SIGHT DISTANCE
• distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see an
object of specified height on the road ahead, assuming
adequate sight and visual acuity and clear atmospheric
conditions.
 From driver’s eye to obstructions, vital for
accident prevention
 Driver should have enough time to see the
obstructions for proper maneuver
 If obstruction not seen, prone to accidents
 Important, especially in intersection
 Factors to consider are road alignment, grade,
curve, radius, and presence of obstacle
 If addressed, help to reduce potential accidents
and contribute to safety
Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance (SSD)
 Minimum sight distance available on a highway
at any spot should be of sufficient length to stop
a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely
without collision with any other obstruction.
 Depends on feature of road, height driver’s eye
above the road surface, height of object about
the road surface
 Distance required for a driver to perceive a
hazard
 Perception or recognizing hazard, and then
react, and then decide what to do, then brake
 Time of perception is called perception reaction
time
 Time of brake is called braking time
 SSD is critical to minimize accidents
It depends on
a. Feature of road ahead
b. Height of driver’s eye above the road surface (1.2m)
c. Height of the object above the road surface (0.15m)
Criteria for measurement
a. Height of driver’s eye above road surface (H)
b. Height of object above road surface (h)
Factors affecting SSD
• Total reaction time of driver – SSD accounts for the
time it takes for a driver to perceive a hazard, decide to
stop, and physically apply the brakes, Ranges from 1.5 to
2.5 secs
If reaction time is fast, required SSD is short
• Speed of vehicle – one of the most critical factors
affecting SSD, faster moving vehicle requires longer
distance to come to a stop
• Efficiency of brakes – effectiveness of vehicles’ braking
system is a significant consideration, more efficient
brake result in a shorter braking distance, reducing
overall SSD, must be maintained in the vehicle itself
• Frictional resistance between road and tire – level of
traction or frictional resistance between road surface
and tires is crucial for ability to stop
• Gradient of road – the slope of the road, whether
uphill or downhill, is an important factor, inclined and
decline roads increase distance required to bring vehicle
to stop, requiring higher value of SSD
Another factor is the drivers training and experience in
driving
Road designers and planner uses standard calculations
to determine SSD based on factors mentioned
Total reaction time of driver:
• It is the time taken from the instant the object is
visible to the driver to the instant the brake is effectively
applied.
• It is divided into types
(a) Perception time
It is the time from the instant the object comes on the
line of sight of the driver to the instant he realizes that
the vehicle needs to be stopped.
 Time it takes for a driver to recognize and
perceive a potential hazard. During this time,
the driver sees the hazard
 The brain will process the information and send
signals to body to do properly react
 Factor are alertness of driver, visibility
conditions, weather (during rain, visibility is
affected), clarity of hazard if identifiable
(b) Brake reaction time.
The brake reaction also depends on several factor
including the skill of the driver, the type of the problems
and various other environment factor. Total reaction
time of driver can be calculated by “PIEV” theory.
PIEV Theory: P-perception, I-intellection, E-Emotion, V-
Volition Theory
 Once the driver perceives the hazard and decide
to stop, time it takes to step on brake is the
brake reaction time
  This is the time it takes the driver to physically
react by moving their foot from accelerator
pedal to brake pedal applying pressure
 Influenced by driver coordination, familiarity to Braking Action - Based on the driver’s ability to
vehicle control decelerate the vehicle while staying within the travel
The sum of total reaction time is composed of lane and maintaining steering control during the braking
perception and brake reaction time maneuver. A deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 is
Total reaction time is a critical component in comfortable for 90% of the drivers,
determining the SSD required for a driver to safely come
to stop when encountering a potential hazard on roads.
It is important to account for this time in road deign and
safety assessment to ensure driver have adequate time
and distance to react to unforeseen situations

Analysis of SSD
• The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance
and the braking distance
1. Lag Distance
- The distance the vehicle travelled during the reaction
time
- If “V” is the design speed in m/s, ‘t’ is the total
reaction time of the driver in seconds
lag distance = v ∙ t
- If “V” is in kph,
lag distance = 0.278 v ∙ t
- AASHTO recommended reaction time is 2.5 seconds

2. Breaking Distance
Safe overtaking (OSD) or passing sight distance (PSD)
- The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver
of a vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead
with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is
known as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD)
or the safe passing sight distance
- In limited 2-lane or 2-way highways, vehicles may
overtake slower moving vehicles, and the passing
The stopping sight distance maneuver must be accomplished on a lane used by
opposing traffic

 Driver must be calm while driving, especially

those who overtakes always
 This is the distance requiring driver to safe and
legally overtake vehicle in front
 Distance necessary for the overtaking driver to
come to opposing lane, pass the slower vehicle
• Using typical units for velocity (kph) and considering and return to original lane without
the braking action of the driver, the stopping sight encountering incoming traffic or interfering the
distance may also be written as vehicle being passed

Safe sight distance for entering an intersection,
Intersection Sight Distance
- Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection
(particularly unsignalized intersection) has sufficient
visibility to enable him to take control of his vehicle and
to avoid collision with another vehicle.
 Emphasize the importance of ensuring drivers
approaching intersection to have clear visibility
in the interaction area
 Driver should see the entire intersection and
any potential hazards within the vicinity to make
sure safety and navigate and maneuver safely
and do not collide to other vehicles and
obstructions
 The ultimate goal to ensure driver able to see
the intersection tis to have enough decision to
avoid collision and obstruction. He should
recognize incoming traffic, his speed, speed of
other vehicle, distance of his vehicle, determine
the correct timing to cross the intersection
- The corner sight distance available in intersection
quadrants that allows a driver approaching an
intersection to observe the actions of vehicles on the
crossing leg(s)
 It pertains to the visibility and line of sight of
driver when approaching an intersection. The
sight distance is critical because it enable driver
to observe movement of vehicles in other
sections and legs
 Concept of corner sight distance is essential for
ensuring road safety. It enables driver to have
clear view of the vehicle in other sections of the
intersection providing them with information
needed for deciding to have safe and
appropriate movement. It is crucial in
preventing collision and maintaining smooth
flow of traffic in the intersection, especially in
multiple road intersection.
- Clear sight triangle must be free of sight obstructions
such as buildings, parked or turning vehicles, trees,
hedges, fences, retaining walls, and the actual ground
line.
 Clear sight triangle refers to a triangular area at
an intersection or along a roadway where
visibility is essential for safe and efficient traffic
flow.
 It should be free of any obstruction that could
hinder a driver’s ability to see incoming traffic
and make safe decisions
 Purpose to ensure to clear sight triangle is to
enhance road safety to allow drivers to have
unobstructed visibility, especially in intersection
is about right of way, making turns and crossing
traffic
 Proper road design and maintenance consider
the need to keep this triangular area free from
obstruction leading to accident prevention,
reduce number of accidents, reduce fatalities,
reduce likelihood of blind spots
Road authorities need to have proper maintenance,
regulations, to ensure safe and efficient movement of
traffic
RAILWAY HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Historical Notes in Railways
1824 – Nicolas Carnot, carried out the pioneering work
of developing steam energy
1804 –Richard Trevithick designed and constructed a
steam locomotive
1814 – George Stephenson, produced the first steam
locomotive used for traction in railways
1825 –Recorded first public railway in the world was
opened to public, between Stockholm and Darlington
1833 –First railway line in USA between Mohawk and
Hudson
1835 –First railway in Germany was opened from
Nuremberg to Furth
1875 –King Alfonso XII of Spain promulgated a Royal Mindanao Railway System –Phase 1 construction
Decree directing the Office of the Inspector of Public expected to begin Q4 in 2021
Works of the Philippines to submit a general plan for
railroads on Luzon (June 25, 1875). Rail versus Road Transportation

The plan, was entitled Memoria Sobre el Plan General

de Ferrocarriles en la Isla de Luzón.

