 
 360   360 
From Eq. (2.105d):

HD 2 3
= 1.311 − 3.022K T + 3.427K T − 1.821K T = 1.311-3.022x0.55+3.427x0.552-1.821x0.553
H
= 0.383
From Eq. (2.90a):

sin(L − β)sin(δ) + cos(L − β)cos(δ) cos(h)
RB =
sin(L)sin(δ) + cos(L)cos(δ) cos(h)
sin(35 − 40)sin(−2.42) + cos(35 − 40)cos(−2.42)cos(7.5)
= = 1.258
sin(35)sin(−2.42) + cos(35)cos(−2.42)cos(7.5)
From Eq. (11.47):

 H  H  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β)  
It = K T H o  r − D rd  R B + D rd   + rρG  
 H  H  2   2 
  1 + cos(40)   1 − cos(40)  
= 0.55x29.6 ( 0.142 − 0.383x0.132 )1.258 + 0.383x0.132   + 0.142x0.3  
  2   2 
2
= 2.68 MJ / m
From Eq. (11.62):

I F U ( T − Ta ) F U ( T − Ta ) 5.05 ( 45 − 1) x3600
X c = tc = R L i = R L i = = 0.368
It F (τα) (τα) I FR (τα) It 0.81x2.68x106
R n t
(τα) n
From Eq. (2.109): h'ss = min {hss, cos-1 [- tan(L-β) tan(δ)]} = min {88.3, cos-1 [- tan(35-40) tan(-
2.42)]} = min {88.3, 90.2} = 88.3°
r 0.142
From Eq. (11.50): k T = KT = 0.55 = 0.592
rd 0.132
H
From Eq. (2.82): K T = or H = K T H o = 0.55x29.6 = 16.28 MJ/m2
Ho
It I 2.68
From Eq. (11.51): R h = = t = = 1.159
I rH 0.142x16.28
85
From Eqs. (11.48c), (11.48b) and (11.48a) we get:
R cos(β) k
X m = 1.85 + 0.169 2h + 0.0696 2
− 0.981 2T
kT kT cos (δ)
1.159 cos(40) 0.592
= 1.85 + 0.169 2
+ 0.0696 2
− 0.981 2 = 1.979
(0.592) (0.592) cos (−2.42)
X m − 1 1.979 − 1
g= = = 46.619
2 − X m 2 − 1.979
1/ 2 1/ 2
  Xc  
2
  0.368  
2
Φ = g −  g + (1 + 2g) 1 −
2
 
2
= 46.619 − (46.619) + (1 + 2x46.619)  1 −  
  X m     1.979  
= 0.665
From Eq. (11.61):
Q u / A c = FR (τα) It Φ = 0.81x2.68x0.665 = 1.44 MJ / m 2

The calculations for the other hours are shown in the following table.
Hour r rd RB It Xc Xm g Φ Qu/Ac
(MJ/m )2 (MJ/m2)
0.5 0.142 0.132 1.258 2.68 0.368 1.979 46.619 0.665 1.44
1.5 0.129 0.123 1.261 2.43 0.406 2.030 -34.333 0.637 1.25
2.5 0.104 0.105 1.269 1.96 0.504 2.153 -7.536 0.569 0.90
3.5 0.072 0.079 1.286 1.35 0.732 2.346 -3.890 0.437 0.48
4.5 0.039 0.048 1.331 0.73 1.353 2.650 -2.538 0.200 0.12
Total: 4.19
The total useful energy for the month is 4.19x31x2 = 259.8 MJ/m2.
11.10 Repeat Exercise 11.8 using the Φ method.
The same data apply here from previous Exercise, sunset time hss = 88.3°, α = 0.647 and β =
0.435. From Eq. (2.84a) we have:
rn = ( α + β cos(h) )
24  2πh ss 
 360 
π cos(0) − cos(88.3)
= ( 0.647 + 0.435cos(0) ) = 0.144
24  2π(88.3) 
sin(88.3) −   cos(88.3)
 360 
 π  cos(h) − cos(h ss )  π  cos(0) − cos(88.3)

rd,n =   =  = 0.133
 24   2πh ss   24   2π(88.3) 
 360   360 
From Eq. (2.90a):
86
R B,n =
sin(L)sin(δ) + cos(L)cos(δ)cos(h)
sin(35 − 40)sin(−2.42) + cos(35 − 40)cos(−2.42)cos(0)
= = 1.258
sin(35)sin(−2.42) + cos(35)cos(−2.42)cos(0)
From Eq. (2.109): h'ss = min {hss, cos-1 [- tan(L-β) tan(δ)]} = min {88.3, cos-1 [- tan(35-40) tan(-
2.42)]} = min {88.3, 90.2} = 88.3°
HD
From previous Exercise, = 0.383, H = 16.28 MJ/m2
H
From Eq. (2.108):
cos(L − β) cos(δ)sin(h 'ss ) + (π /180)h 'ss sin(L − β)sin(δ)

RB =
cos(35 − 40)cos(−2.42)sin(88.3) + (π /180)88.3sin(35 − 40)sin(−2.42)
= = 1.282
cos(35)cos(−2.42)sin(88.3) + (π /180)88.3sin(35)sin(−2.42)
From Eq. (2.107):

 HD   1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β) 
H t = H 1 −  R B + HD   + HρG  
 H   2   2 

 1 + cos(40)   1 − cos(40) 
= 16.28 (1 − 0.383)1.282 + (0.383x16.28)   + 16.28x0.3   = 18.95 MJ / m
2
 2   2 
Ht
Or R = =18.95/16.28 = 1.164
H
From Eq. (11.54b):

HD
= 1.0 + 0.2832K T − 2.5557K T2 + 0.8448K 3T
H
= 1.0 + 0.2832(0.55) − 2.5557(0.55) 2 + 0.8448(0.55)3 = 0.523
From Eq. (11.53):

 r H  r H  1 + cos(β)   1 − cos(β) 
R n = 1 − d,n D  R B,n +  d,n D
  + ρG  
 rn H   rn H
 2   2 
 0.133   0.133   1 + cos(40)   1 − cos(40) 
= 1 − 0.523 1.258 +  0.523    + 0.3   = 1.112
 0.144   0.144  2   2 
R n 1.112
Now, = = 0.955
R 1.164
From Eq. (11.55), the dimensionless average critical radiation level is:
I F U (T − Ta ) / FR (τα) 5.05(45 − 1)x3600 / 0.81
X c = tc = R L i = = 0.379
rn R n H rn R n H 0.144x1.112x16.28x106
From Eq. (11.56):

A = 2.943 − 9.271K T + 4.031K T2 = 2.943 – 9.271x0.55 + 4.031(0.55)2 = –0.937
87
B = −4.345 + 8.853K T − 3.602K T2 = – 4.345 + 8.853x0.55 – 3.602(0.55)2 = –0.565
C = −0.170 − 0.306K T + 2.936K T2 = –0.170 – 0.306x0.55 + 2.936(0.55)2 = 0.550
 R  2 
Φ = exp   A + B  n    X c + CX c  
  R  
{ }
= exp  −0.937 − 0.565 ( 0.955 )  0.379 + 0.550(0.379) 2  = 0.509
Finally, the month utilizable energy per m2 of collector is obtained from Eq. (11.65) by
multiplying the daily utilizable energy with N (number of days):
2
Q u / A c = NFR (τα)H t Φ = 31x0.81x18.95x0.509 = 242.2 MJ/m
11.11 A collector system supplies heat to an industrial process. The collector inlet temperature
(process return temperature) varies as shown in the following table but, for a certain
hour, is constant during the month. The calculation is done for the month of March,
when KT = 0.55 and ρG = 0.2. The system is located at 35°N latitude and the collector
characteristics are FRUL = 5.44 W/m2-°C, FR(τα)n = 0.79, tilted 40°, and the incidence
angle modifier constant bo = 0.1. The weather conditions are also given in the table.
Calculate the energy output of the collector.
Hour Ti (°C) Ta (°C) I t (MJ/m2)

