MANDAR PATKI
AIR 22 CSE 2019
REASONS FOR FALL OF MUGHAL
EMPIRE:
1. Patron- Client relationship between
emperor and ruling class
2. Incorporation of Maratha and
Deccani nobles after Aurangzeb’s
Deccan expedition>> increased
strains on already strained Zamindari
system>> led to “Zamindari Crisis”
3. Price rise in late seventeenth century
as supply of luxury goods flowed
form European markets
4. jagir crisis is believed to have led to
an unhealthy competition among the
nobles in order to have control over
good jagirs
5. Division of Mughal nobility into 3
factions:
a. Irani group led by Asad Khan
b. Turani group led by Ghazi
Khan, Chin Qulich Khan
c. Hindustani group led by
Sayyid brothers
6. Recurrent Peasant Revolts in 17th
Century: as earlier deterrence of
Army reduced due to weakening of
Mughal army + dissatisfied
zamindars incited peasantry
7. Zamindari crisis: open defiance of
zamindars due to rise of
intermediaries and Ijaradars
8. Rise of Regional empires: Big
zamindars and nobles, using
Peasantry, defied Mughal rule and
declared Autonomy. These groups
were organized on Regional (e.g.-
Marathas) and Religious (e.g.- Sikh)
lines.
a. Rising Agri output (in areas
like Awadh, Benares) put
surplus in hands of
Zamindars. Thus they took
advantage of weakening
central power and defied to
transfer surplus, thus
becoming local rulers.
IMPACT OF MUGHAL RULE ON
SECESSOR STATES:
1. Though centrality of Mughal empire
declined, but many successor states
adopted Mughal administration
2. Symbolic authority of Mughal
emperor continued as all states
(except Mysore) accepted symbolic
authority of Mughal emperor.
3. Revenue system of successor states
continued to be inspired by Mughal
system.
PROGRESS IN 18th CENTURY:
1. Growth of political heterogeneity in
polities of states- recalibration of
‘patron-client’ relationship between
local chieftains and central authority
2. Rise of rational and diverse school of
thoughts due to support of regional
powers:
a. Devotional religion of
Vaishnavism rose in Bengal
b. Firangi mahal in Lucknow as
rationalist school of Islamic
thought
c. Deccan Sufi tradition
survived in Hyderabad and
Arcot even after decline of
main center at Bijapur.
ECONOMIC CHANGES IN 18th
CENTURY:
1. Resilience in economies continued.
1

2. Indigenous bankers class arise to
handle commercial matters (e.g.-
Jagat Seth)
3. Allegiance of economically dominant
class shifted from Mughal power to
regional states>> decline of Mughal
authority
4. Prosperity in states like Bengal and
Mysore due to increased productivity
of agriculture, increased overseas
trade
MAIN FACTORS THAT DRIVED
BRITISH EMPIRE ESTABLISHMENT:
Search for Revenue, Quest for trading
privileges and imperatives of military
exigencies.
 Quest for Dastaks from Mughal
emperors for private trades by
company employees
 To prevent British interest against
hostile policies of states: Tipu put
embryo on export of pepper and + in
cardamom from ports in his kingdoms
in 1785 + in 1788 he forbidded trade
with English traders in his empire
 Anglo-French rivalry transformed in
territorial expansion in India.
 To gain access to ports of strategic
locations like Carnatic and Bengal
 T secure the trade: Sudden growth of
Company’s cotton trade with China
through Bombay and Gujrat Made
them concern about security in
Deccan and thus need to subjugate the
Marathas
 Thus, to sum up British policy: ‘Trade
with informal control if possible,
trade with rule when necessary’
o However, it was from
attempts to secure benefits
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through informal control that
arose the need of securing
direct control.
 Thus, for company, commerce
provided will to conquer and political
disunity provided the opportunity.
 Conquest was thus self-perpetuating
and self-legitimizing process,
justifying the maintenance of vast
military establishment in India.
(which was diverting large amount of
revenue).
BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA- IMPACT
OF VARIOUS SCHOOL OF
THOUGHTS IN BRITAIN
 With intellectual revolution in Britain
and process of consultative dialogue
with natives by colonial officers, idea
of Orientalism developed.
o It viewed India as ‘Rich
culture with degeneration’.
Thus, it assumed duty to
correct present degeneration
in Indian culture.
o Implemented in actual
policies during time of
Warren Hastings- he saw need
to ‘legitimize’ colonial rule in
Indian idiom.
o It started process of Reverse
Acculturation- Teaching
European rulers the customs
and traditions of India for
purpose of assimilating them
in subject society. This was
seen in political vision of estd
of Fort Williams college.
o However, orientalism, by
giving idea of Kinship
between British and India
2

dating back in classical past, it
made morally binding on
Indians to accept colonial rule
through rhetoric of “love”
o Side effect of this school of
thought was that it highlighted
classical glory of India and
generated desire for gaining
past glory- through colonial
rule
 Lord Cornwallis and Wellesley,
however, abanded orientalism and
accepted Anglicist policies
o The policies reflected rising
Conservatism in England
propounded by Edmund
Burke (in context of rising
threat of Jacobinism)
 While Anglicist Cornwallis preferred
Permeant Settlement in Bengal to
instill values of rule of law and
private property, Orientalist Thomas
Munro implemented Ryotwari
system in Madras which was based on
Indian values of Village life and
aimed to preserve India’s village
communities. As taxes in latter was
directly collected from Ryots by
British officials, it reflected policy of
“Military Fiscalism” by Tipu Sultan
implemented in Mysore.
o Munro thus believed that Part
of India should be Indirectly
governed. However, he
insisted Central sovereign
rule by knowledgeable and
sympathetic men. Thus, this
authoritative paternalism
rejected idea of direct political
participation by Indians.
o Thus, Respect and
Paternalism became two
pillars of British rule in India.
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 Evangelicalism was British idea
against Indian barbarism and
advocated the permanence of British
rule with mission to change the very
“nature of Hindustan”. The idea in
India was propagated by Christian
missionaries at Srirampur near
Calcutta. The idea was driving force
behind Charter Act of 1813 which
allowed Missionaries to enter India
without any restrictions.
 The thought of Free Trade, aligning
itself with Evangelicalism, advocated
company to shift from ‘trader’ to
‘ruler’. Thus, Charter Act, 1833
ended company monopoly in Trade.
 The thought of British Liberalism,
of which Thomas Macaulay was
proponent, envisaged that British
administrators’ task was to civilize
rather than conquer, thus set liberal
agenda for emancipation of India
through Active governance.
 On the grounds prepared by
Liberalism, Utilitarianism was born.
It’s chief advocate, James Mill,
officer in EIC’s London office,
advocated Benthamite idea of human
civilization, i.e. of effective
government promulgating good
legislations. Thus, Mill attacked
‘imaginations’ of Indian richness
created by William Jones. It was due
to efforts of Mill that Law
Commission under Macaulay was set
up to draw IPC on Benthamite model
of centrally, logically and coherently
formulated code, evolving from
‘disinterested philosophic
intelligence’.
 It was Victorian Liberalism, which
made paternalism the dominant
3

ideology of the British Raj (especially
post 1857)
 However, after 1857, Liberal
ideology received setback and
Utilitarian and other thoughts
proposed Paternalistic authority
citing inability of Indians to
modernize. Thus, policy of racial
segregation and superiority started in
every aspect of government policy.
This strategy conclusively won with
passage of Ilbert Bill.
o Conservative Brand of
Liberalism- Liberals began
to believe that Indians are
beyond reforms and thus
promoted strictly no
interference in traditional
structure of Indian society
BRITISH PARLIAMENT
 In mid-18th century, due to
communication difficulties with
England, it was “Sub-imperialism” by
Company men on the spot that drive
quest for territorial conquest, rather
than policies of British Parliament.
 Relationship between Parliament and
EIC was much more complex- as
existence of latter depended on rights
given through Charter acts, also clear
guidelines for share of revenue from
India if Royal army participated in
conquest. With increasing richness of
company, British Govt was eager to
have share, thus stared intervention in
affairs of company in 1763 and 1764.
 Thus, it seems difficult to argue the
rise of British empire “in a fit of
absence of mind”, however, it was
acquired “without the national
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cognizance” by small no of
Englishmen
 Thus, with growing complexities in
governance after Plassey battle and
allegations of corruption by EIC
employees, British Govt, as
advocated by Edmund Burke, stated
that “duty of parliament to
superintend affairs of company”.
 Governor-generals in India, like Clive
and Hastings, also wanted to forge
some constitutional relationship with
Crown which will buttress their
power and legitimize their authority.
BRITISH REVENUE SETTLEMENT
SYSTEMS: IMPACT
ZAMINDARI (write impact of Zamindari
from NCERT likes Jotedars rise, fraud in
auctions, famine due to reduced agri
production)
RYOTWARI
 Introduced by Alexander Reed in
1792 and Thomas Munro continued
in 1802, system was, in words of
Munro, a synthesis of Revenue
objective and respecting Indian
Village tradition.
 Though Cornwallis envisaged to
further Permanent settlement in
Madras, also ordered by Wellesley,
but results were not satisfactory as in
South India, except Poligars, Large
intermediary class was not present
unlike in Bengal.
 Thus, Munro based system on tenets
that revenue will be directly collected
from peasant who will hold Propriety
rights. Proper survey will be
4

conducted to fix revenues for each
farms.
 Impact of system:
o No proper surveys conducted,
Revenue often fixed on entire
farm, irrespective under
cultivation or irrigation or not.
Thus varying productivity
within farm not taken into
account.
o Right to Contraction (that is
right of peasant to limit
cultivation and tax on
particular parcel of land if
other land not under
cultivation) as envisaged by
Munro was removed in
amendment in 1833.
o Extortionate amount of tax
left land uncultivated
o Not eliminated Intermediaries
in South India as special rights
of mirasidars was recognized
and caste privileges of
Brahmans were respected,
thus hardly altering existing
village structure.
o Dominant groups or
mirasidars of good
agriculturist castes like
Vellalas high jacked ground
level revenue administration
and acquired revenue
collection as well as police
duties in countryside.
o Such power concentration
resulted in bribery, extortion
by these subordinate officers
as pointed out in Madras
Torture Commission
Report, 1855
o However, such inequalities
were more concentrated in
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prosperous and well irrigated
areas like Godavari delta.
Elsewhere, Absentee
Landlordism actually
declined in south India.
o Social fallout- due to rise of
mirasidars, local society got
Polarized
 Impact in Gujrat and Bombay:
o Extended to GJ in 1803 after
annexation and to Bombay in
1818 after fall of Peshwa-
under supervision of
Elphinstone.
o Status of village Patils was
reduced to ordinary peasant in
MH, however in GJ, special
rights of Bhagdars and narus
were respected.
o Migration to neighboring
princely states where revenue
demand was less
o Central Deccan region-
vacuum was created which
was filled by Gujrati Baniyas
and Marwaris.
o Discontent increased against
these immigrants who
controlled Debt market. Also,
due to undermining of
authority of village
leadership, the clash between
these two groups resulted into
Deccan Riots of 1875.
 According to rough estimates, in
1928-29, around 19% of land was
under Zamindari, 52% under
Ryotwari and 29% under Mahalwari.
JUSTICE SYSTEM IN BRITISH INDIA
5

 In order to bring judicial system of
time from Mughal impression into
British Institution, Clive vested Civil
jurisdiction under Raza Khan.
However, Hasting was opposed to
this and he, then brought system of
DA, Fauzdari Adalat, SDA, SNA, to
deprive Raza Khan of his powers.
Civil courts were presided by
European judge assisted by
indigenous Maulavis and Pandits
 SNA was moved from Mushidabad to
Calcutta.
 However, later in 1774, Hasting
acknowledged failure to maintain law
and order and reinstated Raza Khan
and shifted back SNA to
Murshidabad.
 Later, Hasting and Sir Elijah Impey,
based on Whig principle of separation
of power, Separated judicial and
Judicial system in Madras and Bombay:
revenue powers of district collectors.
 Europeanisation of Judiciary was
dominant factor in this time.
 Later, to lesser dependency of
European judges on indigenous
pandits and maulavis and to address
problems of varying interpretation of
civil laws, Committee of 11 pandits,
on behest of Hasting, made digest of
Hindu laws in 1775 and N.B. Halhed
translated it in English in 1776.
 Code of Muslim laws was also
compiled in 1778.
 With this standardization of law,
Legal practioners like ‘Lawyer’ were
needed to interpret the laws. In this
way, Hasting era ‘tended to centralize
judicial authority and reduce
administration to a system’.
 Cornwallis code of 1793 again
separated Judicial and Revenue
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functions which were unified in 1787.
He also set Hierarchy of courts
 Many officers complained
Cornwallis about anomies in Islamic
laws and corrupt practice at criminal
courts. Thus, he decided not to left
such important institution in hands of
Indians. Thus, SNA under Raza Khan
were abolished and replaced by
Circuit courts under European judges.
 SNA was brought back to Calcutta
and put under Governor General in
Council.
 Jurisdiction of Criminal laws were
only applicable to Indians, not
European subjects, who were put
under Supreme Court at Calcutta.
 Thus, Cornwallis system became of
Total exclusion of Indians and more
authoritarian.
 Cornwallis regulations extended to
conquered provinces in 1805.
 But, with failure of Permanent
settlement in Madras, owing to lack
of power class of zamindars. Thus, it
was realized that, separation of
revenue and judicial powers posed
serious problems in Madras.
 Thus, on Thomas Munro’s insistence,
CoD in 1814 proposed different
system for Madras which included
provisions for greater
indigenization of system at lower
levels (village panchayats, city
courts). It also decided to fuse certain
revenue and judicial powers within
district collectors.
 Later, Elphinstone extended this to
Bombay in 1819.
6

Codification of laws and Indigenization of
Courts:
 until Bentick’s time, there were
serious challenges in differing
interpretations in laws. Thus, Charter
Act of 1833 proved milestone, which
set up Law Commission under
Macaulay who codified CPC, CrPC,
IPC.
 Charter Act of 1833 also open judicial
positions for Indians.
Overall impact on Indians:
 Laws became hard to comprehend
and understand by common people.
 Justice became distant, both
physically and psychologically as
indigenous people did not understand
complex judicial procedures.
 New class of Lawyers emerged who
monopolized judicial system. Thus
system became expensive.
 Pendency of cases resulted in delayed
justice.
 Due to mixture of Judicial prudence
with Cultural particularism (or
civilizational inferiority of
indigenous people), Concept of
Equality before law suffered as
differential treatment to Europeans.
POLICE
 Sindh Model of policing, by Sir
Charles Napier, which was
implemented in Sindh in 1843 after
its annexation: IG at top level and SP
at district levels which were
responsible to both District
Magistrate and IG- thus self-
contained and separate organization.
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 The model was replicated to all over
India- Punjab in 1849, Bombay in
1853 and Madras in 1859
 This model was based on Model of
Royal Irish Constabulary (which
was created in Ireland in 1757 in
order to curb growing sectarian and
peasant movements)
ARMY
 Mughal used strategy to recruit
Peasants into military, the norm
which came to known as “military
labour market”.
 Some of their successors like
Nawab of Awadh and Raja of
Benares, refined this recruitment
system and raised sophisticated
trained peasants armies distanced
from civilian communities.
 This tradition was adopted by EIC
as it started recruiting its own
army, called as sepoy army.
 Initiated by French in 1721-29.
 Hasting do not touch caste rules in
affairs of army: thus maintained
recruitment of Upper castes like
Brahmins and Rajputs of Awadh,
Rajputs and Bhumihar-Brahmins
from Bihar. The stereotype that
Wheat eating people were more
suitable for army than rice eating
people played important role in
recruitment.
 People were attracted to jobs due
to perks like salaries, pensions,
benefits. Also company used to
pay sepoys Regularly, unlike
many other princely states.
 The recruitment became tool for
social mobility for many socially
ambitious castes- like Bhumihar-
7