1876 – Memoria Sobre el Plan General de Ferrocarriles

en la Isla de Luzón Grand Master Plan
1891 –First rail tracks laid
1892 –Openned for commercial use, from Ferrocarril de
Manila to Dagupan

Before series of wars engulfed Philippines, more than a

thousand route-kilometers were built.
Only 452 km were operational after the war.
Only 129 km remain operational (2021).
The government aims to expand railway network to
1900 km by 2022

Greater Manila
Railway Networks
Green –LRT 1
Blue –LRT 2
Source:Bernard
Arellano III
Yellow – MRT 3
Orange –PNR

Ongoing Rail Projects

Track Components
LRT 1 Cavite Extension – expected to reduce the travel The track is the railroad on which trains run.
time between Baclaran and Bacoor to around 20
minutes
from the usual one hour.

LRT 2 East Extension –to add new stations: Marikina-

Pasig and Antipolo
MRT 7 –elevated railway from North Ave. to SJDM,
Bulacan. Expected to serve 350,000 daily commuters.
MetroManila Subway Project – expected to serve
370,000 daily passengers.
North South Commuter Rail Project –Clark-Calamba
Railway, expected to be full operational by 2025
RAILS
▪ Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel
lines to provide an unchanging, continuous, and level
surface for the movement of trains.
▪ To be able to withstand stresses, they are made of
high-carbon steel.
Functions
1. Rails are similar to steel girders. These are provided to
perform the following functions in a track.
2. Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the
movement of trains.
3. Rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very
little friction.
4. Rails serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
5. Rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads
transmitted to them through axles and wheels of rolling
stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.
6. Rails carry out the function of transmitting the load to
a large area of the formation through sleepers and the Rail Specification
ballast. Every rail has a brand on its web, which is repeated at
intervals
IRS-52kg – 710 –TISCO –II1991 –>OB
a) IRS-52-kg: Number of IRS rail section, i.e., 52 kg
b) 710: Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or 880
c) TISCO: Manufacturer’s name, e.g., Tata Iron and Steel
Co.
d) II 1991:Month and year of manufacture (February
1991)
Rail Gauge e) ->:An arrow showing the direction of the top of the
▪ Gauge is defined as the minimum distance between ingot
two f) OB: Process of steel making, e.g., open hearth basic
rails. Sleeper Density and Spacing (OB)
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. SLEEPERS
Itis specified as ▪ Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support
M +x or N +x the rails.
▪ They have an important role in the track as they
M or N is the length of the rail in meters and x is a transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast.
number that Functions
varies according to factors such as 1. Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment
a) axle load and speed, 2. Giving a firm and even support to the rails
b) type and section of rails, 3. Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider
c) type and strength of the area of the ballast
sleepers, 4. Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the
d) type of ballast and ballast ballast to absorb the blows and vibrations caused by
cushion, and moving loads
e) nature of formation. 5. Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the
The gauge is measured as the clear minimum distance permanent way
6. Providing the means to rectify the track geometry
SLEEPERS during their service life.
between the running faces of the two rails
Sleeper Density and Spacing
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail
length. Itis specified as M +x or N +x
M or N is the length of the rail in meters and x is a
number that varies according to factors such as
a) axle load and speed,
b) type and section of rails,
c) type and strength of the sleepers, For joining rail to rail - Fish plates, combination fish
d) type of ballast and ballast cushion, and plates,bolts, and nuts
e) nature of formation. For joining rails to sleepers –
Cast-iron bearing screws, plate
BALLAST screws, pandrol clifts, rubber
▪ The ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, or any pads.
other granular material placed and packed below and
around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers
to the formation.
▪ It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral
stability to the track.

Moorum ballast -It normally used as the initial ballast in

new constructions and as sub-ballast.
Coarse sand ballast – used primarily for cast iron rails.
Coal ash cinder – normally used in yards as initial ballast
in new constructions since it is very cheap.
Broken stone ballast – made from hard stones, normally
used for high- speed tracks.
Functions
1. Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest
on.
2. Holds the sleepers in position during the passage of
trains.
3. Transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a
large area of the formation.
4. Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for
proper riding comfort.
5. Provides the necessary resistance to the track for
longitudinal and lateral stability.
6. Provides effective drainage to the track.
7. Provides an effective means of maintaining the level FAILURES, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF
and alignment of the track. TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES

Transportation infrastructures are foundational

structures and systems for transporting people and
goods.
 Physical assets and facilities that support
movement of people, goods and services within
and between regions
 Critical components in the country in economic
TRACK FITTINGS AND
and social development because it helps in
FASTENINGS
economic growth, job creation, trade and
 commerce, connectivity, mobility and
convenience, national security, environmental
considerations, tourism and cultural exchange
and disaster response
Common Types of Transportation Infrastructures
➢ Roads
➢ Railways
➢ Bridges and Tunnels
➢ Ship Canals
➢ Ports
➢ Airports Runways
ROADS
Roads such as streets, avenues and highways. Includes
paved roads, unpaved roads and roads with unique
surfaces like cobblestone and such.
 Essential in transportation infrastructures
because it consist of networks and constructed
pathways that allow vehicles and pedestrian to
move from one location to another
Roads Failure Causes
➢ Rutting due to high variation in ambient temperature
 Occur due to road surface and temperature
fluctuation
➢ Uncontrolled heavy axle loads
 Design road with expected loadings and weight
and not the on the whole lifespan of roads that
expected loadings will be the only crossing the
roads. Sometime limit is passed, and excessive
weight is there that causes damage to road
structure integrity and produce and accelerate
wear and tear
➢ Inadequate Stability
➢ Loss of binding action
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
➢ Congestion
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake etc.)
 Like natural disaster, flood, earthquake, flooding
and landslide
➢ Accidents
➢ Poor Maintenance
 If causes are addressed, there is the need to
conduct maintenance, check if traffic
management is effective, proceed on checking
materials used if they are standards, have
proactive maintenance to extend the lifespan
and usability of road infrastructures.
TYPE OF ROAD FAILURES
THE FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF PAVEMENT FAILURE ARE
1. Cracking
 Formation of fissures and fracture on road
surface that result due to various factors like
due to traffic loads, temperature changes,
construction deficiencies
 Common form of road distress that if not
addressed that could lead to extensive and
costly damage
➢ Fatigue Cracking
 Aka Alligator cracking or wheel path cracking
 It resembles alligator skins
 Often caused by repeated loading from heavy
vehicles
➢ Longitudinal Cracking
 Direction is parallel to the road
 Usually caused by combination of factors
including temperature fluctuation, traffic
loading and poor construction practices
➢ Transverse Cracking
 Direction is perpendicular to the road
 Caused by temperature, stress, and fristo cycle
that led to water infiltration
➢ Block Cracking
 Pattern of cracks is rectangular or square
shaped
 Caused by aging and hardening of asphalt,
result to inadequate flexibility of asphalt
mixture
➢ Slippage Cracking
 Appears as crescent shape
 Open cracks with one end facing the direction of
traffic
 Caused due to poor bonding of asphalt layers
 If present, moisture infiltration in construction
ca be observed
➢ Reflective Cracking
 Cracks that form on the surface of an overlay
and follow the pattern of existing cracks on the
underlying pavement
➢ Edge Cracking
 Occurs along the edges of roads
 Caused by the weakening of the road edge due
to water infiltration, traffic loads and
inadequate support
2. Surface Deformation
  In roads and pavements, it is the changes and
irregularities in road surface, contour and
texture
➢ Rutting
 The formation of depression and cracks in road
surface caused by repeated wheel loads,
especially those from heavy vehicles
➢ Corrugations
 Series of wave-like transverse ripples or
angulation in road surface
 Commonly appears in unpaved and gravel roads
➢ Shoving
 Deformation in road surface that appear or have
been pushed or displaces horizontally
 Commonly appear in asphalt pavement
➢ Depressions
 Localized areas in road surface that is lower
than the surrounding pavements
 Caused by poor compaction and settlement in
underlying layers
 This will lead to water pooling and reduce road
safety
➢ Swell
 Localized area where road surface is higher than
the surrounding pavement
 Due to swelling of subgrades soil, frost heaving
in cold climates
Need to address through maintenance and
rehabilitation efforts such as resurfacing, patching, and
address underlying causes. Effective miniatous is
essential to ensure road safety and provide smooth
driving experience
3. Disintegration
 Refers to breaking down and fragmentation of
road surface where road crumbles and
deteriorates that can be caused by traffic loads,
environmental condition, and construction
materials
➢ Pot Holes
 Most common form
 Characterized by a bowl-shaped depression
 Due to combination factors such as infiltration
of water into the cracks of the road
 Causes discomfort and potentially damaging
vehicles
➢ Patches
 Localized areas where the road surface have
been repaired or replaced
 These areas may appear different in color and
texture
 Repaired pot holes with different materials
4. Surface Defects
 Refers to irregularities and issues that affect
quality and safety at top layer of roads
➢ Ravelling
 Refers to road surface where it experiences loss
of aggregate particles, leaving the surface with
rough and exposed textures
 Commonly happens due to dislodgement of fine
aggregates to the asphalt mixture
➢ Bleeding
 Aka flush or flushing
 Defect where the excess asphalt binder rises to
the road surface
 Create shiny, black appearance to the pavement
leading to reduce skid resistance and slippery
roads
➢ Polishing
 Occur where the traffic verse/transverse down
the road surface overtime, making it smoother
and reducing surface friction
 Common issue to roads, particularly in areas
where vehicles always brake
 Lead to reduce skid resistance, especially during
wet conditions increasing the risk of accident
➢ Delamination
 Refer to defect where the layer of the road
surface detaches, often due to inadequate
bonding between the layers
 Result to bumpy and uneven road surface
If there are proper maintenance and rehabilitations, it
will address the surface defects, ensuring road safety
and quality. Do time actions such as resurfacing and
sealing and coating to address the underlying causes to
maintain the road performance and usability.
Road Maintenance and Rehabilitation Includes
Maintenance
 Regular and ongoing efforts to keep the existing
road into good condition, prevent further
deterioration and ensure safe and efficient
traffic movement
Rehabilitation
  Refers to repairing and upgrading existing road
to extend their lifespan and improve
performance
Physical Maintenance:
Activities such as sealing, patching, filling joints etc.
Traffic Service activities:
Including painting pavement markings, removing snow
ice and litter
Rehabilitation:
Includes restoring or betterment of roadway such as
resurfacing.
Types Road Maintenance
1. Surface maintenance
 Repairing the top layer of roads
 Through patches, seal cracks, pavement
correction to address surface defects and
extend lifespan
2. Roadside and drainage maintenance
 Maintain road shoulders, clear vegetation,
ensure proper drainage system to prevent water
accumulation, erosion, and structural damage
3. Shoulder and approaches maintenance
 Focuses in maintain road shoulders and
approaches intersection and driveways to
ensure integrity and safety
4. Snow and ice control
 Snow plowing, salting, sanding application and
other measures to keep road clear during winter
5. Traffic service
 Maintaining traffic signs and signals and road
marking to ensure safety and efficient traffic
flow
RAILWAYS
Railways including high speed rail, subways and elevated
railway such as cable car
 Aka railroads or rail systems
 Network of tracks and infrastructures designed
for the efficient movement of trains that guide
vehicles to run in pair of parallel steel tracks
 Play crucial role in facilitating the movement of
passenger and good over long distances
Railways Failure Causes
➢ Impact of moving loads
 Repetitive impact of moving trains and loads
that it carries causes and lead to track
deterioration and deformation
➢ Effect of acceleration and deceleration
 Increase stress in tracks, also include back and
forth motion of trains that introduce dynamic
stresses to track structure that contribute to
failures of joint and rail
➢ Constant reversal of stresses
➢ Defects in manufacture
➢ Braking of wheels
➢ Fatigue caused by shearing stresses
➢ Effect of weather and Temperature
 Extreme weather conditions and temperature
fluctuations causes deformation in rail tracks
➢ Maintenance of rail joints
➢ Axle load of locomotive
➢ Design of rail joints
➢ Frequency of rail renewal
➢ Corrosion
 Presence of moisture and chemicals causes rail
corrosion and weaken the rail structure
➢ Poor Maintenance
Addressing causes through proactive maintenance,
regular inspection, to adhere safety and quality
standards and ensure the integrity of the rail system
Type of Railway Failures
1. Crushed Head
 Refits to flattening or deformation of the top
surface of rail
 Occur due to excessive wheel loads, impact
forces or wear that result to decreased cross-
sectional area and weaken the structure
2. Transverse and Compound Fissure
 Transverse- formed perpendicular to the length
of rail which caused by repeated stresses or
fatigue
 Compound – more complex consisting of
multiple interconnected cracks
3. Split Head
 Type of rail defect where the crack or fissure
extend from top to the body of rail, dangerous
and require immediate action to prevent failure
in the railway
4. Horizontal Fissure
  Crack that run horizontally along the rail surface
 May result to rolling contact fatigue and
material defect that could lead to decreased
integrity of rail
5. Square of angular breaks
 Occur at a 90-degree angle creating a sharp
 Can be caused by various factors such as high
stresses and impacts
6. Rail Misalignment
 Occur due to poor maintenance in alignment
that lead to operational problem, uneven wear
and safety concern
 May result to rail movement and poor track
maintenance and issue with regards to
connections
Railway Maintenance and Rehabilitation Includes
1. Ballast Checking
 Ballast- layer of crushed stone or gravel beneath
the rail tracks, provide support and stability of
rail
 If not checked, it will cause misalignment in
tracks