8-9 45 -2 1.48
9-10 45 0 2.13
10-11 60 2 3.05
11-12 60 5 3.67
12-13 60 7 3.85
13-14 75 8 2.95
14-15 75 6 2.32
15-16 75 3 1.80
First the incidence angle is estimated from which the incidence angle modifier is estimated.
The estimations are done in the half hour; for the hour 8-9 the hour angle is 52.5° From Table
2.1, for March the mean day N=75 and δ = -2.42°. From Eq. (2.20):
cos(θ) = sin(L-β) sin(δ)+cos(L-β) cos(δ) cos(h) = sin(35-40) sin(-2.42)+cos(35-40) cos(-2.42)

cos(52.5) = 0.610 or θ = 52.4°.
(τα)  1   1 
From Eq. (4.25): K θ = = 1 − bo  − 1 = 1 − 0.1

− 1 = 0.936
 cos ( 52.4 ) 
(τα)n  cos ( θ )   
The dimensionless critical radiation level Xc is given by Eq. (11.40):

I F U ( T − Ta ) 5.44 ( 45 − (−2) ) x3600
X c = tc = R L i = = 0.841
It F (τα) (τα) I 0.79x0.936x1.48x106
R n t
(τα) n
From Exercise 11.8, where the estimations are also done for March and same latitude: hss =
88.3°, α = 0.647 and β = 0.435. From Eq. (2.84a):
88
r= ( α + β cos(h) )
24  2πh ss 
 360 
π cos(52.5) − cos(88.3)
= ( 0.647 + 0.435cos(52.5) ) = 0.072
24  2π(88.3) 
sin(88.3) −   cos(88.3)
 360 
 π  cos(h) − cos(h ss )  π  cos(52.5) − cos(88.3)

rd =   =  = 0.079
24
  sin(h ) −  2 πh   24   2π(88.3) 
ss
ss
 360  cos(h ss ) sin(88.3) −   cos(88.3)
   360 
From Table 2.5 at 35°N latitude H o = 29.6 MJ/m2. From Eq. (2.82) H = K T H o = 0.55x29.6 =
16.28 MJ/m2. From Eq. (11.51):
It I 1.48
Rh = = t = = 1.263
I rH 0.072x16.28
The monthly average hourly clearness index, k T , is given by Eq. (11.50):

I r r H
kT = = KT = = ( α + β cos(h) ) K T = (0.647+0.435cos(52.5))x0.55 = 0.501
Io rd rd H o
From Eq. (11.48c):

R cos(β) k
X m = 1.85 + 0.169 2h + 0.0696 2
− 0.981 2T
kT kT cos (δ)
1.263 cos(40) 0.501
= 1.85 + 0.169 2
+ 0.0696 2
− 0.981 2 = 2.420
(0.501) (0.501) cos (−2.42)
From Eq. (11.48b):

X − 1 2.420 − 1
g= m = = −3.381
2 − X m 2 − 2.420
From Eq. (11.48a):
1/ 2 1/ 2
  Xc  
2
  0.841  
2
Φ = g − g + (1 + 2g) 1 −
2
 
2
= −3.381 −  −3.381 + (1 + 2(−3.381)) 1 −  
  X m     2.420  
= 0.385
Finally the useful gain (UG) of the collector for that hour is (March has 31 days):
(τα)
FR (τα) n N It Φ = 0.79x0.936x31x1.48x0.385 = 13.06 MJ/m2
(τα) n
The results for the other hours are shown in the following table.
89
Hour h (°) θ (°) Kθ Xc rd r Rh kT Xm g Φ UG
8-9 52.5 52.4 0.936 0.841 0.079 0.072 1.263 0.501 2.420 -3.381 0.385 13.06
9-10 37.5 37.5 0.974 0.538 0.105 0.104 1.258 0.546 2.205 -5.878 0.549 27.89
10-11 22.5 22.6 0.992 0.475 0.123 0.129 1.452 0.577 2.180 -6.556 0.592 43.87
11-12 7.5 7.9 0.999 0.372 0.132 0.142 1.588 0.593 2.182 -6.495 0.670 60.16
12-13 -7.5 7.9 0.999 0.342 0.132 0.142 1.665 0.593 2.219 -5.566 0.695 65.46
13-14 -22.5 22.6 0.992 0.568 0.123 0.129 1.405 0.577 2.156 -7.410 0.524 37.55
14-15 -37.5 37.5 0.974 0.757 0.105 0.104 1.370 0.546 2.269 -4.717 0.415 22.97
15-16 -52.5 52.4 0.936 1.059 0.079 0.072 1.536 0.501 2.604 -2.656 0.303 12.50
Total: 283.46
The useful gain for the month is equal to 283.46 MJ/m2
11.12 The collector system of Exercise 11.11 is located in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and
has an area of 60 m2, (τα)n = 0.96, and a storage tank volume of 4000 L. If the process
requires heat at a rate of 12 kW at a temperature of 80°C for 8 h/d, estimate the monthly
and annual solar fractions.
The weather conditions as obtained from Appendix 7 are given in the following table. The
values of the last column are estimated from Eq. (2.82).
Month H (MJ/m2) Ta (°C) KT H o (MJ/m2)
January 11.52 1.2 0.63 18.29
February 15.12 4.4 0.65 23.26
March 19.44 8.3 0.66 29.45
April 24.48 12.9 0.68 36.00
May 27.72 17.9 0.69 40.17
June 29.16 23.4 0.70 41.66
July 27.00 25.8 0.66 40.91
August 24.84 24.4 0.67 37.07
September 21.24 20.3 0.67 31.70
October 16.92 13.9 0.67 25.25
November 12.60 6.8 0.65 19.38
December 10.44 1.8 0.62 16.84
To simplify the solution most of the results are given directly in the following table. These
concern R B given by Eq. (2.108), H D / H given by Eqs. (2.105c) and (2.105d), R given by Eq.
(2.107), rn and rd,n given by Eqs. (2.84) and (2.83) respectively at noon (h = 0°), RB,n given by
Eq. (2.90a) at noon, HD/H given by Eqs. (11.54) and Rn given by Eq. (11.53).
Month RB HD / H R rn rd,n RB,n HD/H Rn

Jan. 1.989 0.28 1.703 0.168 0.156 1.716 0.291 1.514
Feb. 1.624 0.26 1.455 0.156 0.144 1.479 0.251 1.364
Mar. 1.282 0.29 1.190 0.144 0.133 1.258 0.316 1.172
Apr. 1.000 0.27 0.992 0.133 0.123 1.074 0.276 1.049
May 0.827 0.26 0.865 0.126 0.116 0.953 0.256 0.960
Jun. 0.757 0.25 0.812 0.122 0.112 0.902 0.235 0.921
Jul. 0.787 0.29 0.838 0.124 0.114 0.924 0.316 0.935
Aug. 0.921 0.28 0.934 0.130 0.120 1.020 0.296 1.006
Sep. 1.160 0.28 1.106 0.140 0.129 1.180 0.296 1.122
Oct. 1.503 0.24 1.378 0.152 0.141 1.400 0.296 1.281
Nov. 1.885 0.26 1.648 0.164 0.153 1.648 0.251 1.492
Dec. 2.113 0.28 1.792 0.171 0.159 1.797 0.311 1.556
90
As the collector in this Exercise is at the same latitude and has the same inclination as the one
in Example 11.2 most results for the calculation of (τα) /(τα)n are the same. As the method of
calculation is presented in Example 11.13 only the results are given here:
Month (τα)B S (MJ/m2) (τα) (τα) /(τα) n

