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Basics of Magnetic Circuit

Magnetic Circuit is defined as the path followed by a Magnetic Flux.
Magnetic Flux always has a tendency to follow low Reluctance path. The
laws of Magnetic Circuit are quite similar to the Electric Circuit but the
terms used in Magnetic Circuit analysis is different.
Let us consider a Toroid having a magnetic path of length L meter. Mind
that length of Magnetic path is equal to the periphery of the Toroid. Also,
assume that the Cross-Sectional area of the Toroid is A m2 and N number
of turns is wound on the Toroid carrying current I as shown in figure below.

As we know that,
Magnetic Field Strength H inside Toroid = NI / L Wb/m2
So, Magnetic Flux Density B = u0urH
Where u0 = Absolute permeability of free space
ur = Relative permeability
Therefore, total Flux produced in Toroid, Ø = B x A
= u0urHA Wb

Thus, from above expression we can say that MMF is the Ampere
Turns i.e. NI and Reluctance = L / u0urA
It shall be noted at this point that, Flux Ø is analogous to the electric
current, MMF analogous to Voltage and Re

Transformer is the simplest device that is used to transfer electrical energy from
one alternating-current circuit to another circuit or multiple circuits, through the
process of electromagnetic induction.
A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction to step up or
stepdown voltage.

Transformer either increases AC voltage (Step-up transformer) or decreases AC

voltage (Step-down transformer). Transformer which is normally utilized in the
transmission and distribution of alternating current power is fundamentally a
voltage control device.

Transformer are used for a wide range of purposes, including increasing the
voltage from electric generators to enable long-distance transmission of electricity
and decreasing the voltage of conventional power circuits to run low-voltage
devices like doorbells and toy electric trains.

What is a Transformer?
A transformer is a static electrical device that transmits AC power from one circuit
to another at a constant frequency, but the voltage level may be changed, implying
the voltage can be increased or decreased depending on the requirement.

Types of Transformer
Transformer types based on Voltage Level
There are primarily two types of Transformer based on the operating voltage. The
following are some of them:
Step-down Transformer: The primary voltage is converted to a lower voltage
across the secondary output using a step-down transformer.
The number of windings on the primary side of a step-down transformer is more
than on the secondary side.
As a result, the overall secondary-to-primary winding ratio will always be less
than one. Step-down transformer is used in electrical systems that distribute
electricity over long distances and operate at extremely high voltages to ensure
minimum loss and economical solutions.
Step-down transformer is used to change high-voltage into low-voltage supply
lines.

Step-up Transformer: The secondary voltage of a step-up transformer is raised

from the low primary voltage. Because the primary winding has fewer turns than
the secondary winding in this sort of transformer, the ratio of the primary to
secondary winding will be greater than one.
Step-up transformer is frequently used in electronics stabilizers, inverters, and
other devices that convert low voltage to a significantly higher voltage. A step-up
transformer is also used in the distribution of electrical power.
For applications connected to power distribution, high voltage is necessary. In the
grid, a step-up transformer is used to raise the voltage level prior to distribution.

Working Principle of a Transformer

The fundamental principle of how the transformer functions are mutual induction
between the two coils or Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. Below is a
description of how the transformer operates.
The laminated silicon steel core of the transformer is covered by two distinct
windings. According to the diagram below, the primary winding is the one to
which the AC supply is connected, and the secondary winding is the one to which
the load is connected.
Only alternating current can be used because mutual induction between the two
windings requires an alternating flux.

The transformer primary winding produces an alternating flux, known as the

mutual flux, when an alternating voltage is applied, in accordance with the mutual
inductance principle.
According to Faraday’s rule of electromagnetic induction, this alternating flux
links the transformer primary and secondary windings magnetically and generates
EMFs E1 in the primary winding and E2 in the secondary winding.
The EMF (E1) is referred to as the primary EMF, while the EMF (E2) is the
secondary EMF.
and Dividing above equations, to obtain the ratio as:
From the expression above, it is clear that the size of EMFs E1 and E2 is dependent
on the number of turns in the transformer primary and secondary windings,
respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1, and the transformer will be a step-up
transformer; if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1, and the transformer will be a step-down
transformer.
If a load is now connected across the secondary winding, the load current I2 will
flow through the load as a result of the EMF E2. As a result, a transformer makes it
possible to transfer electricity with a change in voltage level from one electric
circuit to another.