2. Lubricating Places such as curves on the side of the
head of the rails
 Apply lubrication to location needed for
additional friction, especially in curves
3. Tightening of joints and Fittings
 It is important to check if there are loose joints
or fittings because if there are present, it will
result to track misalignment and instability that
could lead to safety risk
 Check if proper tightening to maintain the
integrity of track
4. Use of special alloy rails where wear is more
 Alloy rails are designed to withstand loadings
that are heavy and higher stresses that will
result to longer service life and reduce
maintenance of tracks
5. Renewal of Rails
 Over long period, strength of rail may
deteriorate. Replacing rail will be needed to
check if there will be damaged sections for
replacement
 If not checked, possible, accident may occur
Maintenance and rehabilitations for longer service life,
enhance safety and efficiency of rail transport
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
A bridge is a structure to cross an open space or gap.
Bridges are mostly made for crossing rivers, valleys, or
roads. While a tunnel is an underground passageway,
dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and
enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at
each end.
 Provide path ways to road and railways,
pedestrians and vehicles, over bodies of water
and other obstacles.
 Serve to connect different landmasses for safe
and efficient transport
Bridge and Tunnels Failure Causes
➢ High variation in ambient temperature
 Bridges and tunnels experience significant
temperature fluctuation that leads to thermal
expansion and contraction that causes
structural stresses and deformation
➢Uncontrolled heavy axle loads.
 Exceeding weight limit that can result to
excessive stress to bridges and tunnels
➢ Inadequate Stability
 If not stable, structure will fail, collapse, crack or
settle. Check the material always if standards
➢ Effect of seawater/water especially to the bridge
columns
➢Inadequate ground Investigation
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
➢ Congestion of Vehicles
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood,Earthquake, Tsunami
etc.)
➢ Accidents (Car crash, Boat Crash,Train Crash etc.)
➢ Inadequate Support method ofexcavation
Need to be addressed through conducting proper
planning, proper deign, proper construction and regular
maintenance to ensure safety. If not done, life span will
be short, and function will not be met
Type of Bridge and Tunnel Failures
Due to Materials
1. Steel Materials
✓ Corrosion of Steel – major concern in steel structures.
Once exposed to outdoor elements such moisture, it will
be oxidized and corrode over tie. If there are corrosion,
steel will weaken reducing integrity causing cracking and
possible failure. To prevent corrosion, apply protective
coatings to steel (such as galvanizing, painting) to
prevent direct contact between steel and corrosive
agents
✓ Paint Deterioration – paint serve as protection or
protective barriers to steel components and shield the
moisture and radiation and other factors. If they are
removed, steel elements will be exposed, they are
susceptible to corrosion and weaken it. There should be
regular inspection to check if paintings are in good
condition and if not, address it immediately and repaint
it.
✓ Loose Connections – there are connections that are
fasteners (bolts, knots, rivets) that are connected tightly
and then loose over time that could lead to instability
and safety risks. There is a need to conduct inspection
and maintenance to make sure and identify where are
loose and damaged connection for replacement and
readjustment
2. Concrete Material
✓ Collapse – sever failure effect in bridges and tunnel
because once collapsed, functionality is gone. Collapse
is due to combination factors such as inadequate design,
poor construction and environmental factors such as
earthquakes
✓ Spalling – occur in outer layer of concrete. Result in
exposure of underlying concrete. Outer layer is
removed, exposing underlying elements. It caused by
fisto cycle, corrosion of steel reinforcement, traffic-
related abrasion
✓ Wear/Abrasion – lead to loss of surface texture,
reduce skid resistance, degradation of concrete.
Commonly in areas of high traffic where there is
abrasion due to vehicle tars and pedestrian traffic
✓ Material Deterioration – gradual weakening and
degradation due to factors such as chemical exposure,
environmental conditions and aging
✓ Surface Defect – cracks, scaling, irregularities on the
surface. Can be unsightly and may affect the structural
integrity and physical look
✓ Delamination – separation of layer within a concrete
structure, often between concrete and steel
reinforcement due to lack of bonding. This will weaken
the structure, lead to spalling and reduce load bearing
capacity
✓ Water Leak at Deck -result to poor water proofing and
lead to corrosion in steel reinforcement, erosion in steel,
and reduce the durability of structure
3. Expansion Joint
✓ Abnormal Spacing – uneven and irregular gaps
between the adjacent component of structure. Occur
due to misalignment of joints, improper installation, and
improper usage of joint materials
✓ Difference in Level – result to uneven surfaces in joint
locations. Create hazards to vehicles and pedestrian that
can cause discomfort among road users
✓ Rupture – when joint materials break or tear,
exposing the gap between the joint component. It
allows water and debris infiltrating the structure leading
to corrosion and damage to joint components
✓ Drainage Blocked – allowing water drainage and
prevent of accumulation of moisture. If drainage is
blocked due to debris, water accumulated in the joint
will lead to corrosion in joint component, damaging
surrounding structure
4. Drainpipe
Bridge and Tunnel Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Includes
❖ Exposed steel work must be cleaned and repainted
❖ Cleaning and resealing of Deck joint
❖ Damage to guard rail, must be repaired and
strengthened
❖ Resurfacing of deck
❖ Scour around and under piers and abutments should
be removed
❖ Sealing, patching, filling joints and such.
❖ Checking of steel cables for corrosion.
❖ Checking of supports
Play integral part in safety and reliability. Helps in
extending the service life, maintain their role as
essential transportation infrastructures. Need regular
inspection, need provide proactive maintenance and
timely repair to ensure to continue their function and
make sure they are safe
PORTS
A port is a maritime facility which may comprise one or
more wharves where ships may dock to load and
discharge passengers and cargo. Although usually
situated on a sea coast, some ports can be miles inland,
with access to the sea via river or canal.
 Facilities located along the coastline that serve
as hub for loading and unloading of goods and
 passengers between land and water borne
stations
 Eg. Docks, pier, warehouse, storage facilities
where their purpose is to handle and store
cargos
 Have vital role in economic aspect as they are
used in international trade and transportation
SHIP CANALS
A ship canal is a canal especially intended to
accommodate ships used on the oceans, seas or lakes to
which it is connected, as opposed to a barge canal
intended to carry barges and other vessels specifically
designed for river and/or canal navigation.
 Artificial waterway designed to allow ships to
navigate through otherwise inaccessible and
challenging areas
 Alternate route to ships especially when there is
obstacles ahead
 Contribute to global trade by providing efficient
route for ships to overcome geographic barriers
Ports and Ship Canal Failure Causes
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
➢ High variation in ambient temperature
➢ Effect of seawater to the construction materials
➢ Severe Corrosion
➢ Congestion of Ships
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami
etc.)
➢ Accidents (Boat Crash)
➢ Poor Maintenance
Things to be done to address these failures through
proper planning, regular inspections, proper design,
construction, to have effective maintenance and
rehabilitation in strategies, to ensure safe, efficient and
long the life span
Type of Ports and Ship Canal failures
➢ Material Deterioration
 Degradation of construction materials
 Result to exposure to environmental factors
such as salt water that lead to corrosion,
erosion, and damage of materials
➢ Damage of components
 Physical harms of various parts of structures
 Occur sue to accidents, accident, collision of
impacts and vehicles
➢ Scouring
 Due to erosion of soil and sediment around the
foundation.
 Once there is erosion, foundation will weaken
leading to structural risks and instability
➢ Collapsing of wharf / Settlement of foundation
 Once collapsed of wharfs, it will result to
structural instability and inadequate support
leading to partial or complete failure,
compromising the ability to support cargo and
handling operations
 Operation delayed, delay will be imminent,
supply will be short, prices will increase due to
lack of supply
➢ Sedimentation Foundation
 Deposition of solid particle such as sand, silt and
caly in channels and basins.
 Excessive sedimentation reduces water depth,
impede navigation, dredge adequate water
Ports and Ship Canal Maintenance and Rehabilitation
includes
➢ Steel repair and painting
➢ Implementation of coatings for corrosion protection
➢ Epoxy injection into small Cracks on deck and
supported beams
➢ Removal of plastered concrete and cleaning of
surface
➢ Subject rebars replacement and re-concreting of
damage section
➢ Placement of anti-scouring devices.
Regular inspection of steel is essential to address the
corrosion and structural defects and collapse. Properly
repaired steel should be coated and painted to protect
against corrosion. Corrosion protection should be
applied to exposed surfaces to protect them against
environmental factors. Epoxy injection to seal small
crack that helps to prevent penetration of water inside
the cracks and preserve the integrity of structure.
Maintenance and rehabilitations are integral to maintain
the safety and longevity of ports. There should properly
managed maintenance, rehabilitation programs to
prevent structural degradation, reduce repair cost and
ensure continuous operation of maritime facilities.
AIRPORT RUNWAYS
A complex of runways and buildings for the take-off,
landing, and maintenance of civil aircraft, with facilities