Jan. 0.922 17.73 0.90 0.94
Feb. 0.922 19.85 0.90 0.94
Mar. 0.912 20.54 0.89 0.93
Apr. 0.893 21.14 0.87 0.91
May 0.883 20.65 0.86 0.90
Jun. 0.874 20.22 0.85 0.89
Jul. 0.874 19.30 0.85 0.89
Aug. 0.883 19.99 0.86 0.90
Sep. 0.893 20.50 0.87 0.91
Oct. 0.912 20.84 0.89 0.93
Nov. 0.922 18.78 0.90 0.94
Dec. 0.922 16.94 0.91 0.95
Subsequently the data for January are presented. The minimum monthly average critical
radiation ratio is given by Eq. (11.67):
FR U L ( Tmin − Ta ) 5.44x3600 ( 80 − 1.2 )

FR (τα) 0.79x0.94
X c,min = = = 0.71
rn R n K T H o 0.168x1.514x0.63x18.29x106
From Eqs. (11.56):

A = 2.943 − 9.271K T + 4.031K T2 = 2.943 – 9.271x0.63 + 4.031(0.63)2 = –1.2978
B = −4.345 + 8.853K T − 3.602K T2 = – 4.345 + 8.853x0.63 – 3.602(0.63)2 = -0.1972
C = −0.170 − 0.306K T + 2.936K T2 = –0.170 – 0.306x0.63 + 2.936(0.63)2 = 0.8025
 R  2 
Φ max = exp   A + B  n    X c + CX c  
  R  
  1.514   2 
= exp   −1.2978 − 0.1972    0.71 + 0.8025(0.71)   = 0.194
  1.703   
The load for January is: 12x8x3600x31 = 10.71 GJ
From Eq. (11.68):

A F (τα)NH t A F (τα)NRH
Φ max Y = Φ max c R = Φ max c R
L L
6
60x0.79x0.94x31x1.703x11.52x10
= 0.194 = 0.491
10.71x109
From Eq. (11.69):

A F U (100)Δt 60x5.44x100x24x31x3600
X' = c R L = = 8.16
L 10.71x109
91
The storage parameter Rs is estimated with Eq. (11.71):
350 350
Rs = = = 1.25
Mcp 4000x4.19
Ac 60
Finally, f can be calculated from Eq. (11.70). The solar contribution is fL. The calculations for
the other months are shown in the following table. The use of spreadsheet program greatly
facilitates calculations.
Month X c,min Φ max Φ max Y X΄ L (GJ) f fL (GJ)

Jan. 0.71 0.194 0.491 8.16 10.71 0.44 4.71
Feb. 0.62 0.242 0.686 8.16 9.68 0.58 5.61
Mar. 0.58 0.267 0.788 8.16 10.71 0.65 6.96
Apr. 0.54 0.293 0.888 8.16 10.37 0.71 7.36
May 0.51 0.318 0.942 8.16 10.71 0.74 7.93
Jun. 0.48 0.345 0.997 8.16 10.37 0.77 7.98
Jul. 0.48 0.356 0.984 8.16 10.71 0.76 8.14
Aug. 0.47 0.364 1.043 8.16 10.71 0.79 8.46
Sep. 0.49 0.344 1.008 8.16 10.37 0.78 8.09
Oct. 0.53 0.307 0.913 8.16 10.71 0.72 7.71
Nov. 0.63 0.235 0.629 8.16 10.37 0.54 5.60
Dec. 0.73 0.188 0.458 8.16 10.71 0.41 4.39
Total: 126.13 Total: 82.94
The annual fraction is given by Eq. (11.12): F =

f L
i i
=
82.94
= 0.658 or 65.8%
L i 126.13
11.13 For Exercise 11.12, estimate, for the month of July, the storage tank losses by
considering an environmental temperature of 20°C and (UA)s = 4.5 W/°C. Estimate
also the effect of the load on the heat exchanger if the heat exchanger has
effectiveness = 0.52 and its capacitance is 4000 W/°C.
To solve this Exercise we have to assume an average tank temperature. For July we assume a
value of 85°C. The tank losses are estimated with Eq. (11.73):
Qst = (UA)s ( Ts − Tenv ) Δt = 4.5(85-20)x31x24x3600 = 0.78 GJ
The total load would then be = 10.71 + 0.78 = 11.49 GJ. As the load is indirectly proportional
to the dimensionless parameters the new values will be 10.71/11.49 times the values given in
Exercise 11.12. Therefore:
10.71 10.71
Φ max Y = 0.984 = 0.917 and X ' = 8.16 = 7.61
11.49 11.49
From Eq. (11.70) we get fTL = 0.73. From Eq. (11.68) we can estimate Y:
A c FR (τα)NH t A c FR (τα)NRH 60x0.79x0.89x31x0.838x27.0x106
Y= = = = 2.575
L L 11.49x109
From (11.76):
92
f TL 0.73
Φ= = = 0.283
Y 2.575
Using the value of K T from Exercise 11.12(for July) and from Eqs. (11.56) we get:
A = 2.943 − 9.271K T + 4.031K T2 = 2.943 – 9.271x0.66 + 4.031(0.66)2 = –1.420
B = −4.345 + 8.853K T − 3.602K T2 = – 4.345 + 8.853x0.66 – 3.602(0.66)2 = -0.071
C = −0.170 − 0.306K T + 2.936K T2 = –0.170 – 0.306x0.66 + 2.936(0.66)2 = 0.907
Now from Eq. (11.56a) by trial and error the new value of X c = 0.56 from the original of 0.48.
As in Eq. (11.67) X c is directly proportional to temperature difference, then the original

difference of (80-25.8) = 54.2°C must be increased by the ratio 0.56/0.48. Therefore:
0.56 0.56 0.56

ΔT = Ti − Ta or Ti = ΔT + Ta = 54.2 + 25.8 = 89°C
0.48 0.48 0.48
The average tank temperature is then equal to (89+80)/2 = 84.5°C. This is very near to the
original assumption, so no iterations are required.
The solar fraction is then obtained from Eq. (11.75):

 Q  Q  0.78  0.78
f = f TL  1 + st  − st = 0.73 1 + − = 0.71
 L u  L u  10.71  10.71
Therefore, the consideration of the tank losses reduced the fraction for July from 76% to 71%.
For the second part of the Exercise again we need to assume a storage tank temperature
increase of 3°C due to the action of the load heat exchanger. Using appropriate values from
the tables of Exercise 11.12 and from Eq. (11.67):
FR U L ( Tmin − Ta ) 5.44x3600 ( 80 + 3 − 25.8 )
FR (τα) 0.79x0.89
X c,min = = = 0.509
rn R n K T H o 0.124x0.935x0.66x40.91x106
Using the same values of A, B and as above:

  R  
Φ max = exp   A + B  n    X c + CX c2  
  R  
  0.935   2 
= exp   −1.420 − 0.071    0.509 + 0.907(0.509)   = 0.328
  0.838   
As the use of heat exchanger increases the tank temperature we need to assume a new tank
temperature as above. Let’s assume a tank temperature of 87°C. For this temperature, from
Eq. (11.73), Qs = 0.81 GJ and the total load would be 10.71+0.81 = 11.52 GJ. Therefore, as
above:
A F (τα)NH t A c FR ( τα)NRH 60x0.79x0.89x31x0.838x27.0x106
Y= c R = = = 2.569
L L 11.52x109
And Φ max Y = 0.328x2.569 = 0.843
93
From Eq. (11.69):
A F U (100)Δt 60x5.44x100x24x31x3600
X' = c R L = = 7.589
L 11.52x109
From Eq. (11.70), fTL = 0.68. Then we have to check the increase of storage tank temperature
assumption. From Eq. (11.76):
f 0.68
Φ = TL = = 0.265
Y 2.569
From Eq. (11.56a) by trial and error the new value of X c = 0.58 from the original of 0.48.
From Eq. (11.67):
FR (τα)rn R n K T H o X c 0.79x0.89x0.124x0.935x0.66x40.91x106 x0.58
Ti − Ta = = = 65.2°C
FR U L 5.44x3600
And Ti = 65.2+25.8 = 91°C. The average tank temperature for the losses is then equal to
(83+91)/2 = 87°C. This is equal to the one originally assumed so no iteration is required.
From Eq. (11.75):
 Q  Q  0.81  0.81
f = f TL  1 + st  − st = 0.68  1 + − = 0.66
 Lu  Lu  10.71  10.71
Finally, we need to check also the assumption of storage tank temperature increase (3°C) due
to the action of the load heat exchanger. From Eq. (11.77):
fL / Δt L 0.66x10.71x109 /(10x31x3600)
ΔT = = = 3°C
ε L Cmin 0.52x4000
As this is the same value as the original assumption, no iterations are required and the
calculations are complete. Therefore, the solar fraction for July dropped from 76% to 66%
due to the presence of the load heat exchanger.
11.14 A building located in Albuquerque, New Mexico (35°N latitude), has a 12.5 m2 south-
facing window. The UA of the building is 325 W/°C and its thermal capacitance is
18.9 MJ/°C. The window is double glazed and has U = 3.25 W/m2-°C. The room is
maintained at 18.3°C and the allowable temperature swing is equal to 6°C. For the
month of January, if ρG = 0.2 and monthly average (τα) = 0.75, estimate the auxiliary
energy required.
The thermal load needs to be calculated first. The UA for the building, including the direct
gain window is:
(UA)h = 325+(12.5x3.25) = 365.6 W/°C
From Appendix 7, for the month of January, the heating degree days are equal to 531°C-
days, K T = 0.63, Ta = 1.2°C and H = 11.52 MJ/m2
From Eq. (6.24): L = (UA)h(DD)h = 365.6x531x24x3600 = 16.77 GJ
As the city at which the building is located is the same as the one used in Exercise 11.12:
94
rn = 0.168, rdn = 0.156, HD/H = 0.291. Using β = 90° (vertical surface), RB,n = 1.478, Rn =
1.314, R = 1.610
NSA r NHR(τα)A r 31x11.52x106 x1.610x0.75x12.5

From Eq. (11.88): X = = = = 0.321
L L 16.77x109
(UA) h ( Tb − Ta ) 365.6(18.3 − 1.2)

From Eq. (11.85): I tc = = = 666.9 W / m 2
(τα)A r 0.75x12.5
The next parameter that we need to calculate is Φ .
I tc 666.9x3600
From Eq. (11.55): X c = = = 0.944
rn R n H 0.168x1.314x11.52x106
From Eq. (11.56):

A = 2.943 − 9.271K T + 4.031K T2 = 2.943 – 9.271x0.63 + 4.031(0.63)2 = –1.2978
B = −4.345 + 8.853K T − 3.602K T2 = – 4.345 + 8.853x0.63 – 3.602(0.63)2 = –0.1972
C = −0.170 − 0.306K T + 2.936K T2 = –0.170 – 0.306x0.63 + 2.936(0.63)2 = 0.8025
 R  2 
Φ = exp   A + B  n    X c + CX c  
  R  
  1.314   2 
= exp   −1.2978 − 0.1972    0.944 + 0.8025(0.944)   = 0.089
  1.610   
Cb ΔTb Cb ΔTb 18.9x6

From Eq. (11.92): Y = = = = 7.328
H t (τα)A r Φ HR(τα)A r Φ 11.52x1.610x0.75x12.5x0.089
0.652 0.652
From Eq. (11.93b): P = 1 − exp ( −0.294Y )  = 1 − exp ( −0.294x7.328 )  = 0.923
From Eq. (11.93a):

{
f = min PX + (1 − P ) ( 3.082 − 3.142Φ ) 1 − exp ( −0.329X )  ,1 }
{
= min 0.923x0.321 + (1 − 0.923)( 3.082 − 3.142x0.089 ) 1 − exp ( −0.329x0.321)  ,1 }
= min {0.32,1} = 0.32
Finally, from Eq. (11.104): Qaux = (1 − f ) L = (1-0.32)x16.77 = 11.40 GJ
11.15 A building located at 35°N latitude has an active collection–passive storage system.
The building has UA = 500 W/°C, a thermal capacitance of 21.7 MJ/m2, the indoor
temperature is kept at 20°C, and the average temperature and degree days for January
are 8.9°C and 875°C-days respectively. The allowable temperature swing is 5°C and
KT = 0.63. Estimate the auxiliary energy required if the system uses air collectors
inclined 45° with the following characteristics:
95
Collector FR(τα)n = 0.65
(τα) /(τα) n = 0.85
From Eq. (11.116):

FR U L ( Ti − Ta ) 5.45(20 − 8.9)
I tc,c = = = 109.5 W/m2
FR (τα) 0.65x0.85
From Eq. (11.118):

(UA) h ( Tb − Ta ) + A c FR U L ( Ti − Ta )
I tc,d =
A c FR (τα)
500(18.3 − 8.9) + 50x5.45(20 − 8.9)
= = 279.6 W / m 2
50x0.65x0.85
To avoid repeating the same calculations the various parameters are given directly as, rn =
0.168, Rn = 1.539, R = 1.746 (these are estimated for the latitude of the location and slope of
the collector).
From Table 2.5, H o = 18.3 MJ/m2. Therefore, from Eq. (2.82), H = 0.63x18.3 = 11.53 MJ/m2.
From Eq. (11.33):
I 109.5x3600
X c,c = tc,c = = 0.132
rn R n H 0.168x1.539x11.53x106
As K T is the same as in Exercise 11.14, A = -1.2978, B = -0.1972 and C = 0.8025. From Eq.
(11.56):
  R  
Φ c = exp   A + B  n    X c,c + CX c,c
2
 
  R  
  1.539   2 
= exp   −1.2978 − 0.1972     0.132 + 0.8025(0.132)   = 0.807
  1.746   
I tc,d 279.6x3600
And X c,d = = = 0.338
rn R n H 0.168x1.539x11.53x106
Similarly, Φ d = 0.531
From Eq. (6.24): L = (UA)h(DD)h = 500x875x24x3600 = 37.8 GJ
From Eq. (11.122):

A F SN A c FR (τα)HRN 50x0.65x0.85x11.53x106 x1.746x31
X= c R = = = 0.456
L L 37.8x109
From Eq. (11.123):

Cb ΔTb Cb ΔTb 21.7x106 x5
Y= = = = 0.367
A c FR SΦ d A c FR (τα)HRΦ d 50x0.65x0.85x11.53x106 x1.746x0.531
96
From Eq. (11.124b):
0.652 0.652
P = 1 − exp ( −0.294Y )  = 1 − exp ( −0.294x0.367 )  = 0.226
From Eq. (11.102c):

Φ u = 1 − Φ c + Φ d = 1-0.807+0.531 = 0.724
From Eq. (11.124a):

f = PXΦ c + (1 − P ) ( 3.082 − 3.142Φ u ) 1 − exp ( −0.329X ) 
= 0.226x0.456x0.807 + (1 − 0.226 )( 3.082 − 3.142x0.724 ) 1 − exp ( −0.329x0.456 )  = 0.170
Finally, from Eq. (11.94): Qaux = (1 − f ) L = (1-0.170)37.8 = 31.37 GJ
97
CHAPTER 12
12.1 What is the present worth of $500 in 10 years if the market discount rate is 6%?
F 500
From Eq. (12.11): P = n
= = $279.20
(1+ d ) (1+ 0.06)10
12.2 Estimate the present worth of a €1000 payment in seven years for a market discount
rate of 8% and inflation rate of 4%.
C (1 + i ) 1000 (1 + 0.04 )
n −1 6
From Eq. (12.14): PWn = or PW7 = = €738.30