Brahmins who fulfilled their
aspirations of social mobility.
 Cornwallis to, though being
Anglicist, not disturbed this trend.
The result was that Sepoy army
became Upper Caste Army which
was prone to revolt when initial
privileges started to be cut off in
1820s onwards.
 Later, when company frontiers
expanded eastward beyond
Bengal, EIC started recruiting
Hill tribes in army through
Mughal system of ghatwali
service tenure.
 Later, in late 18th century,
defeated states like Mysore,
Maratha created large reservoir of
army, which up to extent were
absorbed in sepoy army.
 From 1815, experiment of
Gurkha regiment was
conducted, by skillful blending of
Nepali atrial tradition with
European training to Nepalis,
garwahlis and Simouri hill men.
 Thus, sepoy army became
incorporative of variety of social
groups and castes. While Bengal
army remained more high caste,
Bombay and Madras army
became Heterogeneous.
 Detoriation of situation in army
and increasing discontent can be
understood as:
o 1820s- most of Indian
powers weakened, thus
company started more
concentration on financial
troubles, cutting perks of
army. Discontent in upper
caste ranks
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o 1830s- reforms aimed at
levelling differences in
ranks and promoting
universal military culture
created discontent
especially in Bengal army.
o 1840s- reforms touched
caste status of sepoys and
thus disturbed power
relations within army,
which found vent in
mutiny in 1857.
 After 1857, Peel Commission
recommended careful mixture of
ethnic groups in army.
 By 1880s, ‘Martial Races’ theory
developed and recruitment was
encouraged from specific areas
like NWFP, Nepal, Rajputs, Jats.
 Such Soldiers of martial races
were never touched/affected by
political agitations and remained
loyal to King-Emperor except
Canal Colony agitations in
Punjab (1907) and Sikh
Gurdwara movement (1920)
Balance between Civilian-Military
establishments:
 Complex relationship existed
between two establishments.
 Charter Act of 1793 vested all
powers of War and Peace to BoD and
made Commander-in-chief
responsible to Governor General.
 But, GG and CiC clashed on various
occasions: serious differences
between William Bentick and his
commander and chief
 This reached peak during notorious
Curzon-Kitchener Controversy in
8

1904: CiC Kitchener wanted to
abolish position of Military Member
in Viceroy’s council and centralize
control and command of army in his
own hands. Curzon opposed it. When
Home dept. suggested compromise to
reduce power of Military Member
without abolishing position, Curzon
resigned. In 1905, though post of
Military Member was abolished, but
financial control of military remained
with newly created Military Finance
Dept.
INDIAN CIVIL SERVICES
 Procedure by nomination to ICS was
governed by India Act of 1784 and
Charter Act of 1793: members of
CoD could nominate persons for ICS
on written assurance that they have
not received money for such
nomination.
 Later, Wellesley’s effort of teaching
servant’s Indian languages at Fort
Williams college was seem with
skepticism by CoD who thought
loyalty of ICS will be shifted from
London to Calcutta.
 Thus, Fort Williams was closed and
East India College was opened at
Haileybury.
 Due to such nomination system, No
Indian was allowed in positions worth
500 pounds.
 Later, in 1830s, responsibility of
collectors increased immensely due
to fusion of Revenue functions,
Magisterial role and Judicial
authority again concentrated in their
hand. Thus need of efficient
administrators was felt and this
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prompted Charter Act of 1833 to
open competition, but limited to
candidates nominated by CoD.
 Charter Act of 1853 opened ICS for
“natural born subject of Her Majesty”
and annual examination started in
England.
Evolution of Indigenization of ICS:
 Until 1813, only confined to
Uncovenanted Civil services
 After 1813, Warren Hasting started
gradual indigenization of subordinate
services mainly in judiciary
 Lord Bentick argued for inclusion of
Indians to orient administration
towards local needs and on expenses
ground.
 After series of charter acts, no
situation improvement.
 Lord Lytton, as compromise brought
‘Statutory Civil services’, but
nominated only from Aristocratic
Indian families.
 Lord Ripon felt political importance
of middle class, and argued that
exclusion of Indians will spell danger
on empire. Thus, suggested
simultaneous exam in India,
vehemently opposed by European
rank.
 Other efforts of indigenization like
Local Self govt act 1882 and Ilbert
Bill of 1883 was opposed, especially
by Anglo-Indians.
 1892- acceptance of
recommendations of Public Service
Commission of 1887:
o Exclusion from covenanted
civil services continued and it
was called ICS
9

o Uncovenanted Civil Services,
renamed as Provincial Civil
Services, was opened.
o Statutory Civil Services was
abolished and filled by
promotes from PCS
o Though Indians can enter in
ICS, but exam only in London
 Under nationalistic pressure, GoI Act
of 1919 provided for Separate, not
simultaneous, exam for ICS in India
(1st held in Allahabad in feb 1922)
 Result was, in 1941, Indians
outnumbered Europeans in ICS.
PRINCELY STATES AND
PARAMOUNTACY:
 Some areas, which were not revenue
yielding enough, or distantly located,
or no arable land were not directly
annexed by EIC due to inability of
princely states to directly challenge
British rule. Also EIC had its own
resource and manpower constraint.
 3 distinct phases of evolution of
indirect rule:
o 1764-97: placement of
Company’s Resident in states
like Murshidabad, Awadh and
Hydrabad after Battle of
Buxar (1764)- role of resident
was restricted and cautioned
as no clear forward policy in
this time
o 1797-1840: Aggressive
expansionist policies of Lord
Wellesley and his Subsidiary
alliance- role of resident
changed to indirect control.
EMPIRE AND ECONOMY
However, trend tentatively
stopped during Cornwallis
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who preferred policy of non-
interference. After his death,
policy continued until it failed
in Afghan in 1838-42
o 1841-57: idea of
consolidation- policy shift
towards direct annexation like
Dalhousie’s forward policies
(Doctrine of Lapse)
 During 1857, observation of lesser
impact of revolt in indirectly
controlled territory and help by states
like Gwalior and Hydrabad prompted
to change policy and thus Queen’s
proclamation was issued in 1858.
 However, policy of ‘reforms’ for
governance continued, especially
during Lord Mayo who aimed to
breakdown of durbari authority.
Those rulers who opposed, where
taken care of like Malhar Rao
Gaikwad of Baroda who was deposed
in 1875 on charges of “gross misrule”
 With rising nationalism, policy of
appeasement of Princes started which
can be seen in Imperial Durbar of
1877 by Lytton.
 During Curzon, interventionism
reached height as Curzon took over
administration of 63 states +
prohibited foreign travel in 1900 +
1902 pressurized Nizam for more
favorable treaty regarding
administration of Berar
 Lord Minto, reoriented policy to
“Subordinate isolation” to prevent
princely states from political currents
by assuring them autonomy
10

 Problems in Colonial Indian
Economy:
 Buffer for British Economy:
Functioning perfectly as colonial
economy, India, during WW I,
consumed nearly 85% of cotton
piecegoods produced at
Lancashire and 17% of British
iron and steel production was
absorbed by Indian Railways.
o Unequal Competition:
Until WW I, no import
duty on such goods. Even
after 1919, when policies
were meant to change
under ‘Fiscal Autonomy
Convention’, successive
recommendations of
Indian Tariff Boards to
raise cotton duties, were
successfully thwarted by
Lancashire lobby.
o Military expenditure-
Often on expedition by
using Indian army on far
colonies- cost around 1/3rd
to Indian revenues.
o British Capital
investment- Guaranteed
return on British Capital
investment in railways
o ‘Home charges’-
expenditure of SoS and
India Office in London.
o Drain of wealth- interest
payments of foreign debt
of EIC, govt purchase of
all stationary from Britain,
military expenditure, etc.
o However, it must also
acknowledged that there
were period of growths
(1860-1920) and regions
MANDAR PATKI
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of prosperity PN, Coastal
Madras, Western UP),
however, such regional
variations cannot change
generalist policies of
colonial rule.
o Commercialization of
Agri- to cater demands of
English manufacturing,
crops like Cotton, Indigo,
Jute were coerced on
farmers, resulting into
riots. In addition, benefits
of cash crops were only
experienced by Rich
farmers who had
resources. It also had
impact on food security as
can be explained by
Bengal Famines
o Railways- essentially was
‘Private Enterprise at
public risk’ as capital was
invested by British
capitalist with assured
return of 5% and lease of
99 years on land. Even
transfer of technology
remained confined to low
technology areas like
bridge building, etc.
o British Laws- like Inland
Emigration Act of 1859
which secured steady
supply of manual workers
to Tea industry in Assam
 Thus, lack of overall economic
development of Indian economy
was outcome of policy of
Discriminatory Intervention and
Economic Favoritism by govt
which wiped out Indian
enterprises and industries.
11

Some Examples of Indian successes in
Industrialism:
o Jute Mills: Calcutta based Marwaris
challenged hegemony of British
factories and entered in boards of
European Managing Agencies.
People like Birla and Swarupchand
Hukumchand set up their own mills in
1922. By 1940s, they started
overtaking some European
companies too.
o Cotton Industry: in 1917, due to WW
I disruption + 7.5% import duty on
British cotton + call for Swadeshi >>
encouraged Indian communities like
Gujaratis, Parsis, Bohras, Bhatias
who started exporting cotton to
China. By 1930s, Indian industry
established monopoly over domestic
market and started challenging
Lancashire lobby in international
markets.
o Iron and Steel Industry: development
of TISCO who broke monopoly of
Birmingham steel industry
o Niche market: In intermediate level
Bazaar between Westernized enclave
and subsistence economy, local
businesses thrived and later expanded
to Burma, Middle east, etc. taking
benefit of British capital like Railway
and Telegraph.
o Thus, though it is true that
protectionism after WW I motivated
by fiscal compulsion, stimulated
growth of manufacturing base in
India. But, it was limited to domestic
market along which many time
remains depressed due to poverty in
India. Thus situation would have been
improved by active govt intervention,
which was not forthcoming.
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CHAPTER 3: Early Indian Responses:
Reforms and Rebellions
English Education in India
 Macaulay’s Aim: ‘class of persons
between us and millions whom we
govern, class of person Indian in
Blood and Color, but English in taste,
opinions, morals and in intellect
(TOMI)’
 EIC’s aim: To create class of people
to handle subordinate offices so as to
reduce expenditure on administration
as well as inclusion of Indians in
administration to pacific increasing
discontent. Thus Downward filtration
was adopted whereby only rich and
top class will be given education, rest
will be passed by them to remaining
population.
 Other aim of EIC was: as requirement
of workers, thus downward filtration
will ensure that lower population is
skillful enough to be employed as
workers.
 Such policies created Social divide in
education as can be seen in B.T.
McCully’s calculation that in 1881-
81, out of 195 million, only 2 million
attending elementary schools. Out of
that, English educated were 55,000.
 Urge for western education in Indians
can be seen in following:
o 1825- Society for translating
European Sciences
o 1838- Society for Acquisition
of General Knowledge
o 1876- Mahendra lal Sircar
estd Indian Association for
the cultivation of Science.
o 1861- Benares Debating Club
o 1864- Aligarh Scientific
Society
12

o 1868- Bihar Scientific Society
 One of possible aim of Orientalist
class was that: to implement the
social reforms envisaged by
orientalist, they needed group of
indigenous people to support the
reform from within the society, thus
they needed intellectual base in
Indian society.
Social Reforms
 While certain reforms proved
immense successes, many of reforms
from above, more specifically
through legislation, remained
ineffective.
o I. C. Vidyasagar’s fight for
Widow Remarriage-
culminating into Hindu
Widow Remarriage Act, 1856
did not legitimized practice
and not gained social
acceptance. His biographer
Asoke Sen calls that
“Movement ended in
unavoidable Defeat”
o Vishnushatri Pandits fight for
Widow Remarriage in MH
proved public failure when
they found to be at fault by
Sankaracharya of Kavir Math
in Pune
o Veerasalingam Pantulu’s estd
of Society for Social Reforms
could not mobilize popular
support for practice.
o Example of Thugee act, 1836-
challenges in curbing practice
of thugee- loot in name of
religion
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o Abolition of Slavery in 1843-
did little to alter existing
Agrarian relations where
slavery type Bonded laborers
continued to exist for very
long time.
 Why Indian intellectuals advocated
reforms: because Civilizational
criticism being continuously given by
western society on India especially
about lower status of Woman.
o Even liberals like James Mill
targeted India on this arena in
his The History of British
India.
 Another response of Indian educated
class was to reform Hinduism within
light of post-Enlightenment
rationalism. This later came to known
as “Bengal Renaissance” or “19th
Century Indian Renaissance”
o What was Indian
Renaissance: cultural
movement essentially
involved in attempts to
discover rationalism in
India’s past and thus to
reposition her religious and
philosophical traditions
within critical arena of reason.
 Pioneer of Indian renaissance: Raja
Rammohan Roy and his Brahmo
Samaj
o Rift within Brahmos after
RRR based on ideological
grounds- Debendranath’s
section wanted to promote
reform while remaining in
Hinduism, while for K.C.
Sen’s group, Identity separate
from Hinduism was essential.
o Crisis deepen when Brahmo
Marriage Act, 1872 was
13