for passengers.
 Designed paved surface that provide area for
take-off and landing
Airport Runways Failure Causes
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
 If there is inadequate design and construction, it
will result to deficiency and reduced safety,
Proper engineering and construction must be
done to ensure runway durability and handle
well the weight or aircraft loadings
➢ High variation in ambient temperature
 Temperature fluctuations causes stresses in
runway that result to cracks and deformation.
➢ Poor Maintenance
 There should be proper maintenance to prevent
deterioration and long the life span of runways.
There should be conduct of inspection, checking
for repair and patching and resurfacing to keep
the optimal condition
➢ Degradation
 Over time, runway degrade due to different
effects such as landing of aircrafts and weather.
Surface deteriorations such as cracks and
runway marking should not be allowed be
controlled to ensure they are safe for
passengers.
➢ Congestion of Aircrafts
 Runway congestion can result to high volume of
aircraft. If congested, it will lead to accelerated
wear and tear. Check regularly to maintain the
surface and reduce the accidents due to rubber
deposits (causing uneven plains)
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami,
Bird Strikes etc.)
 Crucial as it causes damage to runway. Mitigate
them, conduct disaster planning to mini mise
their impacts
➢ Accidents (Aircraft over run, Collision)
 Can lead to runway damage. It will result to
structural damage and require immediate repair
to ensure safety. Maintain the structural
integrity to ensure safety of aircraft operation
Adequate design, regular maintenance and safety
protocols helps to prevent types of failures and extend
their lifespan. If not extended, there is high costing for
repairs.
Type of Airport Runways failures
1. Cracking
 Due to temperature fluctuation, thermal
expansion and contraction, crossing of heavy
aircraft loads that vary. If not addressed, it will
lead to deterioration that is prevented to
happen
2. Surface Deformation
 Roughing or sagging of runway. Happens due to
repeated stress or aircraft landing and take-off.
It may result uneven and damaged surfaces that
will affect aircraft operation. If present, it will
not be operational that can cause delay to
passengers that is a huge problem. Address
immediately
3. Disintegration
 Potholes and patches
 Involves gradual breaking down and
deterioration of runways surface materials
 Causes can be heavy loadings, lack of
maintenance
 It may cause surface defects that reduce skid
resistance
4. Surface Defects
 Encompasses range of issues including cracks,
irregularities of runway surfaces
 Impacts safety and performance during take-off
and landing
5. Rubber Deposits
 Accumulate in runway surface
 Primarily, it was from aircraft tires during
landing
 Once there are landing issues and icidents, it
will have safety concerns
Should have maintenance and rehabilitation to address
these failures, do inspection, repair surface defects,
resurfacing, remove rubber deposits to ensure safety of
runway and functions the aircraft operation well.
Airport Runways Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Includes
Airport maintenance means any work carried out to
keep airports runways excellent condition, keep their
operations running smoothly and meet the high safety
standards
1. Maintenance of Visual Aids
 Include runway markings, signs, lighting systems
that are essential to safety of operation
 Check them regularly to make sure that these
signs will aid in ensuring effectiveness and
guiding aircrafts
 Airport lighting system play crucial in guiding
aircraft especially during night. It helps during
take-off and landing. Do maintenance and
inspections regularly to keep the runway lights,
threshold light, and taxi light and other essential
fixtures
 Accurate measurements should be checked,
light intensity for safety. Regular measurement
and calibration help to maintain light level of
pilots. Replacement must be done to ensure
functionality and performance especially when
it comes to bad weather
➢ Airport Light maintenance
➢ Basic maintenance programme for approach, runway
and taxi way lighting systems
➢ Special types of lights
➢ Cleaning procedures for lights
➢ Light measurement
➢ Lamp replacement
2. Signs
➢ Markings
 Play vital role in guiding aircrafts and vehicle in
safety.
 Signage include directional, mandatory,
informational
 Maintain them clear and visible to prevent
confusion and ensure the correct path for
aircraft
 Markings included painted lines, symbols,
identifier in runways surface to assist pilot
during take-off and landing. Proper
maintenance must be done to provide guidance
to pilots and hep them align the aircrafts and
understand the location of parking
 Effective maintenance is crucial. If not
maintained, area will be prone to accidents.
3. Maintenance of Airport Electrical Systems
➢ Power cables and distributors in field
 Essential as they provide electricity to airport
components
 Regular maintenance includes inspecting,
repairing, upgrading of cables and distributor
for consistency of electricity
➢ Transformers and regulators (including standby units)
 Control voltage supplying to equipment. Check
them to ensure units are operational and in
good condition
➢ Transformer stations for electric power supply
➢ Relay and switch cabinets (including switch cabinets
in sub-stations)
 Control electrical systems.
➢ Control cables, monitoring units, control desk
➢ Secondary power supplies (generators)
 Provide routine checks and repair for proper
electricity supply, to disallow delay due to
electrical problems and operations
➢ Fixed 400 Hz ground power supplies
➢ Apron floodlighting
4. Maintenance of Pavements
➢ Surface repair
 Check if surface needed repair as they are
necessary. Even smallest defect can lead to
bigger problems so maintain them immediately
➢ Repair of cracks
 Repair them due to different factors to ensure
spread of damage and maintain structural
integrity of runway
➢ Portland cement concrete pavements
➢ Bituminous pavements
➢ Repair of joints and cracks
 Repair them and look for damage by sealing,
repairing, reconfiguration, to ensure
effectiveness and regulate the movement in
runways
➢ Joints in concrete pavements
➢ Concrete joint maintenance
 By resealing , proactive maintenance, and to
prevent damage and accident and extend their
life span
➢ Joints in bituminous pavements
➢ Repair of pavement edge damage
➢ Edge repair
➢ Corner repair
➢ Repair of other pavement surface deficiencies
5. Sweeping
 Essential, monitoring condition of runway
surface to detect and identify debris and loose
fragments that can cause hazards during take-
off and landing. Removal of rubber deposits
helps to reduce friction and effect in barking
performance
➢ Purpose of sweeping
➢ Surface monitoring
➢ Cleaning of surfaces
➢ Purpose of cleaning pavements
➢ Removal of rubber deposits
➢ Fuel and oil removal
 Cleaning them to ensure the reduction of
friction that will lead to slippery runway
6. Removal of snow and ice
➢ Procedures for snow removal
 To keep runway of snow accumulation for safety
 Assessment and continuous monitoring
➢ Surface de-icing
 Application of chemicals or heated fluid to melt
existing ice
 Potassium acetate, Calcium Magnesium Acetate
 Application rate and timing is critical for
effectiveness for de-icing to prevent refreezing
➢ Surface anti-icing
 Preventive measure through application of de-
icing agent before having, to maintain clear and
free from the runway, creating barriers that
prevent snow accumulation
7. Drainage
➢ Cleaning of slot drains
 Slot drains – designed to collect surface water
from runway and taxi ways, drainage system in
runways
 Blockage is not good to reduce risk of floods
➢ Drain pipes or culverts between surfaces and
collector basins
 To transport water from runway surface to the
collector basin or retention ponds
 Maintenance includes they are clear, free from
obstruction
➢ Oil and fuel separators
 Treat storm water and remove contaminants
and separate to surface water
 Clean them for effectives
➢ Water hydrants
 For fire suppression and emergency system
 Check if hydrant is in good working condition
and source of water is accessible
 Proper maintenance to prevent water-related
issues such as ponding
8. Maintenance of Unpaved Areas
➢ Maintenance of green areas within strips
 Green areas within runways or safety areas are
strips
 Need to conduct maintenance to prevent tall
vegetations
➢ Maintenance of grass on unpaved runways and
taxiways
 Grass surfaces must be trimmed on proper
height
➢ Maintenance of green areas outside strips
 Beyond the runways, green areas also
(landscaping). Must be pleasing
➢ Treatment of cut grass
 Proper disposal for proper cleanliness
Vital for runway safety
SUMMARY
▪ Transportation infrastructure plays a vital role in
helping our transportation remain its function,
transportation is important because it enables
communication, trade and other forms of exchange
between people, that in turn establishes civilizations.
▪ Though over time some of this infrastructure
experience failures due to a lot of factors.
▪ That’s why Maintenance and rehabilitation is being
carried out regularly to these transportation
infrastructure at a fixed interval or as and when damage
is observed.
▪ This maintenance might scale to minor inspection,
repairs to major rehabilitation and as such.
▪ It is important to know that maintenance of
transportation infrastructures ensures safety to users,
improves its performance, reduce possible repair cost,
extend its expected life span and provide information
for future engineers, designers & constructors for future
designs and builds of Transportation Infrastructures
TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS DENSITY
Density is defined as the number of vehicles in a given
Traffic Analysis length of road at an instant point in time.
o Traffic analysis provides basis in measuring the
operating performance of the highway
o Primary function of a highway system is providing high
TIME HEADWAY
level of transportation service (LOS) and safety
Time headway is defined as the time interval between
passage of consecutive vehicles at a specified point on
Various dimensions used in traffic analysis
the road with a unit of time per vehicles.
o Number of vehicle per unit time (traffic volume)
o Vehicle types and speeds
o Variation in traffic volumes over time (e.g., Peak Hour)

