Essentials of

Anatomy & Physiology

Fifth edition

Seeley • Stephens • Tate

Chapter 16
The Digestive System

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The functions of the digestive system include the following:

•Ingestion of food
•Digestion of food
•Absorption of nutrients
•Elimination of body wastes

The digestive/Alimentary tract consists of the oral cavity,

pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
and anus. Accessory structures like salivary glands, GB, liver
and pancreas are also included.
Fig. 16.1
•Different parts of the digestive tract are specialized for different
functions.
•Digestive tract consists of four layers or tunics.
• Mucosa - innermost tunic; mucous epithelium, loose
connective tissue and smooth muscle
• Submucosa – loose connective tissue containing nerves,
blood vessels and small glands
• Muscularis – smooth muscle
• Serosa or Adventitia
Serosa – peritoneum ( smooth epithelial layer w/
underlying connective tissue)
Adventitia – connective tissue
Fig. 16.2
Peritoneum

The body wall of the abdominal cavity and

abdominal organs is covered with serous membranes.
Visceral Peritoneum
Peritoneal Cavity
Parietal Peritoneum
Messenteries a fold of the peritoneum which attaches the
stomach, small intestine, pancreas, spleen, and other
organs to the posterior wall of the abdomen.-
Retroperitoneal
Retroperitoneal organs
•duodenum, pancreas, ascending colon, descending colon,
rectum, kidneys, adrenal glands and urinary bladder.
Fig. 16.3
Oral Cavity

•First part of the digestive tract. It is bounded by the lip and cheek
muscle. It also contains the teeth and the tongue.
•Lips and Cheeks – Mastication
•Mastication – chewing; begins the process of mechanical
digestion

•Tongue – muscular organ. Major attachment is located

posteriorly. The anterior part is relatively free.

•Frenulum
•The tongue moves food in the mouth. For Deglutition, major
sensory organ for taste and one of the major organs of speech.
Fig. 16.4
Fig. 16.5
Fig. 16.6
Palate and Tonsils

The palate is the roof of the oral cavity. It prevents the food from
passing into the nasal cavity during mastication and deglutition.
Hard Palate and Soft Palate
Uvula
Tonsils (lateral posterior walls)
Salivary Glands
Produces saliva; mixture of serous and mucous fluids
Saliva – helps keep the oral cavity moist and contains
enzyme that begins the process of chemical digestion
Parotid Gland – serous gland (watery)
Submandibular Gland – more serous than mucous secretions
Sublingual Gland – mucous secretions (sticky)
 Secretions of the Oral Cavity
Fluid or Enzyme Source Functions

Saliva Salivary Glands Moistens and lubricate food, neutralizes

bacterial acids, flushes bacteria from oral
cavity

Salivary amylase Salivary Glands Digests starch

Lysozyme Salivary Glands Weak antibacterial action

Fig. 16.7
Pharynx or Throat
It connects the mouth w/ the esophagus. It is divided into 3
parts: Nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx.

Esophagus
It is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx with the
stomach.
Upper (Inferior Pharyngeal Sphincter) and Lower (Cardiac
Sphincter) Esophageal sphincter

Swallowing (Deglutition)
3 Phases: Voluntary Phase, Pharyngeal Phase and
Esophageal Phase

Muscular contractions in the esophagus occurs in

peristaltic waves
Figure 16.8a
Figure 16.8b
Figure 16.8d
Figure 16.8e
Fig. 16.9
Stomach
It is an enlarged segment of the digestive tract in the
left superior part of the abdomen.
Functions primarily as a storage and mixing chamber
for ingested food.
Chyme
From the Greek word gaster means “stomach”
Anatomy
•Gastroesophageal opening (cardiac opening), Cardiac region and
Cardiac sphincter
•Fundus
•Body
•Lesser and Greater Curvature
•Pyloric Opening, pyloric region and pyloric sphincter
•Rugae
•Muscle Layer: Longitudinal, Circular and Oblique Muscle Layer
Fig. 16.10a
 Secretions of the Stomach
Fluid or Enzyme Source Function

HCl Gastric Parietal Kills bacteria; convert pepsinogen to pepsin

Cells

Pepsin Gastric Chief Digests protein

Cells

Mucus Epithelial and Protects stomach lining

Glandular Cells

Intrinsic Factor Gastric Parietal Binds to vitamin B12, for absorption

Cells
Fig. 16.10b
Regulation of Stomach Secretions

Cephalic Phase – “get started” phase

Gastric Phase – “go for it” phase
Instestinal Phase – “slow down” phase
Fig. 16.11a
Fig. 16.11b
Fig. 16.12

Two Types of Stomach Movement

•Mixing Waves and Peristaltic

Waves
•Smooth muscle contractions in the
abdominal wall
Small Intestine
It is the major site of digestion and absorption of food

It is about 6 meters long and divided into 3 parts:

Duodenum, Jejunum and Ileum

Simple columnar epithelium w/ 4 major cell types:

•Absorptive cells
•Goblet cells
•Granular cells
•Endocrines cells
Fig. 16.13
Fig. 16.14
Movement in the Small Intestine
Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary
events that occur in the small intestine.
Peristaltic contractions
Segmental contractions
Liver
It weighs about 1.36 kg and is located in right upper
quadrant of the abdomen, tucked against the inferior surface of
the diaphragm
Fig. 16.16bc
Fig. 16.17
 Functions of the Liver
Function Explanation

Digestion Bile neutralizes stomach acid & emulsifies fats; fat digestion

Excretion Bile contains excretory products that result from hemoglobin

breakdown
Nutrient Storage Liver cells remove sugar from the blood. Stores fat, Vit. A
B12, D, E & K, copper and iron
Nutrient Conversion Liver cell convert nutrients into others

Detoxification of Liver cells covert ammonia into urea

Harmful Chemicals
Synthesis of new Liver synthesizes blood proteins
molecules
Fig. 16.18
Pancreas
It is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland.
It controls blood nutrients level.
It produces bicarbonate ions and digestive enzymes.

Functions

It produces bicarbonate ions and digestive enzymes

Acidic chyme stimulates the release of HCO3 and
neutralizes the acidic chyme.
Fatty acids and amino acids in the duodenum stimulate the
release or pancreatic enzymes.
Fig. 16.19
Fig. 16.20
Large Intestine
Feces production and water reabsorption
Mass movements occur 3-4 times daily
Defecation

Anatomy of the Large Intestine

Cecum – blind sac; appendix

Colon – Ascending colon, Transverse colon, Descending
colon, sigmoid colon
It contains mucous tubular glands
Rectum
Anal Canal
Fig. 16.21
Fig. 16.22
Fig. 16.23
Fig. 16.24
Fig. 16.25
Fig. 16.26
Fig. 16.27
Fig. 16.28
Table. 16.1
Table. 16.2
TA p485
Fig. 16.21