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is a purely theoretical transformer that has no losses at all,
including no core losses, copper losses, or other transformer losses. This
transformer is thought to be 100% efficient.

The windings of the transformer are assumed to be entirely inductive, and the core
of the transformer is assumed to be loss-free when creating the ideal transformer
model. Additionally, the transformer has no leakage reactance (reactance is the
opposition to the flow of current from the circuit element due to its inductance and
capacitance).
This indicates that the transformer primary and secondary windings are connected
to the core of the transformer at 100% flux. However, every winding must have
some inductive resistance that results in voltage drop and I2R loss. In a model of
an ideal transformer, the windings are assumed to be perfect (totally inductive),
which means that their resistance is zero.

EMF Equation of Ideal Transformer

Let Np is the main winding’s number of turns, whereas Ns is the secondary
winding’s number of turns. When an AC voltage is given to the transformer main
coil, the current generated creates an alternating magnetic flux that connects the
secondary coil and generates an emf.

The number of turns in the secondary coil determines the value of this emf.
Consider an ideal (lossless) transformer with zero primary coil resistance (no
voltage drops across coil) and all flux in the core connecting both primary and
secondary windings. When the voltage Vp is delivered to the primary coil, let be
the flux linkage in each turn in the core at time t owing to the current in the
primary coil.

The above equation is known as Transformer Equation or Transformer

Formula.
The following three assumptions are used to get the previous relationship:
 The primary and secondary coils’ electrical resistances are insignificant.
 The flux connectivity to both the primary and secondary coils is the same, or
very few fluxes escape from the core.
 The secondary current is insignificant.

Turn Ratio
Turn Ratio is a measure to determine whether the secondary coil of a transformer
has more or lesser windings than the primary. The number of windings on a
primary coil is equal to “Np,” while the number of windings on a secondary coil is
“Ns,” representing the number of turns.

Efficiency of Transformer
The efficiency of a transformer is also known as commercial efficiency. It is
represented by the letter ‘η’. The efficiency of a Transformer is described as the
ratio of output (in W or kW) to input (in W or kW).
Hence, the efficiency of transformer may be expressed as follows:
Efficiency (η) = (Power Output / Power Input)
The above equation can be used for an ideal transformer in which there are no
transformer losses and all input energy is transferred to the output. As a result, the
following equation is mostly used if transformer wastes are taken into account and
the efficiency of the transformer is evaluated across the practical states.
Efficiency = ((Power O/P) / (Power O/P + Losses)) × 100%
or
Efficiency = (Power i/p – Losses) / Power i/p × 100 = 1− (Losses/ i/p Power) ×
100
Energy Losses in a Transformer
We used an ideal transformer in the previous equations (without any energy
losses). However, some energy losses do occur in actual transformer for the
following reasons:
 Flux Leakage: Because some flux leaks from the core, not all flux generated
by the primary coil make it to the secondary coil.
This occurs as a result of the core’s inadequate design or the presence of air
holes in the core. It is possible to lower it by wrapping the primary and
secondary coils over each other. It can also be lowered if the core is well-
designed.

 Windings Resistance: Because the wire used for the windings has some
electrical resistance, energy is wasted as a result of the heat generated in the
windings. These are mitigated in high current, low voltage windings by utilizing
thick wire with a high conductive substance.

 Eddy Currents: The alternating magnetic flux creates eddy currents in the iron
core, resulting in energy losses through heating. By using a laminated core, the
impact is decreased.
 Hysteresis Loss: In each AC cycle, the alternating magnetic field reverses the
magnetization of the core. The loss of energy in the core occurs as heat owing
to hysteresis loss, which is minimized by employing a magnetic material with a
low hysteresis loss.

Application of Transformer
The following are some of the most common uses for transformer:
1. Increasing or reducing the voltage level in an AC circuit to ensure the correct
operation of the circuit’s various electrical components.
2. It stops DC from flowing from one circuit to another.
3. It separates two separate electric circuits.
4. Before transmission and distribution can take place, the voltage level at the
electric power plant must be increased.