Other dimensions that influenced traffic operations SPACING

o Traffic control device (i.e., traffic signals, signs and Spacing is the distance between two vehicles measure
markings) from the front bumper of a vehicle to that of another
o Types of pavement and geometric design
o Selection of the number of lanes

Most used numerical dimensions of traffic flow

TIME OCCUPANCY
o Speed (km/hr)
It can only be measure, however, if a detector is
o Flow/flowrate/volume (veh/hr)
installed at a specific point on the carriageway. It is
o Density (veh/km)
defined as the total time of a detector is occupied
divided by the total time of observation.
FLOW RATE OR VOLUME
Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles passing a
point during a specified period of time.

SPEED
Speed is defined as rate of motion in distance per unit
time. When describing traffic stream, two types of
speed are used: time mean speed and space mean
speed.

Time Mean Speed / Spot Speed

- is simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles
passing a point within a given interval of time.
Space Mean Speed / Harmonic Mean Speed
- is used to describe the rate of movement of a traffic
stream within a given section of road. It is the speed
based on the average travel time of vehicles in the
stream
within the section.
RELATIONSHIP OF FLOW, SPEED, AND DENSITY
A relationship exists among the three most important
traffic variables: flow rate, space mean speed, and
density. A dimensional analysis of the units will show
that flow rate (veh/hr) is simply the product of density
(veh/km) and space mean speed (km/hr), or
As mentioned earlier, density is the most difficult
variable to measure. It can be obtained indirectly using
this relation.

POISSON DISTRIBUTION MODELS
 The O-D survey asks questions about each trip that is
ORIGIN-DESTINATION SURVEY
Travel surveys
are conducted to establish a complete understanding of
the travel patterns within the study area. For single
projects (such as a highway project), it may be sufficient
to use traffic counts on existing roads or (for transit)
counts of passengers riding the present system.
However, to understand why people travel and where
they wish to go, origindestination (O-D) survey data can
be useful.
ORIGIN DESTINATION SURVEY
made on a specific day—such as where the trip begins
and ends, the purpose of the trip, the time of day, and
the vehicle involved (auto or transit)—and about the
person making the trip—age, sex, income, vehicle
owner, and so on.
 O-D data are compared with other sources to ensure
the accuracy and consistency of the results. For
example, the number of cars observed crossing one or
more bridges might be compared with the number
estimated from the surveys. It is also possible to assign
trips to the existing network to compare how well the
data replicate actual travel. If the screen line crossings
are significantly different from those produced by the
data, it is possible to adjust in the O-D results so that
conformance with the actual conditions is assured.
Following the O-D checking procedure, a set of trip
tables is prepared that shows the number of trips
between each zone in the study area.
PARKING STUDIES
 Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or
another be parked for either a relatively short time or a
much longer time, depending on the reason for parking.
The provision of parking facilities is therefore an
essential element of the highway mode of
transportation. The need for parking spaces is usually
very great in areas where land uses include business,
residential, or commercial activities. In areas of high
density, where space is very expensive, the space
provided for automobiles usually has to be divided
between that allocated for their movement and that
allocated for parking them.
 Parking studies are therefore used to determine the
demand for and the supply of parking facilities in an
area, the projection of the demand, and the views of
various interest groups on how best to solve the
problem.
TYPES OF PARKING FACILITIES
 On-Street Parking Facilities
These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are
provided alongside the curb on one or both sides of the
street. These bays can be unrestricted parking facilities if
the duration of parking is unlimited and parking is free,
or they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is
limited to specific times of the day for a maximum
duration. Parking at restricted facilities may or may not
be free. Restricted facilities also may be provided for
specific purposes, such as to provide handicapped
parking or as bus stops or loading bays.
 Off-Street Parking Facilities
These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they
include surface lots and garages. Self-parking garages
require that drivers park their own automobiles;
attendantparking garages maintain personnel to park
the automobiles.
DEFINITIONS OF PARKING TERMS
 A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of
a single parking space for a period of 1 hour.
 Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that
park in a study area during a specific length of time,
usually a day.
 Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles
in a study area at any specified time. These data can be
plotted as a curve of parking accumulation against time,
which shows the variation of the parking accumulation
during the day.
 The parking load is the area under the accumulation
curve between two specific times. It is usually given as
the number of space-hours used during the specified
period of time.
 Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked
at a parking bay. When the parking duration is given as
an average, it gives an indication of how frequently a
parking space becomes available.
 Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It
is obtained by dividing the parking volume for a
specified period by the number of parking spaces.
METHODOLOGY OF PARKING STUDIES
A comprehensive parking study usually involves
▪(1) inventory of existing parking facilities
▪(2) collection of data on parking accumulation, parking
turnover and parking duration
▪(3) identification of parking generators
▪(4) collection of information on parking demand.
Information on related factors, such as financial, legal,
and administrative matters, also may be collected.
INVENTORY OF EXISTING PARKING FACILITIES
An inventory of existing parking facilities is a detailed
listing of the location and all other relevant
characteristics of each legal parking facility, private and
public, in the study area. The inventory includes both
on- and off-street facilities. The relevant characteristics
usually listed include the following:
 ▪ Type and number of parking spaces at each parking
facility
▪ Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if
any
▪ Type of ownership (private or public)
▪ Parking fees, if any, and method of collection
▪ Restrictions on use (open or closed to the public)
▪ Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and
unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi ranks)
▪ Probable degree of permanency (can the facility be
regarded as permanent or is it just a temporary facility?)
The information obtained from an inventory of parking
facilities is useful both to the traffic engineer and to
public agencies, such as zoning commissions and
planning departments. The inventory should be updated
at regular intervals of about four to five years.
COLLECTION OF PARKING DATA
 Accumulation. Accumulation data are obtained by
checking the amount of parking during regular intervals
on different days of the week. The checks are usually
carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis between 6:00
a.m. and 12 midnight. The selection of the times
depends on the operation times of land-use activities
that act as parking generators. The information obtained
is used to determine hourly variations of parking and
peak periods of parking demand.
 Turnover and Duration. Information on turnover and
duration is usually obtained by collecting data on a
sample of parking spaces in each block. This is done by
recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each
parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed
intervals during the study period. The length of the fixed
intervals depends on the maximum permissible
duration. For example, if the maximum permissible
duration of parking at a curb face is 1 hour, a suitable
interval is every 20 minutes. If the permissible duration
is 2 hours, checking every 30 minutes would be
appropriate. Turnover is then obtained from the
equation.
IDENTIFICATION OF PARKING GENERATORS
▪ This phase involves identifying parking generators (for
example, shopping centers or transit terminals) and
locating these on a map of the study area.
PARKING DEMAND
▪ Information on parking demand is obtained by
interviewing drivers at the various parking facilities
listed during the inventory. An effort should be made to
interview all drivers using the parking facilities on a
typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m.
Information sought should include (1) trip origin, (2)
purpose of trip, and (3) driver’s destination after
parking. The interviewer must also note the location of
the parking facility, times of arrival and departure, and
the vehicle type.
ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, coding,
and interpreting the data so that the relevant
information required for decision making can be
obtained. The relevant information includes the
following:
▪ Number and duration for vehicles legally parked
▪ Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
▪ Space-hours of demand for parking
▪ Supply of parking facilities
The analysis required to obtain information on the first
two items is straightforward; it usually involves simple
arithmetical and statistical calculations. Data obtained
from these items are then used to determine parking
space-hours.
ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
The space-hours of demand for parking are obtained
from the expression
The space-hours of supply are obtained from the
expression