passed which legalized
Brahmo marriages
(intercaste) if contracting
parties declare themselves
Non-Hindus.
 Main Difference between Brahmo
Samaj and Prathna Samaj: though
both had similar objectives and
agenda, Prathna samaj adopted
cautions approach rather than
confrontational attitude of Brahmo
samaj. It believed that reforms to
come within and believed that
modernization should be
accommodated within cultural space
of tradition, without sharp break from
the past. This gradualist approach
made Prathna samaj more socially
acceptable.
Drawbacks of Indian Social Reform
Movements:
1. Narrow social base- as reformist spirit
appealed only to small elite group
2. Involvement of people: In Bengal,
movement confined to Bhadraloks
who were economically well off and
well settled.
3. Participation of Diff groups:
a. MH: Prathna Samaj led by
Chitpawan and Saraswat
Brahmins, some Parsis
b. Bengal: Brahmo monopolized
by Brahmins, Kayasthas,
Vaidyas.
4. Language of reforms: difficult to
PEASANT AND TRIBAL UPRISINGS
comprehend by ordinary people
a. RRR’s chaste Sanskritised
Bengali prose
5. Geographical spread: in Madras,
where caste domination of Brahmins
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remained unshaken, reforms took
time to appear
6. Issues taken: though some reformers
raised, but issues like Untouchability
as a social reform had to wait till
beginning of Gandhian Era.
7. Attitude toward British Rule: Faith in
Benevolent nature of colonial rule
8. Nature of reforms: mainly Legislative
reforms
9. Divergences in movement: many
movements changed trajectories from
Reformistic to Revivalism
a. Swami Sahajanad’s Arya
samaj attacked orthodoxy in
Hinduism, but followers like
Pandit Guru Dutta started
Shuddhi movement.
 Indian reformers, felt need to
construct the modernity that would be
located within Indian cultural space.
Thus, they undertook reforms of
religious practices in order to adopt
them to Western modernity while
preserving the core of Hindu
tradition.
o It was through this essence
that the cultural essence of
Indian nationhood, its
difference from the
colonizing West, were
gradually imagined by Indian
Intelligencia.
 Kathleen Gough: Rebellions in First
century of British rule were
“Restorative Rebellion” as they were
started by disaffected local rulers or
14

dispossessed Zamindars. They were
supported by Local peasants who
wanted to restore the old order.
o According to Gough, such
rebellions were suppressed
with what can be called as
“Exemplary Savagery”.
 Rebellions:
o Revolt of Raja Chait singh
and other zamindars of
Awadh in 1778-81 – followed
by Nawab of Awadh Vazier
Ali in 1799
o Rebellion of Bundela Rajput
Chieftains in 1842
o Poligar rebellion in
Tirunelveli district of North
Arcot in 1799-1805
o Revolt of Pazhassi Raja in
Malabar in 1796-1805
o Rangpur Rebellion of 1783-
against Oppressive revenue
collection of Debi Singh and
Ganga-Govind Singh.
 Many of Peasant rebellions were
arranged on Religious lines.
Especially in Pre-Capitalist society
where class-consciousness was ill
developed, religion provided an
ideology for rebellion. Religion
provided legitimacy to movements by
giving rebellion divine ordained
character by giving reference to
Higher authority:
o Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion
in north Bengal and Bihar in
1763-1800.
 Dasnami Sanyasis-
group known for their
martial art tradition,
involved in
landholding, trade and
moneylending.
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 Madari Fakirs- having
origin in sufi order
initiated by Shah-i-
Madar, who enjoyed
rent free lands and
retained armed
followers.
 Both groups were
wandering monks.
o Pagalpanthi sect of Tipu Shah
in Mymensingh district from
Hinduised tribals like Garo,
Hajangs, Hadis- against
illegal abwabs extracted by
zamindars.
o Tariqa-i-Muhammadiya by
Tiru Mir, a hired muscleman
of local zamindar who
mobilized poor Muslim
peasants in 24 Parganas,
group having distinctive dress
and Beard as marker of
identity- Movement took
inspiration from Shah Sayyid
Ahmad of Rae Bareli,
followers of whom known as
Wahhabis.
o Faraizi Movement under Haji
Shariatullah in peasants of
east Bengal- unlike Tariqah
Movement, this movement
had Indigenous origin
o Moplah uprising of 1840s-
Moplahs were descendants of
Arab traders- discontent due
to disturbance of traditional
system of Janmi-Kanamdars
by British by giving Janmi the
absolute right to evict tenants.
 Incidentally, most of
Janmis were Hindu
and tenants were poor
Muslims.
15

 Tribal Rebellions:
o Bhil Rebellion- after Maratha
annexation in 1818 and later
in 1831 when Ramoshi leader
Umaji Raje of Purandar was
captured and executed.
o Koli Rebellion- local rivals of
Bhils, also raised in rebellion
in Ahmadnagar district in
1829.
o Kol uprising in 1831-32 in
Chotanagpur and Singhbhum
of Bihar and Odisha- against
outsiders or Sud whom were
appointed by Rajas under
pressure of British to extract
high revenues
o Santhal Hool (rebellion) of
1855-56- against unholy
trinity of oppressors-
Zamindars, Mahajans and
Govt who intruded in Daman-
i-Koh and destroyed Santhal
autonomy.
Reasons for Peasant rebellions:
1. Economic policy- of Extraction of
maximum surplus disturbed
Subsistence based economy of
peasants
2. Introduction of Capitalist model of
economy- Introduction of Property
Rights in land and rise of land market
resulted in replacement of customary
production relationship with
contracts.
3. Revitalization of Landlordism-
peasants turned into tenants-at-will.
4. Zamindar-Daroga nexus – became
oppressing agents of peasants.
Landlords’ powers to oppress was
greatly expanded by British laws.
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Thus, grievances against landlords
converted easily against the states.
5. Judicial processes- delay in action
added to coercive authority
6. Development of Land Market- led to
growing rate of Land Alienation and
emerged need for credit, thus
enhanced powers of moneylenders
and merchants in rural society.
THE REVOLT OF 1857
Some Reasons:
 High caste composition of Bengal
army and its resistance to cutting of
privileges was one of reasons to
blame.
 Annexation of Awadh proved
disastrous as this region had most
number of soldiers in Bengal Army:
Sir James Outram cautioned
Dalhousie about this before
annexation.
 Sepoys were “peasants in uniform”-
thus they were worried about
detoriating revenue policies. This can
be seen from fact that 14,000 petitions
from sepoys about hardships relating
to revenue system.
 Eagerness of Feudal Lords and
Rulers: British policies like Doctrine
of Lapse destroyed traditional system
of inheritance and affected entire
aristocracy attached to royal families.
Thus such deposed princes were
ready to give leadership, thus
providing legitimacy to revolt.
o Dissatisfaction of Taluqdars
and zamindars due to policies
like Summary Settlement of
1856 in Awadh
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 Differential impact of policies on CHAPTER 4: Emergence of Indian

peasants: peasants with fertile Nationalism
grounds and irrigation facilities
 Nation building is always a process of
survived the policies, while poor
continuous adjustments,
peasants were ‘Relatively deprived’.
accommodations and contestations.
Thus this perception created unrest.
This too was in case of India, where
 Emergence of ‘talukdar-Peasant
debate exist whether Indian
Complementarity’ of interest
nationalism was product of “elite
 Religious threat- the main, perhaps
nationalism” or “subaltern
the only common trait that binded all
Nationalism of masses”. Debate also
layers of rural society was perception
exist whether it was mere a response
of threat to their religious identity.
to Western modernity or indigenous
Hindu-Muslim unity in revolt was
development.
perhaps outcome of this. Socio-
religious movements of earlier
periods created ground for these
AGRANIAN SOCIETY AND PEASANT
threats, which later were intensified
DISCONTENT
by Christian missionary’s works.
 Changes in tenets of Peasant
movements after 1857:
o More awareness about
colonial institutions and laws,
and more use of these
machineries like Courts
o Educated middle-class
intelligentsia became
spokespersons for aggrieved
peasantry, thus linking
agitations to wider movement
against colonial rule.
 Fall of Indigo Lobby and industry:
o Resistance by movements of
Titu Mir and Faraizi under
Dadu Mian
o Lost economic importance as
an export item in second half
of 19th century
o Union bank, which was chief
financer for planters, failed in
1847
o Sympathetic Lt Governor
John Peter Grant took office
of Bengal in 1859 and took

17

pro-peasant measures against
coercive methods of planters.
o Stiff movement in 1859 in
districts of Nadia,
Murshidabad and Pabna.
o No rent campaign in
opposition to court orders to
follow contractual obligation
to cultivate Indigo.
o Legal fight by tenants for their
right as occupancy ryots
under Rent Act X of 1859
o Intervention of educated
middle class and some
English Missionaries: James
Long of Church Missionary
Society published
Dinabandhu’s Neel Darpan in
English. Papers like Hindoo
Patriot and Somprakas took
up peasants’ cause. British
India Association supported
cause.
 Though this caused Indigo cultivation
to wipe out of Bengal map, but much
of cultivation shifted to backward
areas like Darbhanga and Champaran
in Bihar. Disturbances of Bengal
indeed shifted industry to Bihar in
1859-60. The cultivation continued
till invention of Artificial Dye in
1898. It was again revived in brief
period of WW I. Thus, Indigo
plantation of Champaran had to wait
for Gandhi’s intervention in 1917 for
its complete demise.
 Raise of Agrarian Leagues: First
Agrarian League started in
Yusufshahi pargana of Pabna district
in 1873 against oppression by new
landlords which collected illegal cess
called abwabs and Denied peasants
the protection available under The
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Rent Act X of 1859. The movement
was nonviolent and legal. It spread to
areas like Decca, Murshidabad,
Faridpur, Bogra.
 Movements in MH- Deccan Riots in
1875, Anti-tax campaigns in failure
of crops in 1896-97, Campaign
against revenue hike by Bombay govt
in 1860s and 1870s.
 Chenab Canal Colony movement in
PN – against the local govt act which
controlled inheritance of land in canal
settlements, enhance water tax.
Leadership given by Lala Lajput Rai
and Ajit Singh who later were
deported by PN govt. Riots broke out
in Lahore, Rawalpindi and Amritsar
and also affected Punjab Military.
Finally, Lord Minto Vetoed the act.
Tribal Movements:
 Munda Rebellion (1899-1900)-
under charismatic religious leader,
Birsa Munda. The main reasons were
tribal apathy toward dikus of
Moneylenders and landlords and
sahibs i.e. officials and missionaries.
Birsa used religious sentiments to
mobilize people and promised to
bring back past golden age i.e. satjug.
Massive uprising took place in
Christmas of 1899- targeted churches,
temples, authority symbols.
 What was new in late 19th century
tribal Movement was: broad political
awareness against Colonial rule and
aim to overthrow British rule.
 Another new dimension- increasing
forest interference by govt through
Forest Acts started in 1865. This was
18

to cater needs of Royal British Navy
and Railway sleeper requirements.
 Imposition of Tribal laws met with
mixed reactions from tribals:
o Ban on Subsistence Hunting-
Threatened Chenchus of
Hydrabad with extinction,
while baigas of central India,
Hill Reddis of Hydrabad and
Bison Marias of Bastar
continued it in defiance of law
o Ban on Jhum Cultivation-
Baigas migrated to
neighboring areas, Saora
tribals of Ganjam continued in
resistance of authority.
o Rampa Rebellion of 1879 –
fituri began in Rampa and
spread to Gudem. Leadership
provided by Muttadars. It
mainly targeted alien govt and
outsiders. Later, mixed with
gandhian mass movement.
o Tehri Garhwal protests: by
tribals against conservancy
laws of forest.
o Kumuan movement:
Against system of forced
labor of utar and tyrannous
forest management. Mostly
non-confrontational nature of
movements.
o Bhil Movement: Bhils of
Dangs of Western India had
under pressure of British
discontinued around 1840s
their usual raids on villages in
Khandesh plains to claim their
customary giras (dues).
Instead, they were directly
paid by britishers. Although
Bhil accepted centrality of Raj
in their daily existence, but
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not completely reconciled
their agitations and alienation,
as memories of Bhil raj
persisted. Thus, frequent
outbreaks were reported form
1860s to 1914.
 Reasons for disjoined and localized
nature of peasant revolts:
o Complex class structure of
Indian agrarian society which
had great regional variations.
o Economic categories
sometimes coincide and
sometimes cut across Cultural
categories of caste and
religion- thus ‘Community’
was main focus group of
Peasants than Class
o Easier to mobilize peasants on
caste lines
NEW MIDDLE CLASS AND
EMERGENCE OF NATIONALISM
 Some trace roots of Indian
Nationalism to its pre-colonial days-
it emanated from “traditional
patriotism”, which was “a socially
active sentiment of attachment to
land, language and culture” that
developed long before
westernization.
 Post 1857, with spread of
Communication, education, print
capitalism, this old patriotism was not
abanded but reshaped and reformed to
create ‘new colonial modernity’
which was different from West. This
transformatory process tried to fuse
together all regional, local and
fragmented identities into modern
nation.
19

 Intelligentsia and organizations like
Landlords’ Association or British
India Association showed faith in
benevolent nature of British rule and
thus remained by loyal during 18th
century. Behind this loyalty,
however, there was growing
awareness of growing state of
subordination. Loyalty in 1857 came
with sense of dilemma, as Hindoo
Patriot wrote “This loyalty… springs
nearer from the head than from the
heart”.
 Cultural heritage, India’s cultural past
and traditions, not just helped Indians
to reorganize and sanctify their
private spheres of life; its ideological
inspiration also motivated them to
confront the colonial state in newly
emerging public space. Thus, it
provided ideological foundation of
modern Indian Nationalism that
developed in late nineteenth century.
o However, this sense of pride
in cultural heritage was
reduced to uncritical and
obscurantist defense of all
customs and practices of past.
It virtually bypassed long
stretch of Muslim rule and
took Sanskrit texts as source
of inspiration. Thus, it created
identity of inclusive and
exclusive at the same time. It
united Hindus in opposition to
alien rule, but alienated
Muslims, Non-Brahmins, and
untouchables. This
problematic Nationalist
approach is said to be
foundation of genesis of
‘Communalism’.
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 In first half of 19th century,
Nationalism was directed towards
getting equal rights as Citizens of
country. The demand for equal
representation, etc. indicates such
claims.
 In second half of 19th Century,
Educated Indians started agitating
over exploitative colonial policies
like Income Tax imposition in 1867,
Cutting of spending on English
education in Bengal in 1870. Also,
there was growing awareness about
drain of wealth to Britain. Lowering
age for ICS and Vernacular Press Act
and racist Arms Act passed by Lytton
incited the situation. Illbert bill
controversy proved last nail in coffin,
in spite of Liberal Viceroy Ripon’s
conciliatory measures.
o Various organizations like
Indian Asso, Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha, Madras
Mahajan Sabha, Lahore
Indian Asso, Allahabad
Peoples’ Asso were estd from
ashes of old organizations.
o The organizations showed
new public awareness, though
largely remaining loyal to
colonial rule. They also linked
Peasants cause in movement
as seen in support for Indigo
riots, Deccan riots, and
Chenab canal controversy.
They demanded Equality and
share in administration-
points where they differed
from old org dominated by
landlord.
o However, new org also
continued their bourgeoisie
image by upholding landlords
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interests as seen in united of mediator who could bring all these

opposition to Bengal
Tenancy Bill in 1885 which
proposed to protect the
occupancy rights of peasants
and restrict right of landlord to
raise rent arbitrarily. Also,
many high class Hindu
leaders could not overcome
their social conservatism.
This can be seen from Age of
Consent bill debate between
Tilak and Gokhale of PSS.
Thus, waiving of Indian
Nationalism around Hindu
identity alienated Muslims.
 Thus idea of Indian Nationalism and
India as a Nation had to, from very
beginning, deal with issue of diversity
and differences. In this context, INC
was born trying with mix successes to
resolve these contradictions.
FOUNDATION OF THE INDIAN
NATIONAL CONGRESS (INC)
 Due to failures in agitations of Lex
loci Act (1850), Income Tax agitation
(1867), ICS demands, VPA protest
(1878), Ilbert Bill agitation (1883),
need for All India Association was
felt by political leaders.
 Efforts were there from very early
times as seen in BIA opening regional
branches in Madras and Bombay in
1851, Call for union of Indian
journalist under Native press Asso,
National Conferences conveyed by
Indian Association to discuss the
necessity of national organization.
Mutual jealousy was main roadblock
in such attempts, thus there was need
regional leaders together under one
umbrella. A. O. Hume owing to his
supra-regional identity and known
liberal views, was suitable mediator.
 Important features of INC:
o Major objective:
Development and
consolidation of national
unity.
o Session every year in diff part
of country with Extra-
regional president to break
regional barriers and
misunderstanding.
o No resolution be passed if
opposed by majority of
Hindus or Muslims.
o Democratic conduct of
sessions
 Important drawback:
o Uneven representation and
elite composition- around
17% delegates till 1909 were
landlords, 39% lawyers and
15% traders.
o Geographic inequality-
Bengal losing leadership
position to Bombay
o Social composition of
members: 90% delegates till
1909 were Hindus, 6.5%
Muslims. 40% among Hindus
were Brahmins.
o Conspiracy theories like
Safety valve to weaken the
national movement- Congress
movement limited elitist
politics to limited reforms
o Pro-landlord policies:
opposition to Mining bill,
other labor reforms in
Bombay