Solved Examples on Transformer

Example 1: A transformer primary winding is powered by a 120 V ac source.
If the turn ratio is 10, what does the secondary voltage equal?
Solution:
Given that, the turn ratio, N2/N1 = 10
And the voltage across the primary coil, V1 = 120 V
Now, according to the transformer’s equation:
V2/V1 = N2/N1
Substituting the given values,
V2/120 = 10
V2 = 1200 V

Example 2: A transformer has 1000 turns in the primary coil, and 8 A current
flows through it. When the input power is 10 kW, and the output is 1000 V.
Determine the number of turns in the secondary coil.
Solution:

Consider the case of an Ideal Transformer,

Given that, Pin = Pout = 1000 W
But, Pout = VSIS
Now, the current through the secondary circuit is,
IS = Pout / VS =10000 / 1000 = 10 A
Therefore, the turns ratio of transformer is given by,
IP / IS = NS / NP
NS = (IP / IS) NP
= (8/10) × 1000
= 800 turns.

Example 3: The number of turns in the secondary coil of a 22 KVA,

2200V/220V single-phase transformer is 50, then find the number of primary
turns. Neglect all kinds of losses in the transformer.
Answer:

The value of the turn’s ratio is

Vp/Vs = 2200/220
=10 = K
Number of primary turns
The value of the primary turns can be determined as: -
Np/Ns=K
Np/50=10
Np = 500

Example 4: Determine the primary current drawn in the transformer when

the efficiency of the transformer provided is 75% and works on 100 V, 5 kVA
and secondary voltage is 200 V.
Answer:

Given that, The kVA rating of transformer= 5 kVA

Primary voltage, V1 = 100 V
Secondary voltage, V2 = 200 V
Therefore, the Primary current I1 is given by,
I1= S / V1
= 5 kVA / 100
= 50 A

Question 1: What is Transformer?

Answer:
A transformer is an electrical device that transmits electrical energy from one
circuit to another using electromagnetic induction and mutual induction. It’s most
commonly utilised to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step down’) voltage levels
between circuits while keeping the AC frequency constant.

Question 2: List out some major types of Transformer.

Answer:
Transformer can be divided into many according to the purpose:
 Transformer types based on Voltage Level
 Step-down Transformer
 Step-up Transformer
 Transformer Types based on Core material
 Iron Core Transformer
 Ferrite Core Transformer
 Toroidal Core Transformer
 Air Core transformer
 Transformer Types based on Winding Arrangement
 Auto Winding Transformer
 Types of transformer based on Usage
 Power Transformer
 Small power transformer,
 Medium power transformer, and
 Large power transformer
 Measurement Transformer
 Distribution Transformer
 Pulse Transformer
 Audio Output Transformer

Question 3: What is the Turn Ratio?

Answer:
Turn Ratio is a measure to determine whether the secondary coil of a transformer
has more or lesser windings than the primary. The number of windings on a
primary coil is equal to “Np,” while the number of windings on a secondary coil is
“Ns,” representing the number of turns.

Question 4: What is a step-up transformer?

Answer:
A step-up transformer secondary voltage is increased from the low primary
voltage. The ratio of the primary to secondary winding in this type of transformer
will be larger than one since the primary winding has fewer turns than the
secondary winding.

Question 5: What is a step-down transformer?

Answer:
The secondary voltage of a step-up transformer is raised from the low primary
voltage. Because the primary winding has fewer turns than the secondary winding
in this sort of transformer, the ratio of the primary to secondary winding will be
greater than one.

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DC Machine – Construction, Working, Types and Applications

Construction, Classification, and Applications of DC Machine
According to the source of supply, electrical machines are classified into
two types; AC machine and DC machine. For example, DC Motors, DC
Generator etc.

What is a DC Machine?
A DC machine is an electromechanical device that is used to convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa.
 The DC machine used to convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy, which is known as DC motor and the DC machine used to
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, which is known as
DC generator. The same machine can be used either as a motor or
generator. The construction is same for DC motor and DC generator.

Construction of DC Machine
The DC machine consists of Yoke, Pole, and Pole shoe, Armature core,
Field Winding, Armature Winding, Commutator, Brushes, shaft, and
Bearings. Let’s explain each part in detail with applications.

 Yoke or Frame
The yoke is also known as the frame. It covers the internal parts of the
machine. The yoke is made up of low reluctance magnetic material like iron
and silicon steel. Generally, the yoke is made up of iron because iron is
cost-effective material than steel.
The yoke is used to provides mechanical protection to the machine. The
second application of yoke is that it provides a low reluctance path to the
flux. So, flux completes its path through the yoke.
 Pole and Pole shoe
The field winding is placed on a pole. When current passes through the
field winding, it will create an electric magnetic field and behaves as an
electromagnet. The pole shoes expand flux in the entire machine.
To reduce the eddy current losses, the pole and pole shoes are laminated.
For a small machine, the pole is not necessary to laminate. It is made up of
thin cast steel.
The pole is used to provide housing for the field winding and produce
magnetic flux inside the machine. The pole shoes are used to provide
support to the field winding and not to slip from the pole.