The efficiency factor f is used to correct for time lost in
each turnover. It is determined on the basis of the best
performance a parking facility is expected to produce.
Efficiency factors for curb parking, during highest
demand, vary from 78 percent to 96 percent; for surface
lots and garages, from 75 percent to 92 percent.
Average values of f are 90 percent for curb parking, 80
percent for garages, and 85 percent for surface lots.
INTERSECTION DESIGN
▪ Intersections play an important role in any network
system. They are the points where traffic flow converges
and where direction of travel changes. Intersections may
be categorized according to shape, type of structure,
and type of operation.
Shape
▪ This refers to the configuration of the intersection and
would depend largely on the number of legs. Carefully
planned and properly designed road networks often
lead to intersections with simpler shape having lesser
number of legs.
Type of Structure
▪ Most of the intersections are either designed as at-
grade intersection or grade separation such as flyovers
or interchanges. Almost all intersections are initially
designed at-grade and are planned to be grade-
separated in the future to cope with high traffic volume.
The type of grade separation depends largely on the
extend of improvement it would provide in terms of
easing congestion or reducing traffic accidents.
Type of Operation
▪ Rules and regulations applied to a given intersection
depend largely on the type of control which is in
operation at that intersection. The main objective is to
simplify traffic flow. This is often achieved by reducing
the number of conflicts of vehicles.
▪ An intersection operates as unchannelized or
channelized, and unsignalized or signalized.
Channelization often leads to simplified movements of
vehicles as it leads drivers to one conflict at a time. On
the other hand, signalization greatly crossing conflicts at
the intersection area.
▪ When designing or improving an intersection, it is very
important to follow some basic principles to avoid costly
mistakes that lead to lack of the intersection’s capacity
or to its being accident-prone.
▪ The maximum number of legs should be four. It has
been shown that the number of conflicts increases
exponentially as the number of intersection legs
increases.
▪ Staggered intersections should be avoided. Due to
proximity of the two side roads, inadequate length of
storage lane for left vehicles often causes blockage of
the through traffic.
▪ Main traffic flow should be near straight as possible.
Sharp turns, such as left and right turns, cause
unnecessary reduction in traffic speeds. ▪ These types of turning movements may be found as
elements of the interchanges shown below:

▪ Roads should not intersect at a small angle. Oblique

intersections pose potential hazards and cause high
severity of accidents due to the almost head-to-head
collision of vehicles. An angle of 60 degrees must be
considered as the minimum.
▪ The different elements of an intersection are shown in
Figure 5.1. The adequacy in design of each element
must be carefully checked, considering traffic flow and
availability of right of way.

For the left turn storage bay, the recommended length

Two intersections should be as far as possible from each
other. In addition to the reason cited in (2), adequate
weaving sections may not be provided. As a rule of
thumb, the distance between the two intersections
must be
is = 2 x no. of left turners in one cycle x spacing in
queue. The spacing in queue may range from 6.0 m to
7.0 m, depending on the type of vehicles using the
intersection. A factor of 2 is used to take into account
randomness of traffic flow.

distance = design speed (kph) x number of lanes x 2

For instance, if the prevailing speed is 30 kph and three

are four lanes in one direction, the distance between
the two intersections must be at least 30 x 4 x 2 = 240 m

INTERSECTION DESIGN ELEMENTS

Turning geometry
▪ The principal purpose of an intersection is to provide
change in the direction of travel. As a vehicle
approaches an intersection, the driver has to decide
whether to go straight or to turn to left or right. For
turning movements, a number of turning geometries
may be considered, the most direct of which is highly
preferred. Configurations of turning geometries are
shown below:
The number of lanes for through, right, and left turn
vehicles would depend on traffic volume, saturation
flow rates, a simple circular curve may be adequate for
the design of the intersection corners and the turning
roadway. However, simple curve may not be enough for
large intersections. The most common type of geometry
for these intersections is the threecentered curve as
shown in the figure.
METHODS OF CONTROL OF INTERSECTIONS
▪ Conflicts often occur at intersections. The more the
number of legs an intersection has, the more the
number of conflicts it has.
▪ Conflicts may be classified as merging, diverging, or
crossing conflicts. The table below gives a summary of
these conflicts. The total number increases
exponentially with the number of legs of the
intersection. Most of the problems at intersections, like
congestion and accidents, are caused by crossing
conflicts.
▪ Depending on the traffic volume using the intersection
and the severity of conflicts, intersection control may
fall under any of the following categories:
a. Unsignalized
b. Signalized
c. Grade separation
ANALYSIS OF UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
▪ A large number of intersections all over the country
are still without traffic signals. It is therefore necessary
to have a means of analysis of the performance of this
type of intersection so as to find appropriate measures
to minimized congestion and reduce the occurrence of
traffic accidents.
▪ The method calculates the maximum flow in any given
minor road traffic stream. It is them compared with the
existing traffic flow to estimate the reserve capacity. The
probable delay and level of service are determined
based on this reserve capacity.
▪ Consider the four-leg intersection below. Minor
movements are movements coming from the side road
or minor road. In addition, the left turn movements
from the major road are also considered minor. But in
terms of hierarchy, these left turn movements have
higher priority than the movements coming from the
minor road.

▪ If these conditions are not met, correction factors have

to be implied based on the following considerations:
▪ Structure of Major Road Traffic
 Congestion on the major road

 Shared Lanes

▪ Critical Gap
 Passenger Car Equivalents. Since the calculated capacity
▪ The source of capacity of the minor road flows is the
is in pcu/hr, the existing flow has to be converted to the
available gaps between major road flows. The critical
same unit.
gap used to describe the minimum gaps needed by
drivers of minor road vehicles. Values of critical gaps are
given in the table for different vehicle maneuvers, speed
limits, and highway type.

 Reserve Capacity = max Mn – Existing Mn

Capacity
▪ In the estimation of capacity of the minor road flow,
the basic capacity is initially determined. Based on the
major road flows given by Mh , and values of critical gap
tg , the value of the basic capacity Mno is read from the
graph shown in the figure.