21

CHAPTER 5: Early Nationalism:
Discontent and Dissension
MODERATES AND ECONOMIC
NATIONALISM
 Moderates were against “un-British
Rule”, not against colonial rule.
 They demanded, not clinical
separation of India from British
empire, but only limited self-
government within imperial
framework.
 Other demands:
o Abolition of India Council
which prevents SoS to take
liberal decision
o 50% elected members in
legislatures of Centre and
Province
o New councils for NWFP,
Punjab
o 2 Indian members
Viceroy’s Executive council.
1 in Exe Council of Bombay
and Madras.
o Right to legislature to discuss
and vote on budge
o Right to appeal to standing
committee of House of
Commons against GoI
o Reduction in expenditure on
army expeditions and home
charges
o Indigenization of civil
services
o Repeal of Arms Act
o Extension of permanent
Settlement to ryotwari and
Mahalwari areas.
o Abolition of salt tax
 Economic Nationalism
moderates: Dadabhai Naoroji
calculated per capita income of
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Indians be Rs.20, while William
Digby calculated it Rs.18 in 1899.
Govt rejected this as Ripon’s finance
secretary calculated it Rs.27, while
Lord Curzon in 1901 estimated it to
be Rs.30.
 Political significance of Economic
critic:
o Corroding moral authority of
Raj by challenging whole
concept of paternalistic
imperialism
o Created anger among general
public, however, was not able
to utilize that anger due to
intrinsic faith in British rule.
 Criticism of some of earlier policies
of INC:
o Pro landlord policies as
shown above- gave a chance
to British to showcase itself as
in pro-peasants.
o Social orthodoxy due to
composition: silence of
congress on cow-killing riots
of 1893 + No social issues
taken by congress until 1907.
HINDU REVIVALISM AND POLITICS
 Difference between revivalism and
reformism:
o Reformism: Attempt to bring
changes in Hindu social
organizations and practices to
bring them in conformity with
western rationalism.
o Revivalism: emerged as critic
to obsession with Western
rationalism, Revivalism is
by
conceptualization of glorious
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past and desire to reestd past  Issues that sparked cultural

glory. th
Nationalism in late 19 century:
 As Nationalism and Reformism were o Cow protectionism in 1893:
seen as antithetical, Revivalism started by Arya samaj, also by
emerged as reaction to western Kuki sect of Sikhism. Cow
civilizational criticism. Late 19th became symbol to mobilize
century saw decline in reformism and Hindu sect eliminating
strengthening of revivalist regional, social and linguistic
tendencies. barriers. Communal fault
 Story of Age of consent bill- lines were made which
Rukhmabai, a child wife, after resulted in riots starting in
attaining adulthood, refused to accept Mau of Azamgarh district.
conjugal right of her husband. This Silence of INC on issue, close
case was dragged into court in which links of Tilak with
she lost. Later, Rukhmabai Defense Gaurakshini Sabha leader,
Committee was established, of participation of cow
which, Malabari was member. protectionist leader like
Reformist put moral pressure on Sriman Swami in Allahabad
British govt to pass Age of Consent Congress in 1893 alienated
Bill in 1891to prevent garbhadan, i.e. Muslim masses from INC.
Early Consummation of marriage. o Hindi-Urdu Controversy:
The act intended to raise age of child Started in NWFP and Awadh.
marriage from 10 yrs. (in 1860 act) to Both essentially same
12 yrs. languages, however Hindi
o Tanika Sarkar observes about written in Devanagari script
opposition to AoC bill: had more Sanskrit influence,
“Hindu woman’s body while Urdu written in Persian
became the site of struggle script had more Arabic words.
that for first time declared war Soon, both languages got
on very fundamentals of an associate with Hindu and
alien power knowledge Muslims. Establishment of
system” Nagari Pracharani Sabha in
o Very important outcome of 1893 and Taraqqi-e-Urdu
this controversy: even anti- incited issue more.
reformist received immense Association of leaders like
publicity. Thus, Hinduism MMM gave it political color.
now became a useful rhetoric Though issue subsided in
for organizing a more short time, Language
articulate and sometime even henceforth became important
militant opposition to foreign component of cultural
rule. Thus, era of Hindu nationalism in India.
cultural nationalism started. o use of religious symbols:
Ganapati festival by Tilak in

23

1894 and Shivaji festival in
1895. Though govt
suppressed them in 1910.
o Issue of Christian
missionary activities:
especially in Madras where
Vibhuti Sangam (Sacred
Ashes Society) was estd
which aimed to reconversion
of radicalized Shanar
Christians. With estd of
Theosophical society in 1882,
cultural revivalism in Madras
got strength. It again got
reinforced with arrival of
Anne Besant who formed
linkage between nationalism
and congress politics.
o Sikh nationalism: As
reaction to Arya Samaj’s
conversion Movement and
attack on Guru Nanak, Singh
Sabha Movement started.
However, it was deep rooted
in alienation of Sikh in
employ, Edu, stereotyping of
Sikh identity, Official control
of Sikh places etc. first Singh
Sabha in Amritsar in 1873. It
asserted to finding lost glory
of Tat Khalsa, purification of
Sikhism by maintenance of 5
k’s, making Gurumukhi script
and Punjabi language
dominant. Thus Sikhism was
claimed to be homogenous
community, distinct from
Hinduism and Islam.
 Thus, complex interaction of
mythical past and rationalist
present created consciousness
dilemma, which was solved by taking
shelter in an “imaginary history”.
MANDAR PATKI
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 Hindu revivalism, thus became
established political force, more
closely associated with extremist
reaction against reformist moderate
Congress politicians.
RISE OF EXTREMISM AND
SWADESHI MOVEMENT
Reasons for rise of Extremist politics:
 Factionalism: in every region of
India, in almost every sphere of
public life:
o Bengal: divide in Brahmo
samaj, Bengalee VS ABP,
Aurobindo VS Bipin Chandra
Pal.
o MH: Tilak VS Gokhale
o PN: Division in Arya samaj
after Sahajanad (moderates
VS Radical revivalist)
o Madras: 3 factions (Mylapur
clique, Egmore clique,
Suburban elites)
 Frustration with moderate politics
– issue of new constitution for
Congress which though ratified in
1899 after Tilak’s insistence, but
never implemented.
 Curzonian administration: Indian
University Act (1904), Indian Official
Secrets Amendment Act (1904)
 Hinduism or Vedic civilization was
essentially a “imagined history” with
specific historical purpose of
instilling a sense of pride in minds of
selected group of Indians involved in
process of imaging their nation.
24

Bengal partition and Swadeshi:
 Bengal was too unwieldy to rule as
frontiers extended to Sutlej in NW,
Assam in NE, Arakan on SE. Since
time of Orissa famine of 1866,
partition of Bengal was hotly
discussed.
 1874: Assam was separated with 3
million people with Bengali speaking
areas of Sylhet, Goalpara and Cachar
added to it.
 4 groups in Swadeshi: Moderate
trend, Constructive swadeshi,
Political extremism, Revolutionary
terrorism.
 In swadeshi, moderated for the first
time deviated from their conventional
methods and gave call for Boycott of
foreign goods. Thus, for first time,
they tried to mobilize other than
literate section of population.
 Low response to swadeshi by masses
because:
o Hindu Revivalism alienated
Muslims as well as certain
lower caste peasants who
were vaishnavites
o Samitis- which were
organized to carry programs
consisted only of bhadraloks
and used coercive methods
like social boycott to attract
people
o Economic aspect- swadeshi
goods were costlier than
British goods
o Nationalistic schools were not
adequate in number
o Social aspect- some lower
caste peasants like Rajbansis
had developed aspiration for
social mobility which
MANDAR PATKI
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swadeshi was not
accommodating.
o Labor class- labor strikes
were unsuccessful as it could
only penetrate to white collar
workers, not vast body of
Hindustani laborers.
 1906: Politics was in state of
confusion:
o Bengal moderates cherished
their connection with Bombay
moderates, but also supported
boycott (thus radical
tendencies).
o Non Bengali Extremist like
Lala Lajput was in mood of
restraint and wanted patch-up
of moderate-extremist. Even
Tilak was not ready for
complete extremism.
 This confusion resulted in 1906
Calcutta session, in which extremist
were successful to pass 4 resolutions
with help of Bengal moderates:
Boycott, Swadeshi, National
Education, Swaraj.
o It was here that Extremist
faction was born with Tilak as
leader. Their main aim was to
preserve this 4 resolutions,
which Bengal Moderates
planned to modify in nest
session
 Final rift: 1907 session was
scheduled to be in Pune, the extremist
stronghold. However, moderates
shifted it to Surat. Extremist
suggested Lala’s name, but
Moderates suggested Rashbihari.
Question finally boiled down on 4
resolutions, with Pherozshah Mehta
successful kept resolution out of
congress agenda. Thus, Extremist
25
 MANDAR PATKI
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opposed Rashbihari’s selection. o Annulment of partition in

Bengal Congress was already divided
between Surendranath Banerjee and
Auribindo Ghosh. Surat session
vertically divided Congress as a
whole.
 With decline of extremist, Swadeshi
died down with to more violent
method: individual attack on
British officers. This again
reoriented mass Movement to Elite
Movement, thus recognizing failure
of mass mobilization efforts.
 Later revolutionary activities showed
that militant spirit never died down
in Indian nationalism even after
suppression of 1857 revolt.
 Though direct gains from militant
activities (especially in Bengal) were
not much, but indirect achievements
were immense:
o Hanging of Khudiram Bose
and Maniktala Bomb
conspiracy trial was widely
published by press, which
fired imagination of entire
Bengal population.
o Revolutionary activities
attained legitimacy in
people’s mind- as alternative
to political mendicancy of
moderates
o Decentralization of
revolutionary activities
started.
o Morley-Minto reforms is
considered to be announced
due to fear of rising
extremism
o Appointment of S. P. Sinha in
Viceroy’s Executive council
was result of this fear.
1911
o Shifting of capital to Delhi to
end political dominance of
Bengal
MUSLIM POLITICS AND
FOUNDATION OF MUSLIM LEAGUE
 19th Century Muslims were in
fragment: both regionally and
Sectionally.
o While Bengali Muslims were
relatively deprived, other
north Indian Muslims were
privileged minority
community due to Mughal
rule
o Within Bengali Muslims: two
groups Ashrafs and Ajlaf
 First Muslim organization in Bengal:
Mohammedan Association or
Anjuman-i-Islami in 1855
 Two distinct strands in 1860s: While
Abdul Latif Khan and his
Mohammedan Literary Society
advocated for Western education
within traditional Islamic education
system, retaining full emphasis on
Arabic and Persian learning. Sayyid
Amir Ali and his Central National
Mohammedan Association (1877)
advocated secular and western model
of education system i.e. Anglicization
of Muslim education.
 Govt used this rift for divide and rule:
o GoI Resolution in 1871
increased assistance for
Muslim educational
institutions. Further
reaffirmed in Lord
Northbrook’s Resolution of

26
 MANDAR PATKI
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1875 and finally endorsed by was formed in 1893 again by

Education Commission, encouragement of Beck
which provided special  After Khan’s death, reorientation of
provision for Muslim Muslim politics from westernization
Education. to gradual Islamisation of politics by
o Also, Govt accepted demand involvement of Ulamas (who
of CNMA (Central National opposed Khan’s emphasis on
Mohammedan Association) westernization). Leaders like
about fair representation in Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali
services: Resolution in 1885 were pioneer in bringing Ulamas in
and final shape in circular of mainstream Islamic politics.
1897 which provided that  This change of ways is also attributed
2/3rd of vacancies in to Governor MacDonnell’s
subordinate executive unsympathetic policies towards UP
services to be filled by Muslims like recognition of Nagari
nomination to ensure equal Script along with Persian. Thus,
representation. Younger section dissatisfied with
o Policy was finally Aligarh’s leadership, threatened to
institutionalized in partition join INC. hence, older leaders and
of Bengal which created colonial bureaucracy felt a need to
Muslim majority Eastern establish Independent political
Bengal to secure political platform as many of Bengal, PN,
powers to Muslims. - thus Bombay Muslims were not keen to
Anti-partition movement was accept Aligarh’s leadership.
seen by Muslims as Anti-  In addition, around 1906, possibility
muslim Movement and only of annulment of partition of Bengal +
some elite Muslims whose SoS Morley’s announcement of
interests were involved in representative govt created strong
Calcutta participated in sentiment to have share in new self-
Movement. governing body and secure Muslim
 Transformatory process of North representation in it. This led to Simla
Indian Muslims was centered around Deputation in Oct 1906 to Lord
efforts of Sir Sayyad Ahmad Khan Minto. However, deputation was
o Estd Mohammedan Anglo- dominated by UP Muslims and thus
Oriental College in 1875 Bengali Muslims turned back on this.
o Theodore Beck, European From this deputation, it started
principal of Aligarh college, demand of Muslims having legitimate
formed Indian Patriotic claim to minority rights and
Association in 1888 to oppose proportional representation in
congress. representative institutions. Concept
o Mohammedan Anglo- of “Nation within a Nation” started
Oriental Defense Association picking a pace.