(1 + d ) (1 + 0.08)
n 7
12.3 If the initial cost of a solar energy system is €7500, the mortgage term is 12 years, and
the interest rate is 9%, find the annual payment.
1   1 n L  1   1  
12
From Eq. (12.19): PWF(n L , 0, d m ) = 1 −   = 1 −    = 7.1607

dm   1 + d m   0.09   1 + 0.09  
M 7500
From Eq. (12.20): Periodic payment = = = €1047.38
PWF(n L , 0, d m ) 7.1607
12.4 The initial cost of a solar energy system is €14,000. If this amount is paid with a 30%
down payment and the balance is borrowed at a 8% interest for 12 years, calculate the
annual payments and interest charges for a market discount rate of 6%. Also estimate the
present worth of the annual payments.
The actual amount borrowed is €14,000x0.7=€9,800 which is the total present worth of all
mortgage payments. The annual mortgage payment is estimated with Eq. (12.19):
1   1  
nL
1   1  
12
PWF(n L , 0, d m ) = 1 −   = 1 −    = 7.5361
d m   1 + d m   0.08   1 + 0.08  
 
Therefore, annual mortgage payment = 9,800/7.5361 = €1300.41
The estimation needs to be carried out for every year.
For year 1:
Interest payment = 9,800x0.08 = €784
Principal payment = 1300.41-784 = €516.41
Principal remaining at the end of year 1: 9,800-516.41 = €9283.59
784
Present worth of interest payment [from Eq. (12.11)]: = = €739.62
(1 + 0.06)1
For year 2:
98
Interest payment = 9,283.59x0.08 = €742.69
Principal payment = 1300.41-742.69 = €557.72
Principal remaining at the end of year 1: 9283.59-557.72 = €8,725.87
742.69
Present worth of interest payment [from Eq. (12.11)]: = = €660.99
(1 + 0.06) 2
The same calculations are repeated for all other years. The results are shown in the following
table.
Year Mortgage Interest Principal Principal PW of interest
payment (€) payment (€) payment (€) remaining (€) payment (€)
1 1300.41 784.00 516.41 9283.59 739.62
2 1300.41 742.69 557.72 8725.87 660.99
3 1300.41 698.07 602.34 8123.53 586.11
4 1300.41 649.88 650.53 7475.00 514.77
5 1300.41 597.84 702.57 6770.43 446.74
6 1300.41 541.63 758.78 6011.65 381.83
7 1300.41 480.93 819.48 5192.17 319.85
8 1300.41 415.37 885.04 4307.13 260.61
9 1300.41 344.57 955.84 3351.29 203.95
10 1300.41 268.10 1032.31 2318.98 149.71
11 1300.41 185.52 1114.89 1204.09 97.73
12 1300.41 96.33 1204.08 0.00 47.87
Totals €15,604.92 €5,804.93 €9,800.00 €4,409.78
12.5 Calculate the total present worth of the interest paid (PWi) in Exercise 12.4.
The various PWF’s may be obtained from Eq. (12.18) as follows:

PWF(nmin,0,d) = PWF(12,0,0.06) = 8.3838
PWF(nL,0,dm) = PWF(12,0,0.08) = 7.5361
PWF(nmin,dm,d) = PWF(12,0.08,0.06) = 12.5727
Using Eq. (12.21):
 PWF(n min , 0, d)  1 
PWi = M  + PWF(n min , d m , d)  d m − 
 PWF(n L , 0, d m )  PWF(n L , 0, d m )  
 8.3838  1 
= 9,800  + 12.5727  0.08 −  = €4409.72
 7.5361  7.5361  
This is effectively the same answer as the one obtained before.
12.6 Calculate the present worth of a 10 period series of payments, the first of which is
$980, payable at the end of the first period, inflating by 6% per period, and the
discount rate is 8%.
C (1 + i ) 980 (1 + 0.06 )
n −1 9
From Eq. (12.14): PWn = or PW10 = = $766.90

(1 + d ) (1 + 0.08)
n 10
99
12.7 Calculate the cost of fuel of a conventional (non-solar) energy system for 12 years, if
the total annual load is 152 GJ and the fuel price is $14/GJ, the market discount rate is
8%, and the fuel inflation rate is 5% per year.
The first year fuel cost is 152x14 = $2128.
The fuel costs in various years are shown in the following table using Eqs. (12.13) and (12.11).
Year Fuel cost ($) PW of fuel cost ($)

1 2128.00 1970.37
2 2234.40 1915.64
3 2346.12 1862.43
4 2463.43 1810.69
5 2586.60 1760.39
6 2715.93 1711.49
7 2851.72 1663.95
8 2994.31 1617.73
9 3144.03 1572.80
10 3301.23 1529.11
11 3466.29 1486.63
12 3639.60 1445.34
Total PW of fuel cost: $20,346.57
12.8 Calculate the present worth of a fuel cost over 12 years, if the first year’s fuel cost is
€1050 and inflates at 7% for four years and 5% for the rest of the years. The market
discount rate is 9% per year.
The Exercise can be solved by considering two sets of payments at the two different inflation
rates. The first set of five payments has a first payment which is €1050 and inflates at 7%.
1   1+ i     1.07 5 
n
1
PWF(n,i, d) = 1 −    or PWF(5, 0.07, 0.09) = 1 −    = 4.4219
d − i   1 + d   0.09 − 0.07   1.09  
Thus, the present worth of the first set is 1050x4.4219 = €4642.99
The second set starts at the beginning of the sixth year and for this period i = 5% per year. To
find the initial payment for this set €1050 are inflated four times by 7% and one time by 5%.
Therefore:
Initial payment for the second set is: 1050(1.07)4(1.05) = €1445.15
Similarly as before for the second series of payments:

1   1+ i     1.05 7 
n
1
PWF(n,i, d) = 1 −    or PWF(7, 0.05, 0.09) = 1 −    = 5.7567
d − i   1 + d   0.09 − 0.05   1.09  
The second set of payments needs to be discounted to the present worth by:
100
5.7567x1445.15
PW = = €5406.97
(1.09)5
So the answer is the sum of the present worth of the two sets of payments: 4642.99+5406.97 =
€10,049.96.
12.9 The area dependent cost of a solar energy system is $175/m2 and the area independent
cost is $3350. The down payment of the initial expenditure is 25% and the rest is paid
in equal installments over 20 years at an interest rate of 7%. The backup fuel costs
$12/GJ and its price inflates at 6% per year. Find the optimum system, if the
combination of collector area and load covered is as shown in the following table and
the total annual load is 980 GJ. The life of the system is considered to be 20 years, and
at the end of this period, the system will be sold at 25% of its original value. In the
first year, the extra maintenance, insurance, and parasitic energy costs are equal to 1%
of the initial investment and the extra property tax is 1.5% of the initial investment,
both expected to increase by 3% per year. The general market discount rate is 8%. The
extra property taxes and interest on mortgage are deducted from the income tax, which
is at a fixed rate of 30%.
Collector area (m2) Energy covered (GJ)