Field Winding
It is winding wounded on the pole is known as the field winding. External
DC source or the output of the machine is used to excite the field winding.
 It is made up of copper and aluminum. In most of the case, the winding is
made up of copper but when the cost is a consideration, aluminum is used.
When DC current passes through the coil, it will generate
the electromagnetic field (EMF). And it will magnetize the pole and produce
the magnetic flux. The flux produced by the pole is directly proportional to
the field current. And flux is more enough to cross the air gap between
armature and pole shoes.

Armature Core
The armature core is cylindrical in shape and connected by a key with the
shaft. So, it is a rotating part of the DC machine.
The armature core consists of a number of slots on its outer periphery. It is
made up of low reluctance and high permeability material like cast iron or
cast steel. The armature core is laminated to reduce the eddy current.
The holes are provided on the armature core to release the heat of the
machine. The armature slots are used to house the armature winding.

Armature Winding
The armature winding is placed on the slots of the armature core. It is
made up of copper. The armature winding links with the magnetic flux and
induce a rotating magnetic flux.
According to the connections, there are two types of windings; Lap winding
and Wave winding

 Lap winding
In lap winding, the armature conductors are divided into groups of a
number of poles P. All conductor groups are connected in parallel and in
one group, all conductors are connected in series.
For lap winding, the number of a parallel path (A) is the same as the
number of poles (P). Therefore, in lap winding, the number of parallel paths
is more. And due to this, it is capable of supplying larger load current.
So, lap winding is used for low voltage high current applications.
 Wave Winding
In wave winding, all conductors are connected in series and it forms a
single loop. For wave winding, irrespective of the number of poles, the
number of parallel paths is always two.
So, in wave winding, a smaller number of parallel paths available compared
to the lap winding. The wave winding is used for high voltage low current
DC machine.

 Commutator
The commutator is mounted on the shaft of a machine. The armature
conductors are rotating. The commutator is used to connects the rotating
armature conductor with a stationary external circuit.
It converts alternating torque produced in the armature into unidirectional
torque. In other words, it converts AC torque into DC torque. So, it works
similar to the rectifier.
It is made up of a number of segments of hard drawn copper to reduce tear
and were. Because it connects the rotating part to a stationary part. All
segments are insulated from each other by the thin layer of mica, paper or
plastic insulators.

 Brushes
The commutator connected the external circuit via brushes. The brushes
are used to carry current from the armature conductors.
In most of the cases, brushes are made up of carbon for a small machine
and electro-graphite brushes used for the large machines.
The brushes are held the surface of the commutator by springs and
rectangular in shape.

 Shaft
The shaft used to transfer mechanical power. If the machine is used as a
DC motor, mechanical power is transferred from the motor to load. And if
 the machine is used as a DC generator, mechanical power is transferred
from prime mover to the machine.

 Bearing
The bearings are used at the end of the shaft. The friction between the
rotating part and the stationary part is reduced with the help of bearings.
The bearing is made up of any hard material like carbon steel. The ball type
or roll type barring is used in the DC machine.

Classification of DC Machine
There are different types of DC machines like series, shunt, short shunt
compound and long shunt compound.
According to the field excitation method, the DC machines are classified as;

 Separately Excited DC Machine

 Self-Excited DC Machine
Separately Excited DC Machine

In this type of machine, the field winding is electrically separate from the
armature winding. There is no physical connection between the field
winding and the armature winding.
In separately excited machines, the field winding is supplied from a
separate power source.

Self-excited DC Machine
In this type of DC machine, the field winding and armature winding are
connected with each other. The performance characteristic of a machine
depends on the connection between the field winding and armature
winding.
According to the connection between field winding and armature winding,
the DC machines are classified as;

 Series Wound DC Machine

 Shunt Wound DC Machine
 Compound Wound DC Machine
Series DC Machine

In this type of DC machine, the field winding is connected in series with the
armature winding. Because of the series connection, the entire load current
(armature current) will pass from the field winding. And this current is high.
So, the series field winding is designed with a smaller number of turns of
thick wire to reduce the resistance.