27

 Thus, delegates of Simla deputation
decided to mobilize community in
political arena. On this background,
in Next annual Mohammedan
Educational Conference which was
scheduled in Decca in 1906, it was
decided to launch party called
Muslim League.
CHAPTER 6: Age of Gandhian Politics
CARROTS OF LIMITED SELF-GOVT
 Why British choose to introduce
Responsible self govt from late 19th
century though rule had strong
paternalistic policies?
o Financial exigencies- it was
assumed that more
representation of Indians in
local govt would raise more
revenue
o Weak empire theory: some
argue that empire was
essentially turning weak, and
thus needed local support
o Raising tide of Nationalism
o Spread of extremism: gave
feeling to Raj that India
cannot be ruled with “Cast
iron Bureaucracy”. SoS
Morley and Viceroy Minto
were more vocal about Indian
participation.
 With passage of GoI Act, 1909, there
started more political acceptability
for Indian self-rule within British
political circles. With increasing
dominance of radical faction within
INC as seen in Lucknow pact (1916),
Anne Besant’s radicalization of
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Congress, the new SoS Montagu in
1917 made historic declaration in
House of Commons that overall
objective of “Gradual development of
self-governing institutions with view
to progressive realization of
responsible government in India as an
integral part of British Empire”
 Reforms of 1919, some argue was
nothing but to consolidate British raj
in India. Also to gain more popular
support for Raj in India. As electorate
were expanded, it started era of “Mass
politics”
 However, Gandhian Philosophy,
based on critique of Western Civil
Society, had engineered notion of
mass movement very different from
such colonial logic. His mission was
to liberate Indian Politics from this
constricted arena of
Constitutionalism.
ARRIVAL OF MAHATMA GANDHI
 Gandhi offered younger generation,
fruasted with squabbles between
moderates and extremists, a way
ahead. In an age of moral vacuum and
physical despondency, he promised a
political program that was spiritually
noble.
 WW I brought social and economic
dislocations for nearly all the classes
of Indian population, accomplishing
the necessary social mobilization for
an impending mass upsurge. The war
also discovered ugly face of Western
Civilization, thus disillusioned
educated Indians.
 Ideology offered by Gandhi- fully
aware of pluralistic fabric of Indian
28

society, argued that ideology must be
rooted in India and its ancient
civilization. He identified that
religion was more determining factor
for popular loyalties than class.
Gauging the influence of religion on
minds of people, Gandhi used
religious idioms to mobilize the
masses. However, it was not
revivalism as Gandhi referred to
religious morality, not history.
Being moral goal, it was ever-elusive.
His political goal of Swaraj was not
defined by him, thus could unite
different communities and interest
under it. Thus “Inclusivism” came to
be identified as Gandhi’s unique style
of politics.
 By being critical to concept of
‘Modern Civilization’, Gandhi
threatened the internal legitimacy of
ruling culture.
 he was not in favor of Industrial
Capitalism. In fact, he believed that
Indians themselves were responsible
for their enslavement as they
embraced capitalism and associated
legal and political structures. “The
English have not taken India; we have
given it to them”. His remedy for this
was reverting to self-sufficient village
economy of ancient times.
 Parliamentary democracy, does not
reflect Gandhi’s view of general will
of people. For him, it was not enough
to achieve independence and then
perpetuate “English rule without the
Englishmen”; it was also essential to
evolve an Indian alternative to
western liberal political structures.
His alternative was ‘Popular
sovereignty’ where each individual
control/restrains his own self. “Such
MANDAR PATKI
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Swaraj, has to be experienced by each
one for himself”.
 To achieve above dream, his
technique was Satyagraha. It was
based on the premise of superior
moral power of the protesters capable
of changing the heart of the oppressor
through a display of moral strength.
 To existing disjuncture between
morality and politics- the concept of
Ahimsa was answer to bridge the gap.
However, problem of reconciling the
principle of ahimsa with realities of
nationalist movement proved to be a
perpetual “dilemma” that Gandhi had
to negotiate with throughout his
career as a leader of Indian
Nationalism.
 Gandhi was able to project, in divided
and contestable space of Indian
politics, a centrist position for
himself. Because he alienated neither
and tactically combined the goal of
moderates with the means of
extremists. He adopted Moderates
goal of swaraj, but was “delightfully
vague” about its definition. His
methods of Satyagraha look much
like passive resistance of extremist.
But his insistence on non-violence
alleviated fear of moderates.
 Gandhi’s Muslim policy:
identifying the rift between old guard
and younger generation of Aligarh,
Gandhi aligned with younger
generation and supported the Khilafat
cause. He highlighted its Anti-British
aspect and Pan-Islamic tendency, and
thus for first time united Hindu and
Muslims against British.
 Gandhi’s Mass appeal: his simple
attire, use of colloquial Hindi,
reference to popular allegory of
29
 MANDAR PATKI
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Ramrajya made him comprehensible  Failure of Rowlatt agitation make

by local man. Gandhi realized need for impersonal
 The masses interpreted Gandhi's political organization such as
message in their own terms and Congress.
rumors surrounding the powers of this
messianic leader served to break the
barriers of fear involved in KHILAFAT AND NON COOPERATION
confronting formidable enemies.
Also, though people answered the  Muslim dissatisfaction in early 20th
calls given by Gandhi by giving him century:
mass support, but reasons and o Younger generation of
considerations were different from Aligarh discarding
that conceived by Gandhi. contradiction between
o Example- Kheda satygraha, Muslim self-affirmation and
though masses responded Nationalism propounded by
vehemently, but that were for Old guards
local causes like inflation due o Muslim University Bill
to wars. Knowledge about (1920)- provided non-
Rowlatt act was little in affiliating university under
common masses. strict govt control, opposed by
 Rowlatt agitation: Gandhi’s call for Muslims
nationwide satyagraha from 6 April. o Annulment of partition of
Soon, after his arrest on 9 April, Bengal
movement lapsed into violence, with o 1911-12: Tripolitan and
Gandhi’s associates having little Balkan war seen as
control over it. Gandhi agreed to have conspiracy to weaken
committed a Himalayan blunder by Ottoman empire
offering weapon of satygraha to o Papers like Comrade,
people who have not understood non- Hamdard, Al Hilal, Zamindar
violence completely. British, with no reflecting dissatisfaction.
prior experience of handling such o 1919 reforms rejected
widespread mass agitation, came up Lucknow pact.
with unprecedented suppression. Due o Turkey sympathetic leaders
to collapse of communication like Shaukat Ali arrested after
machineries, provincial govt reacted outbreak of WW I
according to own abilities. While  Rise of ulama dominance as seen in
Bombay exercised restraint, Punjab Deoband School and Firangi
committed blunder of Jallianwala Mahal. Young generation closed gap
bagh. Though failed in its objective, with ulamas, which was insisted by
the Movement was first nationwide Sayyid Ahmad Khan.
popular agitation shifting o Delhi session of ML (1918)
momentum of politics from elites to invited ulamas and for first
masses.

30

time brought them into
political Centre stage.
 Khilafat Movement had two factions:
one of moderate group of Delhi
merchants and other of radical leaders
like Maulana Azad, Shaukat Ali.
Latter group drive the Movement
when it met British PM but were
unsuccessful.
 In 1920, announcement of Treaty of
Severs and Report of Hunter
Commission brought INC and ML
close and agitation started with
leadership of Ali brother and Gandhi.
o INC was not in favor. Special
Calcutta Session (1920)
however approved Gandhi’s
program with stiff opposition
from Jinnah, C.R. Das, Pal
o Program consisted Boycott,
Khadi, national schools.
 Why INC leaders agreed Gandhi’s
demands of NCM?
o Gandhi’s proven potential as
political organizer
o Support of politically dormant
areas like Bihar and UP for
Gandhi
o Independent peasant
Movement already started in
Midnapur (Bengal), Awadh
(UP), Kheda (GJ).
o Labor unrest and trade
unionism was on peak- major
strikes in Bombay textile
industry, estd of Madras
Labor Union and AITUC.
o Unusual attendance and
response to Nagpur session
of Congress in 1920 where
NCM was approved
 Some Successes of NCM:
MANDAR PATKI
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o Participation of peasants and
working class
o Boycott of council elections
was successful except in
Madras
o Foreign cloth import actually
fall
o Anti-liquor campaigns
succeeded in PN, Madras,
Bihar, OD
o Hindu-Muslim alliance
remained unshaken except in
Malabar.
o Anti-Untouchability
Movement, though failed to
gather support, was brought in
forefront by Gandhi by
inserting in Historic 1920
resolution an appeal “to rid
Hinduism of the reproach of
untouchability”
o involvement of hitherto
politically backward sections
like RJ, Sindh, GJ, Awadh,
Assam, MH
o tribal involvement by forest
satygrahas in Andhra delta
and Bengal, Badridutt Pande
of Almora organized
Movement against Utar or
forced labor. Eka Movement
by Madari Pasi.
o Labor unrest
o Inspiration to generations:
personal examples of local
leaders like C.R. Das giving
up lucrative law practice
inspired younger population.
 Limitations of NCM:
o Violence: Bombay riots on
eve of visit of prince of wales,
chauri chaura
31

o Rift of extremist section- who
trusted Gandhi on NCM
o Justice Party: turned
Movement into Brahmin-Non
Brahmin issue and thoroughly
discarded Movement by
participating in elections
o Regional variations- South
India largely remained
unaffected. Movement
succeeded only where already
existing peasant agitations
were in force like UP Kisan
Sabha Movement, Patidar’s
No revenue campaign in
Kheda, Bihar Anti-planters
agitation, Orissa anti-feudal
demonstrations which later
were absorbed in NCM.
 This shows that it was
internal dynamics of
region that accounted
for success of NCM
rather than Congress’s
nationalist campaign.
o Different causes of different
regions: every region was
agitating for its own causes.
Local leaders had very little
control over it.
o Hindu-Muslim rift: use of
religious rhetoric by Khilafat
leaders like Shaukat Ali
resulted into riots like
Moplah riots
o Rise of Hindu Revivalism
o Big industrialist remained
largely loyal to govt
 Akali Movement is considered as
side effect of NCM. However, Sikhs
never allowed Movement to turn into
wider campaign of Congress. Tracing
origin to Singh Sabha Movement, this
MANDAR PATKI
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Movement started in 1920 when
SGPC formed.
o Demand: free the shrines
from govt control. For this,
Akali dal was formed.
Already irrited by jallianwala,
Akalis collided with govt
when govt took over Golden
temple in 1921. Akalis used
Satyagraha to ultimately win
the control of temple by
Gurdwara Reform Act of
1925.
 Nature of “Mass Movement”
erected in Gandhian Phase:
Gandhian movement depended on
vertical structure of leadership like
central authority, regional leaders and
local leaders. The message of Gandhi
reached masses thru this structure.
But it was transformed and
transfigured into imagination of
different communities as they
interpreted the message. The
construction of these meanings,
which depended on specific
structures of community, local
situations and nature of existing
organizations, determined extent of
mass militancy. Thus, Gandhian
mass Movement, actually contained
within it various levels of
consciousness informed by different
visions of freedom. The vision of
Congress’s nationalism, if projected
through such Movement, was
contested from within the Movement.
This was feature that marked the
subsequent Congress mass movement
as well.

32

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
 Crisis of Unity in congress after
NCM due to rising factionalism of No
and Pro-changers. Hindu-Muslim
unity was in shambles as Pact
brokered by C.R. Das in Bengal broke
and Bengal witnessed large scale
riots. Similarly, Muslim League was
divided into supporters of Joint
electorate and Separate electorate.
Communalization of politics was on
peak with defeat of Motilal Nehru by
MMM. Untouchables were
struggling with leadership between
M.C. Rajah and Ambedkar.
 Reasons for discontent in masses
and launch of Mass Movement:
o The Great Depression of
1930- it especially hit export
based colonial economy of
India. Prices of food crop
started falling down and it
affected Rich as well as poor
peasant. Credit crunch added
to challenge which forced
peasants to sale the land.
o Parallel streams of protest-
outside Congress ambit, of
Poor Muslims in Bengal,
tribals like Santhals,
Untouchables like
Namasudras
o Discontent within
Industrialist: Indian
Industrialization happened
unintentionally during WW I
protectionist policies of GoI.
These Industrialist organized
themselves under FICCI and
came in direct friction with
Govt. thus their opinion about
MANDAR PATKI
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Congress changed and need to
cooperate with it was felt
o Labor Activism: rising
industrialization invariably
raised importance of labor
class. Increasing Communist
influence on working class
(Shekap, Girni Kamgar
Sangh) led their united
organization. Congress tried
to attract them by projecting
itself as pro-workers.
o Simon Commission – all
white commission gave an
opportunity for dormant
national movement. Nehru
Report, though standing on
shaky ground, but converged
all parties at demand for self-
rule.
o Reemergence of Gandhi-
especially after Bardoli
Satygraha, where Gandhi
again showed efficacy of his
satygraha. This purge Gandhi
out of Political inconsistency
and depression.
 Gandhi was successful in passing
resolution giving British ultimatum to
accept his demands. In reaction,
Irwin Offer was made on Oct 1929,
proposing a RTC to settle the issues.
o Talks broke down on issue of
Dominion status: INC wanted
full details of Dominion status
be discussed.
 Thus, Gandhi, in Lahore Session on
1929 was able to pass resolution of
“Purna Swaraj”. However full-
fledged struggle was opposed by
many:
33

o Muslims within Congress
were pressing for H-M unity
first
o Muslim Conference and
Muslim League condemned
movement as devise for
“Hindu Raj”
o Sikhs, Hindu Mahasabha,
Justice Party opposed
movement
o Business groups were
apprehensive about uncertain
possibilities.
 Gandhi, to unite all such grievances
to abstract concept of independence,
announced 11-point ultimatum for
Lord Irwin.
 It was attempt to combine each
group’s demands, prominent one was
abolition of salt tax.
 After rejection of this ultimatum,
Gandhi launched Dandi March
which was followed by Non-revenue
payment in Ryotwari areas, No-
Chaukidari tax campaign in
Zamindari areas, forest law
violations in Central India.
 However, movement immediately
became violent especially after
Chittagong Armory raid. Violence
erupted all over India, especially after
Gandhi’s arrest. Thus, movement was
definite advance of radicalism over
NCM.
 Participation- while Muslims,
Labors, Intelligentsia remained aloof,
Business class participation was
noteworthy. They financed and
supported boycott. Large scale
woman participation was another
imp feature (rich Bhadralok woman
as well as Peasant woman). Rich
peasantry’s demands were
MANDAR PATKI
AIR 22 CSE 2019
successfully related to Swaraj
demand, thus their participation
increased.
 Fallout of Movement: Repressive
measure like arrest of leaders
weakened movm. Mercantile class
suffered losses due to Depression of
1930. Middle class was
unenthusiastic from beginning as
youth’s were more attracted towards
revolutionary terrorism. Working
class support was non-existent
(except Nagpur) and owing to their
radical propensities, Gandhi was
apprehensive to include them. Richer
peasantry (Patidars of GJ, Jats of UP)
dissipated due to confiscation and
sale of properties. However, drastic
fall in Agri prices rose lower
peasantry again in No-tax campaign
which had serious divisive
implications on society. Thus,
Gandhi decided to withdraw movm
through Gandhi-Irwin pact of 1931.
 On failure of 2nd RTC, when Gandhi
tried to revive the movm, it received
lukewarm response from all sections
above. The Movm declined by 1934.
 The movement, generated
widespread acceptability of Congress
and mobilized its political support.
This can be seen in Massive electoral
victory of Congress in 1937
elections. Formation of ministries in
8 provinces, however, was seen as
success of Right wing within
congress who preferred constitutional
struggle rather than agitation methods
of Gandhi. Thus, while fighting the
British Raj, the Congress itself was
becoming the Raj and gradually
drifting away from Gandhian ideal of
Swaraj.
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ACT OF 1935 AND PAPER princely states from rising tide of