0 0
100 315
200 515
300 653
400 760
500 843
To solve this Exercise the life cycle savings method needs to be applied for each collector
area. The calculations are the same as the ones shown in Example 12.7. For a spreadsheet
calculation this can very easily be done by changing the collector area and the first year fuel
savings, which can be estimated from the annual energy covered by solar energy and the fuel
cost rate given. Therefore, the table is completed as follows:
Area (m2) Annual solar Installed First year fuel Solar
fraction (F) cost ($) savings ($) savings ($)
0 0 3,350 0 -3,441
100 0.32 20,850 3,780 37,534
200 0.53 38,350 6,180 56,988
300 0.67 55,850 7,836 64,838
400 0.78 73,350 9,120 66,887
500 0.86 90,850 10,116 64,444
The solar savings are plotted against the collector area in the following graph. As can be seen
the maximum occurs at Ac = 400m2, where the LCS = $66,887.
101
80000
70000
60000
Life cycle savings ($)
50000
40000
30000 Maximum
20000
10000
-10000 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Collector area (m 2)
12.10 Tabulate the annual cash flows of a solar energy system that has an initial cost of
$7000 for a 12 year analysis, where the following economic parameters apply:
Down payment = 20%
Interest rate = 9%
First year fuel saving = $1250
Market discount rate = 8%
Fuel inflation rate = 7%
Maintenance and parasitic cost = 0.5% increased 1% per year
Resale value = 25%
Estimate also the life cycle savings and the return on investment.
The actual amount borrowed is $7,000x0.8 = $5,600 which is the total present worth of all
mortgage payments. The annual mortgage payment is estimated with Eq. (12.19):
1   1  
nL
1   1  
12
PWF(n L , 0, d m ) = 1 −   = 1 −    = 7.1607
d m   1 + d m   0.09   1 + 0.09  
 
Therefore, annual mortgage payment = 5,600/7.1607 = $782.05
The annual mortgage payment includes a principal payment and interest charges. Year after year
as the principal remaining on load reduces, the interest charge decreased accordingly. The
estimation needs to be carried out for every year.
For year 1:
Interest payment = 5,600x0.09 = $504
Principal payment = 782.05-504 = $278.05
Principal remaining at the end of year 1: 5,600-278.05 = $5,321.95
Maintenance and parasitic (M&P) cost = 7000x0.005 = $35
Fuel savings = $1250
Solar savings = 1250-782.05-35 = $432.95
432.95
Present worth of solar savings [from Eq. (12.22)]: = = $400.88
(1 + 0.08)1
102
For year 2:
Interest payment = 5,321.95x0.09 = $478.98
Principal payment = 782.05-478.98 = $303.07
Principal remaining at the end of year 1: 5321.95-303.07 = $5,018.88
Maintenance and parasitic (M&P) cost = 35(1+0.01)1 = $35.35
Fuel savings = 1250 (1+0.07) = $1,337.50
Solar savings = 1337.50-782.05-35.35 = $520.10
520.10
Present worth of interest payment [from Eq. (12.22)]: = = $445.90
(1 + 0.08) 2
The same calculations are repeated for all other years. The results are shown in the following
table (all values in $).
Year Mortgage M&P Fuel Solar PW of solar Interest Principal Remaining

payment cost savings savings savings paid paid principal
0 -1400.00 -1400.00 5600.00
1 782.05 35.00 1250.00 432.95 400.88 504.00 278.05 5321.95
2 782.05 35.35 1337.50 520.10 445.90 478.98 303.07 5018.88
3 782.05 35.70 1431.13 613.38 486.92 451.70 330.35 4688.54
4 782.05 36.06 1531.30 713.20 524.22 421.97 360.08 4328.46
5 782.05 36.42 1638.50 820.03 558.10 389.56 392.49 3935.97
6 782.05 36.79 1753.19 934.36 588.80 354.24 427.81 3508.16
7 782.05 37.15 1875.91 1056.71 616.58 315.73 466.31 3041.85
8 782.05 37.52 2007.23 1187.66 641.65 273.77 508.28 2533.57
9 782.05 37.90 2147.73 1327.79 664.22 228.02 554.02 1979.55
10 782.05 38.28 2298.07 1477.75 684.48 178.16 603.89 1375.66
11 782.05 38.66 2458.94 1638.23 702.61 123.81 658.24 717.42
12 782.05 39.05 2631.06 1809.97 718.76 64.57 717.48 -0.06
12 1750.00 694.95
Total 6328.09
The life cycle savings (LCS) are equal to the sum of the PW of solar savings and as shown in
the table, are equal to $6,328.09.
The return on investment is rather difficult to estimate manually, defined as the market
discount rate at which the LCS are equal to zero. In a spreadsheet program this can very easily
estimated by trying a number of values (changing the cell containing d) and by trial and error
find the value of d that makes LCS =0. For the present Exercise this is equal to 45.7%.
12.11 Repeat Exercise 12.10 using the P1, P2 method.
As noted in Exercise 12.10, no tax savings are specified it means that the system is not an
income producing, therefore C=0. The ratio P1 is calculated with Eq. (12.32):
P1 = PWF(n,iF,d) = PWF(12,0.07,0.08) = 10.5624
The various terms of parameter P2 are as follows:
P2,1 = D = 0.2
PWF(n min , 0, d) PWF(12, 0, 0.08) 7.5361
P2,2 = (1 − D) = (1 − 0.2) = 0.8 = 0.8419
PWF(n L , 0, d m ) PWF(12, 0, 0.09) 7.1607
103
  1  PWF(n min , 0, d) 
P2,3 = (1 − D)t e  PWF(n min , d m , d)  d m − + 
  PWF(n L , 0, d )
m  PWF(n L , 0, d m ) 
As te = 0, P2,3 = 0
P2,4 = (1 − Ct e )M1PWF(n e ,i, d) = (35/7000)PWF(12,0.01,0.08) = 0.005x7.8932 = 0.0395

P2,5 = t p (1 − t e )V1PWF(n e ,i, d) . As tp = 0, P2,5 = 0.
Ct e
P2,6 = PWF(n 'min , 0, d) =0
nd
R 0.25
P2,7 = ne
= = 0.099
(1 + d) (1.08)12
P2 = P2,1 + P2,2 – P2,3 + P2,4 + P2,5 – P2,6 – P2,7 = 0.2+0.8419+0.0395-0.099 = 0.9824
From Eq. (12.31): LCS = P1CF1FL-P2Cs = 10.5624x1250 - 0.9824x7000 = $6,326.20
This is effectively the same answer as the one obtained in Exercise 12.10.
12.12 Find the undiscounted and discounted payback times of a solar energy system that covers
73% of an annual load of 166 GJ and costs €13,300. The first year fuel cost rate is
€11.00/GJ and inflates at 8% per year and fuel costs are discounted at a rate of 6%.
A. Undiscounted case: From Eq. (12.26):
 Ci 
ln  s F + 1 ln  13300x0.08 + 1
FLCF1  0.73x166x11 
nP =  =  = 7.62
ln (1 + i F ) ln (1 + 0.08 )
B. Discounted case: From Eq. (12.29):
 C (i − d) 
ln  s F + 1 ln  13300(0.08 − 0.06) + 1
FLCF1  =  0.73x166x11
nP =   = 9.73
 1 + iF   1.08 
ln   ln  
 1+ d   1.06 
12.13 For a residential solar space heating system, the following information is given:
Annual heating load = 182 GJ
First year fuel cost rate, CF1 = $9/GJ
Area dependent cost = $190/m2
Area independent cost = $1200
Market discount rate, d = 8%
Mortgage interest rate, dm = 7%
General inflation rate, i = 6%
Fuel inflation rate, iF = 7%
Term of economic analysis = 12 years
104
Term of mortgage load = 8 years
Down payment = 15%
Ratio of first year miscellaneous costs to the initial investment, M1 = 0.01
Ratio of assessed value of the system in the first year to the initial investment, V1 = 1
Ratio of resale value = 0.4
Property tax, tp = 2%
Effective income tax, te = 40%
In addition, the solar fraction to the collector area varies as follows. Determine the
optimum collector area that maximizes the LCS and the LCS.
Area (m2) Annual solar fraction (F)
0 0
10 0.32
20 0.53
30 0.66
40 0.73
As the system is residential C=0. The present worth factors can be estimated from Eq. (12.18)
as follows:
PWF(ne,iF,d) = PWF(12,0.07,0.08) = 10.5624