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ROUNDABOUTS OR
ROTONDAS
▪ The elements of the roundabout are shown in figure
5.10. Roundabout with large central island are known to
operate better as they provide ample weaving sections
that normally dictate the capacity of the intersection.
▪ For the analysis and design of roundabouts, British
practice will be discussed in this section (Salter 1976).
The focus is the capacity of the weaving section, which
is given by the equation
▪ The capacity formula is valid under the following
conditions, although there is no reason to believe that
the formula does not hold if any variable lies a little
outside the values given:
▪ The design of roundabouts is usually done by trial and
error. Weaving width and length are assumed and then
checked for adequacy of capacity. As roundabouts have
a tendency to lock when overloaded, it is important that
they have adequate reserve capacity.
PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND DESIGN FIELD INVESTIGATION
Traffic Surveys
PAVEMENT • Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
• This is a universal defining the carriageway of vehicles, • Vehicle Classification/Type
pedestrians and bicycles. • Speed and Density
• Based on the traffic loading and materials used, design • Routes and Intersections
of pavement varies • Level of Service of roads
• Similar terms used in the field: highway, road
Curvature Survey
PAVEMENT DESIGN •Vertical Curve/Elevation
• Field Investigation • Horizontal Curves and Superelevation
 Traffic Surveys • Mass Diagram
 Curvature Surveys • Road grades
• Laboratory Testing
 Soil Classification MATERIAL TESTING
 Subgrade
• Pavement Design
 Traffic Load
 Subgrade Support Characterization
 Pavement Structural Section
 Minimum Pavement Sections
 Alternative Pavement Design
• Construction Materials Specifications
 Soil Preparation
 Sub-Layer Materials PAVEMENT DESIGN
 Wearing Course Preparation Highway Designer
• Other Utilities • Location design
 Pedestrian and Bicycle Lane • Alignment design
 Drainage • Cross-sectional design
 Presence of Service Utilities • Access design
• Road Right of Way
 Placement of New Road Pavement Designer
 Road Widening • Pavement thickness
• Pavement Monitoring and Maintenance Process • Material quality
 Monitoring Systems, Process and Schemes • Soil Structural Stability
 Pavement Maintenance • Life Cycle / Pavement Life Analysis
• Bridges
HIGHWAY DESIGN: LOCATION DESIGN
TYPES OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENT • takes place at the earlier stage of project planning
Flexible • refers to the macro-level routing of a planned highway
•Asphalt Concrete connecting two points through the existing highways,
• Bitumen Binder communities, natural terrain
• Essential inputs are lane-use master plan, existing and
projected population distribution, survey maps; maps of
Rigid existing infrastructure; geology, ecological, biological,
• Portland Cement and environmental information; and aerial photographs
Concrete resulting to road routes overlaid in contour maps
• Portland Cement
Binder
HIGHWAY DESIGN: ALIGNMENT DESIGN
• alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional
problem because the highway itself negotiates through
the terrain in connecting two points
• Visualized as segments of connected horizontal and
vertical curves (or their combination)
• best represented by its center line in a three-
dimensional coordinate system (e.g., longitude, latitude,
and elevation) but in practice, convention of plan and
profile views are adopted.
HIGHWAY DESIGN: CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
• A typical cross section of a highway consists of the
following components: traveled way (traffic lanes),
shoulders (on both edges, paved or unpaved)
• Important elements in the geometric design are cross
slope of travel lane, lane width, width and slope of
shoulder, and curb (if it is used)
The cross-sectional design considered the volume,
characteristics, and speed of the traffic it will service. In
addition, motor vehicle and the driver characteristics
are also considered.
• Presents the thickness of each layer of road section, its
material type, the lane width and the cross-slope
directing to the drainage system on each side, and the
shoulder
HIGHWAY DESIGN: CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
• Cross-slope / road slope
1. a crown or high point in the middle and a cross slope
downward toward both edges
2. a high point at one edge, and a cross slope across
slope across the entire width
➢slope should be steep enough to direct the rainfall
runoff to flow towards the edge of the roadway (instead
of along the slope of a vertical curve), provide sufficient
drainage capacity for the design storm, but at the same
time, avoid the tendency for vehicles traveling straight
to drift towards the low point of the cross section
(unless corrected by steering control)
• Shoulder
• part of the highway near the edges of the paved
surface that is designed to provide structural lateral
support for the pavement.
• provides additional space for drivers to make
corrective actions, for stopped vehicles and for bicycle
use, to increase sight distance on horizontal curves, and
to provide clearance for placement of road signs and
guardrails.
• width of a shoulder is measured from the pavement
marking of the outermost lane to the intersection of the
shoulder slope and fore slope planes and may not be
paved • Additional lane in case of congestion and must
be continuous along the roadway
• Curb
• a steep raised element of a roadway that provides the
following functions: drainage control, roadway edge
delineation, right-of-way control and delineation of
pedestrian walkways
• Used extensively in low-speed urban streets, but not
on highspeed rural highways and freeways because a
vehicle may overturn when hitting a curb at high speed.
• Two types: vertical curbs and sloping curbs
 Vertical curbs - Either vertical or nearly vertical,
with a height of 150 to 200 mm which may
prevent or discourage vehicles from leaving the
roadway.
 Sloping curbs - have slopes that range from
1V : 2H to 1V : 1H and height between 100 to
150 mm; designed such that a vehicle in
emergency may go over the curve
HIGHWAY DESIGN: ACCESS DESIGN
• Includes design of intersection, frontage roads
• Considerations
1. ensuring adequate visibility of a connection
to drivers, including the appropriate location,
signing, and lighting, are also addressed
2. Identification of intended operations of a
specific connection
3. the importance of providing a smooth
transition between the roadway and the area
• Checklist for Intended Operations
(a)Is it acceptable for a passenger car to wait in
the traffic lane if an exiting vehicle is present in
the driveway?
(b)Is simultaneous exit and entry by passenger
cars desired?
(c) Is simultaneous entry and exit by trucks,
buses, or other large vehicles desired?
• Transition Parameters
(a) change in grade between the pavement
cross slope and driveway apron for an
appropriate transition
(b) driveway profiles for urban (curbed) and
rural (open ditch) areas that illustrate the use of
vertical curves to provide smooth transitions
 • Alternatives to direct access to major roadways
include
i. frontage roads,
ii. service roads where the separation
from the major roadway permits
development between the service road
and the major roadway, and
iii. a supporting circulation system
where access is provided as part of the
site development
• estimation of traffic levels at opening is of central
importance to the structural design of the upper layers
of the road pavement.
• Commercial vehicles are defined as those with an
unladen weight of 15kN. They are the primary cause of
structural damage to the highway pavement, with the
damage arising from private cars negligible in
comparison.
• Unladen weight is the weight of the vehicle when it is
not carrying any passengers, goods or other items. It
includes the body and all parts normally used with the
vehicle or trailer when it's used on a road.
DPWH VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION
• Classified vehicles allowed to pass through specific
highways especially those with bridges.
• Provided a matrix for the maximum allowable gross
vehicle weight per RA NO. 8794
• Based on the maximum allowable axle load of 13,500
kgs.
• Focus on trucks and its maximum allowed vehicle
based on their number of axles
• Trailers have different registration permit from LTO;
thus, it is not allowed to upgrade/downgrade without
permit
DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
Reinforcement
- to reduce the amount of cracking that occurs, as a load
transfer mechanism at joints, or as a means of tying two
slabs together
• Temperature steel - To control cracks
• Dowel bars - For load transfer mechanism
• Tie bars - Connect two slabs together
Joints
• Expansion joints - usually placed transversely, at
regular intervals, to provide adequate space for the slab
to expand.
• Contraction joints - placed transversely at regular
intervals across the width of the pavement to release
some of the tensile stresses that are so induced
• Hinge joints - used mainly to reduce cracking along the
center line of highway pavements.
• Construction joints - placed transversely across the
pavement width to provide suitable transition between
concrete laid at different times
TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
• Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
• Plain concrete pavement has no temperature
steel or dowels for load transfer
• used mainly on low-volume highways or when
cement-stabilized soils are used as subbase
• Simply Reinforced Concrete Pavement
• have dowels for the transfer of traffic loads
across joints, with these joints spaced at larger
distances, ranging from 30 to 100 ft.
• Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
• no transverse joints, except construction joints
or expansion joints when they are necessary at
specific positions, such as at bridges
 • pavements have a relatively high percentage these cracks, thereby maintaining the beam action of
of steel, with the minimum usually at 0.6 large sections of the pavement.
percent of the cross section of the slab 3. The supporting subbase and/or subgrade layer acts as
an elastic material in that it deflects at the application of
RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN the traffic load and recovers at the removal of the load.
• Pumping Considerations
▪ the discharge of water and subgrade (or
subbase) material through joints, cracks, and
along the pavement edges
▪ caused by the repeated deflection of the
pavement slab in the presence of accumulated
water beneath it
▪ formation of void space beneath the pavement
due to plastic deformation of the soil, due to
imposed loads and the elastic rebound of the
pavement after it has been deflected by the
imposed load, or warping of the pavement,
which occurs as a result of temperature gradient
within the slab.
• Pumping Effect visual manifestations
▪ Discharge of water from cracks and joints
▪ Spalling near the centerline of the pavement
and a transverse crack or joint
▪ Mud boils at the edge of the pavement
▪Pavement surface discoloration (caused by the
subgrade soil) ▪ Breaking of pavement at the
corners

Prevention:
• Joints
• Avoid fine-grained soils in subsurface

• Stress Considerations
developed in rigid pavements as a result of
several factors, including the action of traffic wheel
loads, the expansion and contraction of the concrete
due to temperature changes, yielding of the subbase or
subgrade supporting the concrete pavement, and
volumetric changes

▪ Assumptions
1. Concrete pavement slabs are considered as
unreinforced concrete beams. Any contribution made to
the flexural strength by the inclusion of reinforcing steel
is neglected.
2. The combination of flexural and direct tensile stresses
will inevitably result in transverse and longitudinal
cracks. The provision of suitable crack control in the
form of joints, however, controls the occurrence of