FEDERATION Nationalism.
 WW I showed importance of princes
 Provisions related to center never
to empire: they donated in war fund,
implemented because suspicion about
recruited army, rendered military
Federal structure in 3 main players:
service. In return, they demanded
o Muslim League- federation
constitutional restrictions on
with strong center would
dominating tendencies of Political
jeopardize interest of Muslim
dept., more guarantee of insularity
majority provinces
against political tides in British India,
o Congress: 1/3rd reservation
and greater participation in
for Princely states would
consultative process of empire. They
place idea of democratic India
raised demand of Chamber of
in hands of these autocratic
Princes and Direct access to GoI in
rulers.
1919.
o Princely States: Bombay
 Act of 1919 provided 120 member
session resolution of
Narendra Mandal to advise Raj on
Chamber of princes shows
all matters relating to states and their
Apprehension about joining
relationship with paramount power.
the federation as issue of
o The chamber broke physical
Paramountcy was not
and political isolation of
resolved. Other fear was
princes
elected leaders from British
India would have little
sympathy for rulers and these
will eventually encourage
Democratic movements in
states.
o Labor opposition in
England: criticized
Federation as plan only to
protect British interests in
India by sharing power with
loyalist elements.
Relationship between British India and
Princely States in 20th century:
 Curzonian policy of interventionist
paternalism strained relationship.
Minto’s policy of laissez faire again
revived the bonhomie. The Minto’s
policy was with aim to isolate

35

CHAPTER 7: Many Voices of a nation
MUSLIM ALIENATION
 Imbibing of status of “perpetual
minority” by separate electorate in
1909, sudden withdrawal of NCM,
Religious conversion movements,
Rise of Extreme Hindu Rightist and
their electoral collaboration with
Congress in 1920s, growing tendency
to view Community an nation as
binary opposite, Suspicion about
Congress’s secularism, Changing
opinions of early leader who earlier
demanded unity (e.g.- Dr. Kirchlew),
rejection of Bengal Pact of C.R.Das
by Congress at Coconada session
(1923) – All these factors increased
alienation of Muslims from 1908 to
1920s.
 Issue of “Music before Mosque”
became emotive issue and fight
between nations of religious and
secular space was main issues which
sparked riots in 1923 and 1927. This
also became issue diving the
electorate along communal lines.
 Motilal Nehru, succumbing under
pressure, was forced to nominate pro-
Mahasabha candidates. Thus not a
single Muslim candidate among
Congress candidates in Bengal or
Punjab in 1926.
 After End of NCM, Congress
returned back to constitutional
struggle. Thus anti-agitation Muslim
leaders like Jinnah were ready to
cooperate with Congress on condition
of renegotiation of Lucknow Pact.
However, process was derailed after
Mahasabhites opposition at All
Parties Conference at Delhi in 1928.
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o Mahasabhites even tried to
pass resolution condemning
Separate Electorates for
Muslims in Guwahati
Congress session.
o Even work of congress
ministries in 1937 onwards
was seen as discriminatory
towards Muslims. Pirpur
commission report ignited
this fear, especially in
Muslims in minority
provinces.
o Rejection of Congress to
share powers with Muslim
League in minority provinces
like UP gave wrong message.
o Jinnah’s entry in national
politics as Muslim League
leader in 1934 onwards, the
passage of the Shariat
Application Act, 1937, Mass
contact campaign by Jinnah
provided much needed
political support and
legitimacy to ML.
o Idea of Muslim Nationhood
started picking ground from
1930 when Sir Mohammad
Iqbal, then president of ML
demanded constitution of
Centralized Territory for
Muslims in India, by merging
4 provinces of PN, NWFP,
Sindh, Baluchistan.
o Karachi meeting of Sindh
branch of ML, presided by
Jinnah, that passed resolution
which mentioned need for
“Political self-determination
of two nations”
o Lahore session of 1940
formally proclaimed Muslims
36

as a nation. It demanded
“Independent states” to be
constituted for Muslim
majority provinces.
o in this way, for Muslim
leaders, who in 1921 saw no
conflict between their
Indianness and Muslim
identity, recognition of their
separate Muslim nationhood
became non-negotiable
minimum demand in 1940s.
 The class approach in Congress
policies and its emphasis on
individual citizenship failed to satisfy
Community centric concerns of
Muslims.
NON-BRAHMAN AND DALIT
PROTEST
Maharashtra Non-Brahmin Movm
 Mahatma Phule, in attempt to
mobilise Dalits, also sought to attract
Kunbi peasants.
 Non Brahman Movement in MH had
two trends: One of conservatives led
by richer non-Brahmin who reposed
faith in British govt and remained
loyal, other of Radicals represented
by Satyasodhak samaj
 Although opposed initially to
Brahmin dominated Congress, in
1930s such movements were drawn
into Gandhian Congress.
South India Non-Brahmin Movm
 Non-Brahmin movement here was
associated with Vellalas and
Dravidian identity.
 The issue boiled down on language,
with Non-Brahmin groups
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advocating separate origin of Tamil
from Sanskrit. They also rejected
status of Shudra imposed on them.
 Thus using language, there was
attempt to bring disparate groups of
people into “devotional community”.
 On political front, movement
followed publication of “Non-
Brahmin manifesto” and estd of
Justice Party in 1916. It opposed
Congress and demanded separate
electorates like Muslims, demand
which was incorporated in 1919
reforms. Justice party contested and
won majority in elections of 1920.
However, this started drifting of
Dalits from Justice party
 After forming ministry, Justice Party
was dominated by richer Non-
Brahmin castes like Reddis, Vellala,
Nairs. Thus, untouchables, under
leadership of M.C. Rajah, left party,
leading to defeat in 1926 elections.
 At the same time, “Self-respect
Movement” emerged in south India
under Periyar’s leadership. He
contested Gandhi’s Pro-Brahmin and
Pro-varnashram thoughts. He put
self-respect before self-rule.
However, the Movm, much centered
around Tamilian identity, led to clash
between Tamilian and Dravidian
identity.
 During 1930s, as congress became
more powerful, Non-Brahmin
movements became more Radical and
populist in appeal. Emphasis was
getting laid on boycott of Brahmin
priest, burning Manusmriti, Temple
entries.
 1937 Anti-Hindi movm on C. Rajaji
govt decision laid to emergence of
concept of “Dravida Nadu”.
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Dalit Movement bottom and Hadis at

 Christian missionary activities did
one imp thing- inculcated message of
Self-respect in Dalits which resulted
in Movm like Ezhavas(Kerala),
Nadars(TN), Mahars, Chamars(PN),
Balmikis(Delhi), Namasudra(Bengal)
 Common features of Dalit Movm:
o Deliberate adoption of high
caste symbols like sacred
thread, entering temples-
 Vaikkom (1924-25),
 Guruvayur (1931-33),
 Kalaram (1930-35)
o Demand of Social rights from
 Dalit alienation from Congress:
high caste Hindus:
 Mahad tank
satyagraha (1927),
 Namasudras’ mov for
funeral service from
Kayathas (1872),
 Nadar’s mov to right
of woman to cover
breast like high caste
woman
o Resurgence of Bhakti
tradition which imbibed spirit
of protest and social solidarity
in Dalits for gaining right of
social equality:
 SNDP among Ezhava
 Matua sect among
Namasudras
 Satnampanth among
Chamars of CH –
declared ritual
superiority over
Brahmins
 Balahari sect of Hadis
of Bengal- inverted
ritual hierarchy where
Brahmins were at
top.
o Seeking secular or political
solution to problems of social
and religious disability:
 Ambedkar’s advocacy
for education
 Demand for
“protective
Discrimination” in
Edu and jobs (reservn)
 Demand of Separate
electorate was
extension of this
strategy.
o Colonial bureaucracy strategy
of divide and rule by making
sympathetic policies (though
not implemented many of it)
o Congress’s vehement
opposition to separate
electorates
o Congress’s approach to que of
caste and untouchability-
averse attitude to take up
social issues owing to
Brahman domination and
social conservatism of early
Congress.
o Hindu nationalist approach-
what ‘golden age’ for them
was ‘dark age’ for Dalits.
o Issues of Gandhi’s approach:
his justification for
Varnashram and differences
with Ambedkar, as well as
overemphasis on social aspect
of untouchability, neglecting
political and economic aspect.
(“Gandhi dignified the
untouchables, but failed to
empower them”)

38

 Very fundamental diff betn approach
of Gandhi and Ambedkar: Gandhi
gave social solution, while Ambedkar
emphasized on economic and
political solution for Untouchability.
 Pan-India Dalit Movement:
o First meeting of All India
Depressed Class Conference
at Nagpur in 1920 under
presidency of Kolhapur
Maharaja
o All India Depressed Classes
Leaders’ Conference
(AIDCLC) in Nagpur in
1926- here, AI Depressed
Classes Asso was formed with
M.C. Rajah as prez and
Ambedkar as one of VP.
o 1930- AI Depressed Class
Congress founded by
Ambedkar who resigned from
AIDCA
o Ambedkar’s demand for
separate electorate to Simon
comm and RTC
o AIDCLC in Bombay in
1931- formal resolution for
separate electorate- opposed
by Gandhi in 2nd RTC.
o Rajah-Munje Pact (1932)-
between leaders of AIDCA
and Hindu Mahasabha for
advocacy of Joint
Electorates. thus, Dalit
leadership divided on
electorate issue.
o Poona pact
o Congress estd All India
Depressed Classes League
under Jagjivan Ram to
politically mobilise Dalits.
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o Works of Congress ministries,
however, alienated Ambedkar
as well as leaders like Rajah.\
o 1936- Ambedkar founded
Independent Labor Party to
mobilize poor and Dalits on
broader agenda- significant
electorate victory from
Bombay in 1937
o After appointment as Labor
member in VC’s council, he
started All India SC
Federation in 1942
 However, this org could not stand
before Gandhi’s QIM and gradually
collapsed due to fact that Gandhi’s
movm acquired legitimacy and
picked up pace, which AISCF
couldn’t match. It suffered massive
defeat in 1946 elections.
 Cabinet Mission, accepted Congress
as representative of Dalits on basis of
electoral victory. Thus patronage of
Ambedkar ended, which left him no
option but to align with Congress.
 After resigning as Law minister, he
converted in Buddhism, act
considered as ultimate public act of
dissent against Hinduism and
oppression.
BUSINESS AND POLITICS
 Owing to side effects of WW I,
growing tendency towards import
substitution, growing domestic
market, growth of internal trade,
shifting of capital from traditional
activities (moneylending) to
industrial investment, outflow of
foreign capital made conditions for
growth of Indian industry, which had
39

control over 62% industrial units by
1944. Indian capital also penetrated
areas hitherto left by foreign
investment like Insurance, finance,
jute, mining.
Industrial Class and National movm
 After World War I, Collapse of Rupee
threatened Indian importers, while
exporters flourished. Wartime
taxation affected Merchants, while
Industrialist and Big Businessmen
were being appeased by govt to win
their support. Reforms of 1919
introduced “Interest
representation” in legislature.
 Other than this, Fiscal Autonomy
Convention (1919) and hope for
Protective tariffs kept the class
loyalist. Thus, Gandhian nationalism
received mixed response from
Business community.
 Gujarati and Marwari Merchants
attracted to Gandhi and contributed to
constructive programmes. Some big
industrialist like Jamnalal Bajaj and
G.D. Birla became associates of
Gandhi. Confidence that Gandhi
could prevent Congress from being
Anti-Capitalist attracted some of
industrialist
 However, violence in NCM and
strikes like Ahmedabad Mill and after
arrest of Gandhi, irritated many
industrialists. Anti-Non
Cooperation Society was started in
Bombay with help of Purushottamdas
thakurdas and R.D. Tata. Many of
industrialist preferred Constitutional
agitation, thus opposed Gandhian
ways.
 During 1921-22 when wartime
business boom collapsed and
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Japanese cheap goods started
inundating market, many
industrialists joined hand with
Swarajist to rise demands like
Abolition of 3.5% excise duty on
cotton.
 Competition betn European and
Indian capitalist intensified, with
former estd ASSOCHAM in 1921
and latter estd FICCI in 1927 in
response.
 1929 depression forced GoI to adopt
Pro-British policies, thus alienating
Indian industrialist.
 Issue of currency rate, which was
put high on basis of Hilton-Young
Commission, brought Industrialist
and Congress closer. Currency
League was formed in 1926 with help
of Gandhi and Patel. During same
time, Congress returned to
constitutionalism, further attracting
industrial class.
 Later, in RTC opportunity, Indian
industrialist saw way to solve
problems. But Congress policy to
boycott it and adoption of Lahore
resolution kept certain industrialist
skeptical. However, they were not
alienated because of rise of
communism and labor strikes under
communist influence in 1930s (like
Girni Kamgar Union).
 AITUC formed in 1920 gave
Industrialist hope to fight spread of
communism.
 thus, period of 1930s saw alignment
of Congress and industrialist with
Congress catering their demands as
seen in 11-point ultimatum of
Gandhi, which included 3 specific
capitalist demands- Rupee rate,
Protection to cotton industry, reserve
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coastal shipping for Indian socialist wings of congress. Bombay

companies. Manifesto (1936) was signed by 21
 However, CDM received mixed businessmen which condemned
response with cloth merchants Nehru’s socialist ideas.
supported boycott, while Mill owners  Election of 1937 brought industrialist
and Bombay industrialist, still further closer to Congress, with even
depending on Govt, remaining sceptics like Mody financing election
skeptical. FICCI also supported only congress. This was due to detoriating
principles of CDM. economic conditions which drifted
 With increasing unrest in CDM, industrialist closer to nationalists.
industrialist like Thakurdas and Birla  Initial labor policies of Congress
brokered deal betn Govt and Gandhi, ministries made industrialist worried.
resulting Gandhi-Irwin Pact. But 1938 brought decisive shift in
 While FICCI delegation in 2nd RTC policy with passage of Bombay
remained with Gandhi, however, Trade Disputes Act and many anti-
Industrialist opinion split on support labor moves taken by provincial
to CDM once it was resumed. Lobby ministries.
of Tata and Homi Mody opposing  From this time onwards, industrialist
CDM, while Ahmadabad Lobby started maintaining strategic
supporting it. relationship with Congress. Their
 This divide further widened with reluctance to participate in QIM and
Lees-Mody Pact of 1933 in which further aligning with Congress after
Bombay House was accepting the defeat of QIM shows their favor for
preference to Lancashire, but constitutionalism.
Ahmadabad Lobby opposed. Ottawa  Some business leaders actively
Agreement of 1932 which promised participate in economic planning
benefits to Indian businesses by process initiated by Nehru. First
fostering ties with diff industries of National Planning Commission of
Empire, got hostile response from 1938 saw capitalist members like
FICCI, while Bombay lobby Thakurdas, A.D. Shroff, Ambalal
supported it. Sarabhai.
 After End of CDM in 1934, loyalists  Further, with Bombay Plan of 1944,
were rewarded as TISCO got Steel 8 main industrialist demanded
Protection Bill passed in assembly Planned economy and pressed on
and Bombay textile industry got importance of FYPs.
benefitted from Indo-Japanese
Thus, industrialist support for Congress was
treaty, which set quota for Japanese
strategic, issue based, pragmatic and
goods.
strictly Conditional. Their Nationalism was
 In 1930s, to restrict rising socialism
not above their business interest. Thus, their
within congress with leaders like
approach toward national Movm remained
Nehru & JP, the Industrialist
multifaceted and lacking consistent ideology.
patronized right wing leaders like
Patel and Rajendra Prasad to clip