PWF(nmin,0,d) = PWF(8,0,0.08) = 5.7466
PWF(nL,0,dm) = PWF(8,0,0.07) = 5.9713
PWF(nmin,dm,d) = PWF(8,0.07,0.08) = 7.1717
PWF(ne,i,d) = PWF(12,0.06,0.08) = 10.0465
From Eq. (12.32): P1 = (1-Cte) PWF(n,iF,d) = 10.5624
The various terms of parameter P2 are as follows:
P2,1 = D = 0.15
PWF(n min , 0, d) 5.7466
P2,2 = (1 − D) = (1 − 0.15) = 0.818
PWF(n L , 0, d m ) 5.9713
  1  PWF(n min , 0, d) 
P2,3 = (1 − D)t e  PWF(n min , d m , d)  d m − + 
  PWF(n L , 0, d m )  PWF(n L , 0, d m ) 
  1  5.7466 
= (1 − 0.15)x0.4 7.1717  0.07 − + = 0.0895
  5.9713  5.9713 
P2,4 = (1 − Ct e )M1PWF(n e ,i, d) = 0.01x10.0465 = 0.1

P2,5 = t p (1 − t e )V1PWF(n e ,i, d) =0.02(1-0.4)x1x10.0465=0.121
Ct e
P2,6 = PWF(n 'min , 0, d) = 0
nd
R 0.4
P2,7 = ne
= = 0.1588
(1 + d) (1.08)12
105
P2 = P2,1 + P2,2 – P2,3 + P2,4 + P2,5 – P2,6 – P2,7 = 0.15+0.818-0.0895+0.1+0.121-0.1588 =
0.9407
∂F PC 0.9407x190
From Eq. (12.37): = 2 A = = 0.01033
∂A c P1CF1L 10.5624x9x182
The data of the table given in Exercise definition can be plotted and the optimum value of Ac
can be found from the slope. This can be done graphically or by the use of trendline of the
spreadsheet as shown in the following graph and equate the derivative of the curve with the
slope.
y = 0.00000418x3 - 0.00066522x2 + 0.03817633x

0.8
R2 = 1.00
0.7
Annual solar fraction (F)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2
Collector area (m )
More details on how to obtain the optimum area from the slope are given in Example 12.12.
As can be seen in this Exercise, the optimum solution occurs at about a collector area of 25 m2
and F = 0.605. For this size the total cost of the solar system is obtained from Eq. (12.2) as:
Cs = 190x25+1200 = $5,950.
The life cycle savings are obtained from Eq. (12. 31) as:
LCS = P1CF1FL-P2Cs = 10.5624x9x0.605x182 - 0.9407x5950 = $4,870
12.14 Estimate the uncertainty in LCS of Exercise 12.13, if the uncertainty in general
inflation rate is ±3%.
As was found in Exercise 12.13, LCS = $4,870
The general inflation rate affects only P2. Therefore, from Eq. (12.43), for C=0:
∂P2 ∂PWF(n e ,i,d)

=  M + (1 − t e ) t p V1 
∂i  1 ∂i
From Eq. (12.50):
106
1  
n
∂PWF(n,i,d) n  1+ i 
=  PWF(n,i,d) − 
∂i d − i  1 + i  1 + d  
1  12  1.06  
12
1  12  1.06  
12
=  PWF(12,0.06,0.08) −  = 10.0465 −  = 50
0.08 − 0.06  1.06  1.08   0.08 − 0.06  1.06  1.08  
∂P2  ∂PWF(n e ,i,d) 

Therefore, = M + (1 − t e ) t p V1  = 0.01 + (1 − 0.4 ) x0.02x1 x50 = 1.1
∂i  1 ∂i  
The uncertainty in LCS can be obtained from Eqs. (12.38)-(12.41), which all give the same
result as only one variable is considered. Therefore, from Eq. (12.38):
∂LCS ∂P
ΔLCS = Δi = ( Ca Ac + Ci ) 2 Δi = (190x25 + 1200 ) x1.1x0.03 = $196.35
∂i ∂i
Therefore, the uncertainty in LCS is almost insensitive to the uncertainty in the general
inflation rate.
107
CHAPTER 13
13.1The following data of wind speed in m/s were measured at a particular site at the heights
indicated in the Table. Determine the best fit of the Hellman exponent and use the
calculated value to predict the speed at a height of 120 m from the ground.
10 m 40 m
8.0 9.8
9.7 11.9
7.6 9.4
7.0 8.9
7.2 8.8
9.1 11.9
9.8 12.1
6.8 8.6
The pairs of data shown in Table are plotted in the following Figure. Using Excel function
“linear trendline” and setting the line passing through 0, the equation shown is obtained. As
can be seen the data are fitted well with an R2 value equal to 0.9906.
13
y = 1.2399x
12
R2 = 0.9906
Speed at 40 m (m/s)
11
10
6
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
Speed at 10 m (m /s)
The equation on Figure is equivalent to V40=SV10, where S is the slope. So the slope is equal
to 1.2399 (~1.24). Therefore, from Eq. (13.1):
a
V  40 
S = 40 =   = 4a
V10  10 
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides: a=ln(S)/ln(4) = ln(1.24)/ln(4) = 0.155.
To obtain the data for the 120 m height we use again Eq. (13.1) as:
0.155
 120 
V120 = V40   = V40 x1.1856 which for the first reading is equal to:
 40 
0.155
 120 
V150 = 9.8   = 9.8x1.1856 = 11.6 m/s.
 40 
108
The complete set of data is shown in the following Table.
40 m 120 m
9.8 11.6
11.9 14.1
9.4 11.1
8.9 10.6
8.8 10.4
11.9 13.5
12.1 14.4
8.6 10.2
13.2 In an area near an airport what is the value of the Hellman coefficient?
According to the information presented in Section 13.1.1 for an airport area z0=0.032 m.
From Eq. (13.2):

a = 0.096[ln(z 0 )] + 0.016[ln(z 0 )]2 + 0.24 = 0.096[ln(0.032)] + 0.016[ln(0.032)]2 + 0.24 = 0.0992
13.3 In an offshore area the wind speed at a reference height of 10 m is 6.9 m/s. What is the
speed at a height of 100 m?
According to the information presented in Section 13.1.1 for an offshore area z0=0.0051 m.
æzö æ 100 ö÷
ln ççç ÷÷÷ ln çç ÷
è z 0 ø÷ èç 0.0051÷ø
From Eq. (13.3): V(100) = Vr æz ö
= 6.9
æ 10 ö÷
= 9 m/s
ln çç r ÷÷÷ ln çç
çè 0.0051ø÷÷
çè z ø÷
0
13.4 For average wind speed of 7 m/s and standard deviation of 2.2 m/s estimate the two
Weibull parameters C and k.
æ 1 ö÷ æ 1 ö÷
From Eq. (13.9b): u = CG ççç1 + ÷÷ or 7 = CG ççç1 + ÷
è kø è k ÷ø
é æ 2ö ù é æ 2ö ù
ê G çç1 + ÷÷ ú ê G çç1 + ÷÷ ú
2 2ê è
ç ÷
kø ú 2 2ê è
ç kø÷ ú
From Eq. (13.17): s = V êê æ 1ö
- 1ú or 2.2 = 7 ê
ú ê 2æ 1ö
- 1ú
ú
ê G2 çç1 + ÷÷÷ ú ê G çç1 + ÷÷÷ ú
êë è ç kø úû êë è ç kø úû
Solving these two equations simultaneously using Excel goal seek function: C = 7.777 and k
= 3.527
109
13.5 In an area where a wind turbine is installed, the mean density of the air is 1.225 kg/m3.
The wind turbine has a diameter equal to 46 m and its hub height is 100 m. The area is
clear from any obstacles, the wind flow is stable and the wind turbine has a combined
efficiency of 53.29%. At the height of 10 m the mean wind speed is 5.25 m/s and the
standard deviation is 2.75 m/s. How much is the mean power of the wind turbine?
The Weibull parameters at 100 m can be found by using the standard deviation at 10 m. As no
other data are given the generally accepted value for the Hellman exponent for stable flow is
used which is equal to 1/7 (0.143).
a 0.143
V1 z   100 
So from Eq. (13.1): = 1 =  = 1.39
V2  z2   10 
Therefore, the mean wind at the height of 100 m is: V100 = 5.25 x 1.39 = 7.30 m/s
And the standard deviation is σ100 = 2.75 x 1.39 = 3.82 m/s
The two Weibull parameters C and k can be found by simultaneous solution of Eqs. (13.9b)
and (13.17). This can be done using either program EES (Engineering Equation Solver) or
Excel goal seek function. Using either of these procedures the values obtained are: C = 8.237
and k = 1.998
Now using Eq. (13.18):