Shunt Wound DC Machine

In this type of DC machine, the field winding is connected in parallel with
the armature winding. Because of the parallel connection, full voltage is
applied to the field winding. Therefore, shunt winding is designed with a
large number of turns with high resistance.
The current flow through the field winding is very small. It is just 5% of the
rated armature current.

Compound Wound DC Machine

In this type of DC machine, two field windings are used. One winding is
connected in series and second winding is connected in parallel with the
armature winding.
The compound Wound DC Machine is also classified into two types;
 Short Shunt
 Long Shunt
Short Shunt
If the field winding is connected in parallel with only the armature winding,
the machine is called a Short shunt compound wound DC machine.

Long Shunt
 If the field winding is connected parallel with a combination of series field
winding and armature winding, the machine is called a Long-shunt
compound wound DC Machine.

Applications of DC Machines
The use of electrical energy increases day by day. And because of that, the
use of electrical machines is also increasing.
Generally, the DC machines are used in supplying excitation of an
alternator and it is also used in many applications like welding process,
variable-speed motor drives and electrolytic and electroplating process.
Small DC machines are used as a control device such as speed sensing,
positioning, and tracking.

Application of DC Machine as Generator

The DC generators are classified as Separately excited DC generator,
Shunt-wound, and Series-Wound generator.

 Separately excited DC Generator

This type of DC generator is used for testing in laboratories. Because it has
a wide range of voltage input. It is also used as a supply to DC motor.

 Shunt-wound Generator
This type of generator used to charge a battery and provide excitation to
the alternator. This type of generator also used for lighting purposes.

 Series-wound Generator
 Series-wound generators are used in locomotive for providing field
excitation current as well as for regenerative braking. In a distribution
power system, it is used as a booster
Synchronous Machine
Synchronous Machine constitutes of both synchronous motors as well as
synchronous generators. An AC system has some advantages over a DC system.
Therefore, the AC system is exclusively used for the generation, transmission, and
distribution of electric power.

The machine which converts mechanical power into AC electrical power is called
a Synchronous Generator or Alternator. However, if the same machine can be
operated as a motor is known as Synchronous Motor.

Synchronous machine is an AC machine whose satisfactory operation depends

upon the maintenance of the following relationship.

Where,

 Ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)

 f is the supply frequency
 P is the number of poles of the machine.
When connected to an electric power system, a synchronous machine always
maintains the above relationship shown in equation (1).

If the synchronous machine working as a motor fails to maintain the average speed
(Ns) the machine will not develop sufficient torque to maintain its rotation and will
stop. Then the motor is said to be Pulled Out of Step.

In case, when the synchronous machine is operating as a generator, it has to run at

a fixed speed called Synchronous speed to generate the power at a particular
frequency. As all the appliances or machines are designed to operate at this
frequency. In some countries, the value of the frequency is 50 hertz.

Basic Principles of Synchronous Machine

A synchronous machine is just an electromechanical transducer that converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice versa.
The fundamental phenomenon or law which makes these conversions possible is
known as the Law of Electromagnetic Induction and Law of interaction.

The detailed description is explained below.

Law of Electro-Magnetic Induction

This law is also called Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction. This law
relates to the production of emf, i.e.; emf is induced in a conductor whenever it
cuts across the magnetic field as shown below:

Law of Interaction

This law relates to the production of force or torque, i.e., whenever a current-
carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, by the interaction of the
magnetic field produced by the current-carrying conductor and the main field,
force is exerted on the conductor producing torque. The figure is shown below:
Three-Phase Synchronous Machine

 The machine which is used in the household appliance such as the small
machine used in air coolers, refrigeration, fans, air conditioners, etc.
 However, large AC machines are three-phase type synchronous machines
because of the following reasons.
 For the same size of the frame, three-phase machines have nearly 1.5 times the
output than that of the single-phase machine.
 Three-phase power is transmitted and distributed more economical than single-
phase power.
 Three-phase motors are self-starting (except synchronous motors).
 Three-phase motors have an absolute uniform continuous torque, whereas,
single-phase motors have pulsating torque.
In a small synchronous machine, the fielding winding is placed on the stator, and
the armature winding is placed on the rotor whereas for the large synchronous
machine the field winding is placed on the rotor, and the armature winding is
placed on the stator.