41
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WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS  Factor contributing growth of

Trade Unionism:
 Owing to combination of British
o Need of Channel of
policies and rise of industrialization,
negotiations: in 1920s,
working class within India rapidly
colonial state and some
increased.
employers, in event of
 In India, workers were not directly
recurring strikes, viewed TU
employed, but through the jobbers as legitimate channel of
known as sardars in eastern and negotiations.
western India and Mistri in north.
o Employer-State Collusion:
 The working class was divided employers used to suppress
horizontally on religious, regional, striking workers with states
caste division. Employer often took always on their side. Thus
advantage of such division to weaken workers felt need of TU
the industrial action. o Crackdown on existing
o E.g.- in Madras textile strike TUs: like Madras Labor
in 1921, Adi-Dravidas or Union which was temporarily
untouchables were used crushed by British textile
against caste Hindu and magnates, suppression of
Muslim unionists. Jamshedpur Labor Asso by
o Talia riots in Calcutta in 1897 TISCO management.
betn Hindu-Muslim workers o Problems in WW I period:
on issue of demolition of fall in real wage growth and
Mosque. detoriating working
 Initially, despite of very limited condition, retrenchment by
growth of Trade Unionism, employers and higher
widespread workers strikes occurred workloads.
as in Bombay, Sholapur, Madras. o Rising working class
This was due to Community and militancy: in industries of
religious bonding and ties which cotton, jute, steel plants had
helped to work for common interest. reached proportion when it
Interestingly, Trade Unions were was not possible to ignore by
born out of such confrontations. established political groups.
 Thus, complex matrix of class,  Amritsar Session
community and collective action (1919) of Congress:
governed workers’ relationship with passed resolution
colonial state and nationalism. urging provincial
 Some industries were indeed what committees to
termed as “industrial variant of “promote Labor
Zamindari estate”. This was seen in Unions throut India”.
indenture labor in Assam tea garden  Congress Policy on workers: faced
and Service tenancy agreements in in dilemma of labor-industrialist,
Eastern Coal Mines. Congress was heavily influenced by

42

Big industrialist. During Swadeshi,
very isolated attempts were made to
organize labor strike. National leaders
ignored work of mobilizing workers.
In addition, support to workers in
Indian industries meant that foreign
capitalist had added advantage. Thus,
workers were often asked to sacrifice
their present need for future of
nations, as strikes affecting Indian
industrialists were seen as invitation
to foreign economic domination.
Such dilemmas evoked strong
reactions from workers.
 only some leaders like Gandhi
(Ahmedabad Textile strike 1918),
Bose (Jamshedpur Steel strike 1928),
V.V. Giri in Madras, Guljarilal Nanda
in Ahmedabad were involved
individually.
 Formation of AITUC by Indian
delegation to ILO, remained largely
fictional. Gandhi instructed ATLA
not to join it as it aims to political
utilization of labor strikes.
 Despite organizational apathy from
Congress, working class participate
enthusiastically in national struggle.
o Strikes in NW railways,
Madras Cotton Mills, Assam-
Bengal railways during NCM
in 1921.
o Great Indian Peninsular (GIP)
Railway strike in 1930 during
CDM.
 Congress leaders themselves were
rarely direct responsible to organize
such strikes. It was Labor’s strategy
to align their interests with
Nationalist Movm to sought greater
legitimacy for their struggle.
 Gandhi disproved such autonomous
labor militancy especially after
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Chandpur tragedy in 1921. Even
Nehru, as president of AITUC in
1929 tried to balance between
industrialist-labors.
 it was in 1937 elections where to gain
support, some labor welfare programs
were added to Manifesto. Victory of
Congress and many TU leaders
becoming labor ministers raised
hopes of labors, only to be struck
down by Anti-labor shift of congress
in 1938.
 Congress’s dual role: supporting
labor strikes in non-congress states
(like Bengal in Fazlul Huq govt) and
denounce in Congress ruled state
alienated Working class.
 Result of Congress’s such dilemma
was Communism wave in labor
movm. Consistent opposition of
Communist to Govt made them
popular in Labor groups. Rise of
Workers and Peasants Party, Girni
Kamgar Union shows impact of red
wave in labor movm.
 Communist TUs targeted groups
unsatisfied with Congress such as
Mill Mazdoor Sangh of Ahmedabad
drew its support from Muslim
workers unsatisfied with Gandhian
ATLA, Kanpur Mazdoor Sabha
targeted alienated workers.
 However, enthusiastic communist
labor strikes in 1920s were met with
Govt suppression in form of two bills-
Public Safety Bill and Trades
Disputes Act which were passed
without opposition of Congress.
Further Meerut Conspiracy case
(1929) considerably weakened labor
movm. Advent of CDM under
Gandhian leadership diverted mass
attention to national Movm.
43

 Communist revival in 1933-34 after
withdrawal of CDM, also saw
Congress Socialists cooperating
with communist. This raised another
strike wave in 1937-38. This
consolidated communist wave was
perhaps reason behind provincial
congress govt tilting decisively Anti-
labor.
 After lifting ban from Communist
party in 1942 due to its war support,
factionalism in AITUC began which
considerably weakened further Labor
Movm
WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION
 Women education movement had
been supported by different sections
with their different views. Motive
behind it was never the emancipation
of women.
o Colonial Govt: wanted
educated wives for Indian
Civil Servants, so that they
must not suffer trauma of split
household. Also, English
educated mothers were
expected to breed loyal
subjects.
o Educated Indian
Intelligentsia: dream of
Victorian ideal of
companionate marriage, thus
Bhadramahila appeared as
ideal companion to
enlightened Bhadralok.
 Thus education, far from
emancipatory, further confined
woman to idealized domestic roles as
good wives and mothers.
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 The national movement erected
nationalist construction of public and
private spaces equated them with
material-spiritual dichotomy. The
‘world’ or public space, a typically
male domain, was site of contest and
negotiation with modernizing
colonial state, while “home” was
inner domain of sovereignty which
was beyond colonization-where
women were perceived as protector
and nurturer of spiritual essence of
Indian national identity.
 This nationalistic construct of
difference of gender specific models
of modernization opened new areas of
contestation for women, who did not
accept the attribution of passivity.
 Because of such construct, Women’s
question was not directly taken up by
Congress, just like untouchability, till
1917.
 With extremist gained strength in
Bengal, the nationalist there
appropriated the already privileged
cultural concept of “Motherland” as
empowering and authentic symbol of
indigenous cultural distinctiveness.
(as opposed to concept of fatherland
in Europe). Leaders like Aurobindo
Ghosh discovered the potential of
imagery of motherland that could
excite patriotism and national
awakening.
 Gandhi’s advent turned major shift in
involvement of Women in nationalist
Movm. Though Gandhi remained
within middle class tradition of
conceptualizing womanhood and he
did not seek to invert doctrine of “two
separate spheres” of public and
private space, but redefined women’s
political participation by creating
44

space for politics in home. He
advocated their role in spinning,
picketing. For him, men and women
were equals, but had different roles
to play.
 one of the reasons why Gandhian
Phase saw massive woman
participation: Gandhi’s insistence on
non-violence and emphasis on
maintenance of a respectable image
of women satyagrahis did no breach
the accepted norms of feminine
behavior and as a result, men felt
confident that their women would be
safe in Gandhi’s hands.
 However, political participation of
women failed to promote to
significant extent social emancipation
of women in India. Because, woman
participation was predominantly
urban phenomenon. Also, only such
women participated of whom
husbands or family members were
already in nationalist movement.
Thus, their political role was an
extension of domestic roles. Even,
Muslim women who enthusiastically
participated in Khilafat Movm, but
crossed the boundary of feminine
modesty by involving in violent
revolutionary action, they were
heavily censored by disapproving
society.
 Congress leaders were simply not
interested in women’s issues and
except for allowing some symbolic
presence, never included women in
any decision making process. A
frustrated Sarala Devi Chaudharani
thus lamented that Congress wanted
them to be “law breakers only and
not law makers”.
MANDAR PATKI
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 However, on positive side, hundreds
of woman from respectable families
marching in files on streets, going
jails, suffering indignity there and
coming back had No stigma
attached, signifies a remarkable
change in Indian social attitudes.
Some of Women were slowly pushing
the boundaries of their autonomy by
manipulating available cultural
metaphors, like “Extended Family”.
Bi Amman, elderly mother of
Shaukat and Mohammad Ali,
participated in Khilafat and lifted her
Purdah and addressed the crowd as
her children. As a mother did not
require purdah in front of her
children, whole nation was by
implication was thus incorporated
into her “Extended fictive family”.
 Once mobilized, women moved on
their own. Time and again they
disobeyed Gandhian injunctions that
set limits to their activism.
 However, such activism never
crossed barriers of Patriarchy and not
aimed to bring dramatic change in
social arena. Most of female
involvement in nationalist Movm was
through women-only organizations.
Many legislations were passed like
giving franchise to woman, Sarda Act
of 1929 with enthusiastic nationalist
support. But both Congress and Govt
found it impossible to implement.
Thus, such legislations, for all
practical purposes, were dead.
 The dominance of woman social
organizations came under serious
challenge in 1940s when women
across class and religion came in
more active role for themselves in
public space and fought as comrade-
45

in-arms, especially in QIM. Leaders
like Aruna Asif Ali, politely turning
down Gandhi’s advice to surrender,
gave leadership to underground
activities. Sucheta Kriplani
coordinated non-violent struggle.
This engagement of women was
further encouraged after lifting of ban
on Communist Party in 1942. Many
women participated in Labor Movm.
The involvement in Communist
Movm further expanded in Tebhaga
Movm, where dalit and tribal women
formed Nari Bahinis and resisted
colonial police.
 Outside the country, experiment to
involve Indian women in actual
military action had been initiated by
Subhash Chandra Bose.
 Overall, woman did not use occasion
of participation to raise issues that
affected them as women. Their own
goals were subordinated to those of
national liberation, community honor
or class struggle.
 If gender boundaries were blurred in
course of militant action or political
struggle, they were quickly
reestablished afterwards without
failure. Thus, two separate sphere
theory, remained unchanged and
unaltered.
MANDAR PATKI
AIR 22 CSE 2019
CHAPTER 8: Freedom with Partition
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
 After withdrawal of CDM, rise of
Congress Socialist Party (CSP) and
issue of contestation in elections and
office acceptance factionalized the
Congress. However, after winning
elections and accepting office, the
works of Congress ministries not
only alienated Laborers, but also
Peasants and Dalits, thus proving
concerns of Nehru and CSP about
office acceptance true.
 Kisan Sabha Movm started in Bihar
under Swami Sahajanand Saraswati
in 1929 with BPKS. The central
Andhra leadership was CSP activist
N.G. Ranga who organized peasant
marches and Ellore Zamindari Ryots
Conference in 1933 which demanded
abolition of Zamindari.
o Ranga and Namboodripad
spread peasant Movm to
Madras presidency and
organized South Indian
Federation of Peasants and
Agri Labor. They initiated
need for All India Peasant
body.
o All India Kisan Sabha
(ALKS) was formed at
Lucknow session of
Congress in 1936 with
Sahajanand as 1st Prez. Due
to efforts of CSP members
and Communists, AIKS
remained part of Congress
and maintained close
relationship with Provincial
Congress Committees.
 Congress too, was given more radical
orientation by socialist members in
46

Faizpur session in 1936 where
Congress finally adopted Agrarian
Programme. 1937 session also saw
AICC, despite Gandhi’s resistance,
adopting resolution to provide moral
and material support to Peoples’
movements on Princely States.
 While this shift was resisted by Right
wingers who saw ascendency of
leftist, they could do little as election
of 1937 saw unpreceded response for
Socialist programmes of Congress.
 Right wingers started clipping wings
of this peasant militancy by engaging
with landlords, especially in Bihar.
This angered peasants who started
Bakasht land movement under
Kisan Sabha. Under pressure of
landlords, Congress tried to suppress
Movm and now started maintaining
distance from Kisan Sabha.
 In UP, Kisan Sabha disillusioned
with Congress’s ministry’s proposal
to dilute tenancy act. Thus, Kisan
Sabha leaders like Narendra Dev
organized peasants against Congress
ministries. In Orissa too, pro-
landlord amendments to proposed
tenancy law was resisted with
mammoth Kisan Day rally on 1 Sept,
1938.
 The decisive shift between Congress
and Kisan Sabha came with Kisan
Sabha in 1938 denouncing Gandhian
ideals of class collaboration and gave
call for Agrarian Revolution.
Congress in Haripura Session
prohibited Congressmen from
becoming members of Kisan Sabhas.
Congress and its Princely State policy
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 In 1920s and 1930s, non-intervention
policy in affairs of princely states, to
respect sovereignty of rulers. Thus,
people themselves arranged into
Praja Mandals, raised moderate
demands for constitutional changes
and democratization. Later, All India
States’ People Conference (AISPC)
was founded in 1927.
 In late 1930s, congress left-wingers
like Bose and Nehru, became more
insistent on desirability of greater
intervention in princely states. Right
wingers also, with dream of power at
proposed federal center, started
demanding reforms.
 Rejection of Federation of 1935 Act
by princely states proved shifter in
Congress policy. Haripura
Congress in 1938 adopted resolution
to support peoples’ movements in
states with individual participation
permitted. Special Subcommittee of
CWC was also assigned.
 Nehru accepted presidency of AISPC
and Tripuri Session 1939 called for
Joint Action. This saw spectacular
escalation in popular agitation in
princely states in 1938 & 39 in states
like Mysore, Jaipur, Rajkot,
Travancore, with Gandhi himself in
Rajkot agitation. However, with help
of British Movm were suppressed and
turned violent and later into
communal flames in Southern
Deccan, which forced Gandhi to
withdraw it in 1939. This increased
stiffness of princely states to oppose
proposed federation idea of 1935 Act.
 This princely state policy issue also
became confrontation front for Left
and Right wingers, as seen in election
47