1 æ 3 ÷ö 1 px(46) 2 æ 3 ÷ö
P= hrA R C3G çç1 + ÷÷ = x0.5329x1.225x x(8.237)3 xG çç1 + ÷ = 403.5 kW
2 èç kø 2 4 èç 1.998 ÷ø
It should be noted that as 3/1.998=1.502, the last term of above equation is equal to 2.502
which cannot be evaluated directly from Table 13.3. So Eq. (13.10) should be used as:
Γ(1+1.502) = 1.502xΓ(1.502) = 1.502x0.88623 = 1.331
13.6 If the axial velocity in the rotor plane is 5.5 m/s and the undisturbed wind velocity is 7.5
m/s what is the value of the thrust and power coefficients?
V¥ - VR 7.5 - 5.5
From Eq. (13.24): a = = = 0.267
V¥ 7.5
From Eq. (13.29a): CT = 4a (1 - a ) = 4x0.267(1-0.267) = 0.783
2
From Eq. (13.29b): CP = 4a (1 - a ) = 4x0.267(1-0.267)2 = 0.574
13.7 In an area where a large wind turbine is installed, the speed of the wind is 12.2 m/s, the
pressure is 1 atmosphere and the temperature is 20°C. The wind turbine rotor diameter is
125 m. Estimate the power density of the wind, the maximum power of the wind turbine,
the thrust exerted on the turbine when working at maximum power and the maximum
power output of a real wind turbine which has a power coefficient equal to 0.48.
110
From Appendix 5, Table A5.1 by interpolation the density of the air at 20°C is 1.21 kg/m3.
Therefore, the wind power density can be obtained from Eq. (13.12):
P 1 1
E = w = ρ V 3 = x1.21x(12.2)3 = 1099 W / m 2
A 2 2
The maximum wind turbine power is estimated at the Betz limit, so from Eq. (13.15) using
only CP,Betz for η:
1 3 1 p(125) 2
PBetz = rV A R CP,Betz = x1.21x(12.2)3 x x0.593 = 8 MW
2 2 4
The thrust exerted on the turbine, which represents the force required to keep the turbine in
place can be obtained from Eq. (13.26) using α = 1/3 as the estimation is done at the
maximum power:
p(125) 2 1æ 1 ö÷
T= 2
2rA R V¥ a (1 - a ) = 2x1.21x x(12.2) 2 x çç1 - ÷ = 982.3 kN
4 3 çè 3 ÷ø
Finally, the maximum power of a real wind turbine can be estimated from Eq. (13.33):
CP,real 0.48
Preal = PBetz =8 = 6.48 MW
CP,Betz 0.593
111

Solution Manual For Solar Energy Engineeri G.U. C. Kalogirou

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Solution Manual For Solar Energy Engineeri G.U. C. Kalogirou

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Solar Energy Engineering

Processes and Systems

Solar Energy Engineering

Processes and Systems

cos(δ) sin(h) cos(23) sin(−32.55)

On March 10 at 10:30 am, θ = 16°. At 2:30 pm θ = 43.8°

On January 15 at 10:00 am, θ = 50.5°. At 3:00 pm θ = 33.0°

Using Eq. (2.34) and the given data, we have:

At T=400K, Ebλ = 128.22 W/m2-μm

λ1T = 0.38x5777 = 2195.3 μm-K

There is no polarization at normal incidence therefore from Eq. (2.49):

Therefore from Eqs. (2.52a)-(2.52c) we have:

ρ = r(0) (1 + τα τ(0) ) = 0.043(1 + 0.961x0.882) = 0.079

At angle of incidence = 20°:

From Eq. (2.44) the refraction angle θ2 is calculated as:

From Eq. (2.51) the transmittance can be obtained as:

From Eqs. (2.45) and (2.46):

sin 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) sin 2 (13 − 20 )

From Eqs. (2.52a)-(2.52c) we have:

From Eq. (2.44) the refraction angle θ2 is calculated as:

From Eq. (2.51) the transmittance can be obtained as:

From Eqs. (2.45) and (2.46):

sin 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) sin 2 ( 24.9 − 40 )

tan 2 ( θ2 − θ1 ) tan 2 ( 24.9 − 40 )

From Eqs. (2.52a)-(2.52c) we have:

1 − r||  1 − r||2    1 − 0.0162 

Finally, Eqs. (2.56) and (2.57) can be used as follows:

The incoming solar radiation at 5770K we have:

λ1T = 0.32x5770 = 1846 μm-K

From Table 2.4 we get:

λ1T = 0.32x300 = 96 μm-K

From Table 2.4 we get:

The percentage of radiation emitted is 0.9x0.01=0.009%

Using Eq. (2.67):

From Eq. (2.12), cos(Φ)= sin(L) sin(δ)+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)

From Eq. (2.79):

From Eq. (2.83) at 10:00 am:

From Eqs. (2.84b) and (2.84c):

α = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(hss-60) = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(85.7-60) = 0.626

From Eq. (2.84a) at 10:00 am:

sin(L − β)sin(δ) + cos(L − β)cos(δ)cos(h)

Time Actual time used in Eq. (2.90a) h (°) RB

hss = cos-1[-tan(L)tan(δ)] = cos-1[-tan(52.5)tan(-9.6)] = 77.3°

From Eq. (2.105b):

From Eq. (2.109): h'ss = min {hss, cos-1 [- tan(L-β) tan(δ)]}

From Eq. (1.108):

cos(L − β) cos(δ)sin(h 'ss ) + (π /180)h 'ss sin(L − β)sin(δ)

Finally, from Eq. (2.107):

(h c,p −g + h r,p −g )(Tp − Tg ) = (h c,g −a + h r,g −a )(Tg − Ta )

σ(Tp + Tg )(Tp2 + Tg2 ) (5.67x10−8 )(363 + 312.3)(3632 + 312.32 )

From Eq. (3.18) we have:

For ½(Tp+Tg) = ½ (363+312.3)=337.7K

gβ 'Pr 3 9.81x0.70x(363 − 312.3)x0.0353

Therefore, from Eq. (3.11):

Therefore: hc,g-a=hw=8.6(4)0.6/30.4 = 12.732 W/m2-K

Qt /Ac = (hc,p-g+hr,p-g)(Tp-Tg) = (3.196+7.177)(363-312.3) = 525.9 W/m2

From Eq. (3.26): f = (1 − 0.04h w + 0.0005h 2w ) (1 + 0.091Ng )

From Eq. (3.27): C = 365.9 (1 − 0.00883β + 0.0001298β2 )

Therefore from Eq. (3.25):

U L = U t + U b + U e = 6.582 + 1.191 + 1.994 = 9.767 W/m2-K or using the empirical method is

Similarly, for the two covers we have:

From Eq. (3.18) we have:

h r,g1−a = εg1σ(Tg1 + Ta )(Tg12 + Ta2 )