of Subhash Bose as President in
Tripuri Congress.
Quit India Movement and its formation
 Rising anger over Congress and
increasing militant mood by 1940s
prepared ground for mass movement.
Membership of Congress fell from
4.5 million to 1.4 million in period of
1938-41
 Starting of WW II and ambivalence
within congress to support it created
matter of confusion. Failure of
Linlithgow to accommodate two
demands of congress led to failure of
August Offer.
 With Japanese invasion on doorstep,
Congress early wanted to prepare
masses for invasion. This led to
Gandhi announcing at Ramgarh
Session (1940) starting of civil
disobedience with “individual
Satygraha”. Purpose was only to offer
Anti-war speeches.
 With possibility of Japanese invasion
appearing real, Gandhi was in
unusual militant mood in 1942 where
he accepted need for Indians to
defend themselves. Meanwhile,
economic and social life of Indians
suffered due to war sufferings, thus
Indians were on threshold and ready
for final showdown on British
Imperialism.
Reasons for Quit India Movement
 Economic hardship:
o Industrialist, rich peasants:
though profit increased, but
excessive Profit tax, forcible
MANDAR PATKI
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collection of War fund,
coercive sale of war bond
o Common people: scarcity of
essentials especially rice due
to decline of Burmese import,
Stringent British procurement
norms, divergence to military.
 Destruction of myth of British
invincibility: experiences of
Refugees from Burma, and Malay
and their accounts on how British
collapsed.
 British Policies: like “Denial policy”
through which British started
destroying all means of
communication in Coastal Bengal
Atrocities by Australian and
American soldiers on Indian Civilian
popu
 External influence: Axis
propaganda and also by Subhash
Bose’s Azad Hind radio about
possibility of weakened British
leaving India soon
 Ground prepared by other
organizations: CSP, Forward Block,
Kisan Sabha, AITUC already
prepared militancy within masses for
confrontation with authorities.
 Congress’s policies: Gandhi’s call
for mass struggle cornering
opposition of Nehru and Rajaji within
congress and passage of “Quit India
Resolution” by AICC in Bombay on
1942. Do or Die slogan fired
imaginations of already rankled
Indian population. Gandhi also called
for Individual course of Action if
leaders arrested.
 In QIM, Congress and Gandhi
enjoyed unquestionable symbolic
48

legitimacy in popular mind.
However, Gandhi was the undisputed
leader of movement over which he
had little command.
 3 Phases in QIM:
o Urban revolt: strikes,
picketing. Very short phase
o Countryside revolt: major
peasant rebellions,
destruction of communication
channels and visible symbols
of authority. Formation of
“national Govt” in diff areas.
This phase attracted ruthless
suppression
o Revolutionary activities:
sabotage war effort by
propaganda activities. 3 mains
groups- Aruna Asaf Ali group
mobilizing volunteers,
Jayaprakash Narayan’s
guerilla warfare from Nepal
border, Sucheta Kripalani’s
Gandhian group emphasizing
constructive programmes.
 By end of 1942, QIM was ruthlessly
crushed with Churchill defending it as
“wartime need”.
 Revolutionary activities: Region
wise
o Bihar: new organizational
structure called ‘Azad Dastas’
or Guerilla bands were
formed, which conducted
raids on ammunition depots,
treasuries, govt offices. Some
CSP leaders like JP tried to
control over this dastas, but
dastas later developed links
with dacoit gangs and started
crime. Thus suppressed in
1944
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o UP: Students from BHU and
Allahabad University
participated especially in
eastern UP. Ballia town
established parallel
administration under Chittu
Pande
o Bengal: tribals like Santhals
and Dalit groups like
Rajbanshis and Paliyas
participated. Movm was most
intense in Tamluk and
Midnapur, as they were
affected by “Denial Policy” of
British which deprived
peasants their boats, thus
affecting local economy.
Tamluk estd Jatiya Sarkar
and formed trained volunteer
corps Bidyut vahini and
woman corps Bhagini Sena.
In Contai, Swaraj Panchayats
were established. These were
disbanded after Gandhi’s call
to end Movm
o Orissa: coastal districts of
Cuttack, Balasore, Puri saw
peasant revolts.
Moneylenders and Zamindars
were also attacked. Tribals
were also mobilized by Praja
mandals who carried out
forest satygrahas and No rent
campaign. Talcher district,
people overthrew local rajas
and British rule to establish
Chasi-mulia raj. However,
these were bombed by RAF
planes. Laxman Naiko in
Malkangiri and Nawrangpur
assembled tribals and non
tribals to declare end of
49

British Raj and arrival of
Gandhi-Raj.
o Maharashtra: most
successful parallel govt was
Satara’s Prati Sarkar which
emerged out of Non-Brahmin
Movm base. Central figure
was Nana Patil who organized
Seva dals and Tufan dals,
peoples’ courts like nyaydan
mandal were established. It
fought with local dacoits to
estd its dominance. However,
it refused Gandhi’s call to end
Movm in 1944 and continued
till 1946 despite various
British attempts to suppress it.
o Gujrat: in districts of Kheda,
Surat, Broach and princely
state of Baroda, Movm was
most successful. In
Ahmedabad, “Azad Govt”
were etsd. Labor strikes were
prominent features while No-
rent campaign was totally
absent unlike previous Movm.
Some Dalit factions like
Baraiya and Pattanvadiya
peasants openly opposed
movm due to oppression of
Patidar dominated Congress
ministry in past.
o South India: Movm was less
popular especially in Madras
due to Opposition of C. Rajaji,
strength of constitutionalism,
absence of socialist,
opposition by Kerala
communist, southern
challenge to political
campaign dominated by
North.
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 Muslims deliberatively stayed away
from campaign as Muslim League
opposed it. However, except in some
part of Gujrat, Communal clashes
were largely absent
 Dalits, under leadership of
Ambedkar, who joined VC’s
executive council just before inset of
Movm, did not join it. However, some
regions saw dalit participation
 Hindu Mahasabha, too remained
aloof with Savarkar, Munje opposing
movm. However, despite the official
line, members like N.C. Chatterjee
joined Movm.
 Communist Party of India, as
Soviet was party to war, supported
British govt.in turn, ban on CPI was
lifted in 1942. However, Trade
Unions and Kisan Sabhas affiliated
with CPI found it difficult to convince
workers and peasants not to
participate.
 Quit India movement by promising
immediate freedom from an
oppressive imperial order had thus
captured the imagination of a
significant section of the Indian
population, notwithstanding their
differing perceptions of freedom.
 British govt, learned a lesson from
this revolt that it was difficult to
tackle such militant mass Movm
without wartime emergency powers.
Thus, keeping India under rule by
force was seeming impossible.
Hence, there was greater readiness to
accept a negotiated settlement for
respectable and ordered withdrawal.
Importance of Congress as
negotiating body and only structure to
give stable govt to India was also
recognized.
50

TURBULENT FORTIES
 Azad Hind Army and Issue of INA
trials reckoned Pan-India response
with almost all parties supporting the
cause and taking up issue in 1946
elections.
Communism in 1940s
 After announcement of “Unity Front”
by Comintern at Moscow in 1935,
Communist entered in cooperation
with Congress and Socialist.
 After ban lift in 1942, CPI was once
again actively involved in mobilizing
masses.
 Though Congress was ready for truce
with govt in 1943-44, Communist
were not. The Bengal Famine of 1943
created need of one more agitation in
Bengal. Communist tried to control
Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha
(BPKS) and spread agitation.
 In this background, Tebhaga
Movement was launched by BPKS.
It affected wider area of Bengal and
involved medium to poor peasantry.
Peasants carved out their tebhaga
elaka or liberated zones where they
instituted alternative administration
and arbitration courts.
o Muslim League ministry, in
power in Bengal, responded
by proposing a Bargadar Bill
in 1947. however, dropped
because of opposition within
Muslim League and from
Congress. Police repressions
and Landlords’ lathiyals
suppressed movement and
BPKS decided to backtrack.
o The movement showed
complex mosaic of
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community and class in
Bengal society. It showed
how peasants were able to
organize around class ties
transcending communal
tensions.
 Maharashtra Kisan Sabha took
cause of Varli tribal agri laborers in
Thane district, whose main grievance
was vethi or forced labor and demand
for minimum wages. The movement
was also organized by Communists
who successfully met with vethi’s
demands. Thus, communist now
gained popularity in tribals.
 In South India, communists
entrenched themselves in peasant
unions in North Malabar in early
1940s, when region suffered short
food shortage and famine. Kerala
Communist Party tried to negotiate
with landlords which broke down in
1946. It followed fight between
Peasant volunteers and Malabar
special Police
 Most popular uprising of communist
in South India was Punnapara-
Vayalar near industrial city of
Alleppyye in 1946. It started with
announcement of Diwan to make
Travancore state independent. Food
scarcity and lockout in coir industry
assisted the cause of communist
against Diwan. Revolt however was
suppressed with violent breakdowns.
 In Hyderabad princely state,
Telangana Revolt was organized by
communist in 1946 against sahukars,
pattadars, deshmukhs and
Deshpande for abolition of forced
labor Vetti, wage increase demand,
and abolition of grain levy. After
Nizam’s announcement of
51

independence and Razakar’s
atrocities, communist started guerilla
with organized peasantry in dalams
which began seizing wastelands and
surplus lands from landlords and
started redistribution. Even after
Indian army entered Hyderabad,
Communist decided to carry on
struggle which was finally withdrawn
in 1951. Telangana Movm was most
widespread, intense and organized
peasants Movm in history of colonial
India.
 Communist also utilized suffering of
industrial workers and some strikes
were organized like Southern
Railways.
TOWARDS FREEDOM WITH
PARTITION
 After WW II broke out, British policy
was caught between two polarities:
Churchillian negativism and
Crippsian constructiveness. While
Churchill wanted to hold empire
united and postpone concession as
long as possible, Sir Stafford Cripps
who was labour party
representative in war cabinet was
committed to Indian independence.
 However, under pressure of
Roosevelt, Churchill signed Atlantic
charter giving right to self-
determination, but said that it applies
only to European people subjugated
by Nazi Germany.
 With Japanese advances in 1942 in
SE Asia, Allies like Roosevelt and
Chiang Kai Shek put pressure on
Churchill to solve Indian problem.
Thus, Britain send Cripps Mission to
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India who declared right of self-
determination of India. Though
rejected by Congress, the Mission put
forth 2 main points which became
pillars of British policy of
decolonization in post war period:
one was ultimate goal of Indian
independence within or outside
empire, other was unity no longer
precondition for independence.
 Post war, in addition to chaos in India,
Britain was financially dependent on
US through loans. Plus, anti-
imperialist sentiments were on all-
time high. UN charter and its strict
trusteeship rules made empire
morally indefensible.
 Indian usefulness for British was
decreasing: Indian fiscal and
economic policies were turning,
protective tariffs were being imposed
in war time, Indian opposition to use
Indian army as asset to defend
colonies in SE Asia was increasing,
military expenditure was key issue,
Britain’s debt to India was piling up.
 Thus, India was becoming less
manageable as a colony- could be
kept under heavy cost, both
financially and militarily. Thus
consensus was reached that British
interest in India could now best be
safeguarded by treating it as
independent nation. The massive
Labour victory in July 1945 created
atmosphere for such political change.
 However, Hindu-Muslim question
now became bone of contestation.
With passage of Lahore resolution
(1940) of ML elevating status of
Muslims from minority to Nation,
demand for Pakistan as Sovereign
nation intensified. Failure of Cripps,
52

Rajaji formula made matters worse
and pushed India towards community
riots.
 At such stage, British govt announced
Wavell, then Viceroy of India, to start
negotiations with both parties. Wavell
was successful in convincing
Churchill about Congress-League
coalition govt as preemptive
measure to forestall political crisis
that he predicted after war. Thus, in
1945, he proposed Simla offer with
entire Indian executive council
excepting VC and CiC. Conference
was wrecked after Jinnah’s demand
of exclusive right to nominate
Muslims.
 Deliberate vagueness in demand of
Pakistan helped Jinnah to mobilize
Muslims of all strata. The demand got
legitimacy from religious sanctions
from pirs, ulamas and Jinnah became
undisputed “sole Spokesperson” of
Indian Muslims. Leaders like Fazlul
Huq (Krishak Praja Party in WB) and
Sikander Hyat Khan (Unionist Party
in PN) who opposed Jinnah’s line
were politically sidelined as demand
for Pakistan was legitimized in
province of Punjab and Bengal.
Pakistan was represented as “a
Peasant’s Utopia” which will bring
liberation of Muslim peasantry from
hands of Hindu zamindars and
moneylenders.
 Jinnah made election of 1946 a
referendum for Pakistan, for which
Muslims of Punjab, Sindh, Bengal
voted heavily. Thus further
constitutionally legitimized Jinnah’s
demand.
 In this political turmoil, RIN mutiny
broke, the day after which Atlee
MANDAR PATKI
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announced proposition of Cabinet
Mission.
 While Muslim League in April 1946
in legislators’ Convention in Delhi
defined Pakistan as sovereign
independent state of Muslim majority
provinces, Congress in April 1946
declared complete independence for
united India was demand of
Congress.
 Even though Cabinet Mission
categorically rejected demand of
Pakistan, the Muslim League
accepted the proposal as it gave future
roadmap for Pakistan to be formed.
Congress, on other hand, gave
acceptance to long term plan of
Mission, but raised serious objections
on groupings.
 On this stand of Congress, Jinnah
withdrew support and made call for
Direct Action. This was followed by
the Great Calcutta Massacre of
August 1946. This was result of
convergence of elite and popular
communalism, which was exploded
through swords.
 Situation detoriated and Wavell
established Congress govt in Sept
1946. League later was made to join.
However, this changed a little and
CWC in March passed resolution on
partition as sole option.
 Arrival of Lord Mountbatten due to
dissatisfaction of Atlee on Wavell’s
defeatist attitude reflected in
“Breakdown Plan” moved things
faster. Feb 1947 Atlee declared
Transfer of power by June 1948.
 Mountbatten, on arrival, realized that
it will be impossible to transfer power
to United India. Thus he proposed his
“Plan Balkan” of right of self-
53
 MANDAR PATKI
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determination to provinces, which

was vehemently opposed by
Congress and league alike. Then,
Mountbatten put forth plan to ToP to
two Dominions of India and Pakistan
and plan was announced on 3rd June.
 Sikhs had their own reservations.
Since Lahore resolution of ML, there
have been talks of Khalistan which
was opposed by Akali Dal. When
Pakistan as a separate nation appeared
to be real, talks for separate Sikh state
intensified. Memorandum by Sikh All
Parties Committee to Cripps Mission,
however, asserted their attempt to
resist the separation of Punjab from
Indian union. Later, relation between
Sikhs and Muslims detoriated and
when loss of properties and lives was
seen, Partition was seen as best
option.
 Bengal, on other hand, under H.S.
Suhrawardi began advocacy of
‘United Sovereign Bengal”. The
campaign was resisted by Hindu
Bhadraloks and Hindu org like
Mahasabha and proposal remained
dead.

 For many Indians freedom thus came

with a sense of loss caused by the
partition, while to many Muslims in
Pakistan, particularly to their state
ideologues, partition itself meant
freedom
 Partition was Primordial Divide, a
divide that was 50 years young and
5000 years old.

54