energies
Article
Minimizing Power Losses for Distributed Generation (DG)
Placements by Considering Voltage Profiles on Distribution
Lines for Different Loads Using Genetic Algorithm Methods
Ramdhan Halid Siregar 1,2, *, Yuwaldi Away 1,2 , Tarmizi 1,2 and Akhyar 1,3
Citation: Siregar, R.H.; Away, Y.;
Tarmizi; Akhyar Minimizing Power
Losses for Distributed Generation
(DG) Placements by Considering
Voltage Profiles on Distribution Lines
for Different Loads Using Genetic
Algorithm Methods. Energies 2023, 16,
5388. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en16145388
Academic Editor: Ahmed Abu-Siada
Received: 15 May 2023
Revised: 2 July 2023
Accepted: 10 July 2023
Published: 14 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 5388. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16145388
1 Doctoral School of Engineering Science, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia;
yuwaldi@usk.ac.id (Y.A.); mizi@usk.ac.id (T.); akhyar@unsyiah.ac.id (A.)
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Jl. Syech Abdurrauf No.7 Darussalam,
Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
* Correspondence: ramdhan@unsyiah.ac.id
Abstract: The need for electrical energy is increasing in line with the increase in population and
increasing progress in welfare. On the other hand, the availability of fossil fuels as the main fuel in
generating electricity is dwindling; so, there is a need for policies that require the use of environmen-
tally friendly renewable energy. The utilization of renewable energy does not necessarily apply freely
due to several constraints. One effort is a generator or distributed generation (DG) which is placed in
the distribution line close to the load. The utilization of DG must go through planning, especially the
large capacity and position on the bus and on the feeder, which will result in small network losses
and a voltage profile that meets tolerance limits. Thus, the purpose of this study is to optimize to
obtain the capacity and location of the DG calculated by considering the variation in the load through
the genetic algorithm method. As a result, the optimal DG position for normal load is obtained on
bus 18, bus 20, and bus 32 with capacities of 190 kW, 463 kW, and 370 kW, respectively. The losses
obtained decreased from 54.6733 kW to 9.9447 kW, and the voltage profile was maintained within the
specified limits. Optimization was carried out for decreasing and increasing loads in percent. The
result is that losses can be minimized, and the voltage profile remains within the required limits. The
lower the load, the more stable the voltage and the smaller the losses; meanwhile, the larger the load,
the more fluctuating the voltage is, but still within the limits specified in the optimization.
Keywords: distributed generation; genetic algorithms; minimization of losses; voltage profile;
load variation
1. Introduction
Nowadays, the availability of electrical energy plays a very vital role in human life.
Electrical energy is a primary need because electrical energy is used in almost every aspect
of human life. The growth in demand for electrical energy from year to year continues
to increase and develop. The increasing need for electrical energy is inseparable from
population growth and increasing industry [1]. While the most common fossil fuels are
now restricted, the demand for electrical energy is rising along with the requirement for
main fuels (oil, gas, and coal) in power plants [2–6].
One type of renewable generator is the distributed generation (DG) technology, which
is a small capacity generator that is located close to the load, namely in the electricity distri-
bution network system. Installing DG provides many advantages, namely increased system
reliability, higher efficiency, saving power, and being more environmentally friendly [7].
The number of short-circuit current sources increases when a system disturbance occurs,
which is one disadvantage of DG. As a result, when installing DGs, several factors need
to be taken into account, including voltage and system power losses [8–12]. It is crucial to
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 2 of 25

know where the DG is physically located. If the system’s power losses are decreased and
the voltage level is kept between the minimum and maximum values, DG is considered to
be optimal. A technique is required to address the DG location optimization issue [13–15].
Distributed generation (DG) is often used to express small-scale electricity generation.
No agreement has been made to define DG definitively. The International Council on Large
Electricity Systems (CIGRE) defines distributed generation as any generating unit with
a maximum capacity of 50 MW to 100 MW, which is usually connected to a distribution
network. On the other hand, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
defines DG as the generation of electrical energy carried out by equipment that is smaller
than a central power plant so that it allows interconnection to occur at almost all points in
the electric power system. A different definition has been proposed in the literature, which
defines DG based on connection and location, not based on generation capacity [16].
DG is a technology that is constantly evolving and can adapt to economic changes in a
flexible way due to its small size and simpler construction compared to conventional power
plants. Most DGs are very flexible in terms of operations, sizes, and technological advances.
In addition, DG can improve the reliability of the electric power system. In its installation
in the distribution network, DG is placed close to the load area and several advantages of
using DG are as follows: (1) DG provides higher reliability in power utilization; (2) DG as
a local energy source can help to save power; and (3) compared to power plants, DG has
a higher efficiency in power distribution. DG can improve system efficiency because DG
helps reduce system losses when connected to the network.
DG is environmentally friendly in producing electrical energy. Emissions generated
from the production of electrical energy by DG are low, even close to zero [17]. Besides the
advantages, DG can also cause some disadvantages, for example, increasing the number
of short-circuit currents when a disturbance occurs in the system. Several parameters
need to be considered in DG installation, namely the amounts of short-circuit currents,
voltage levels, and losses in the system. One of the things that is very important in the
DG discussion is the determination of the optimal location and capacity if it results in
additional short-circuit currents and minimal power losses as well as maintained voltage
levels, which are between minimum and maximum values [18]. Analytical methods and
mathematical optimization methods provide robust optimal solutions but may require
significant computational effort and duration for complex problems [19].
Of the many methods, the backward and forward sweep is an efficient method. In
the backward sweep, starting from the far end point of the network, the load current is
at the load point. Therefore, the current flowing in the line is calculated according to
the assumptions or calculation results from the voltage in the previous iteration. After
calculating the current flowing on the line, in the forward sweep from the source point,
the voltage from each bus point is updated. After the forward sweep compensation for
injection current is calculated, then the convergence criteria are tested. Various kinds of
convergence criteria are adjusted to the voltage point, line load or current, and the input of
power to the network [20].
To analyze the power flow using the forward–backward sweep method, the radial
distribution network is presented like a tree with the first bus as the root or slack bus, and
the other buses as the branches or load buses. By using the forward–backward sweep
method, the power flow analysis for the distribution system is resolved without much
calculation and efficiently at each iteration [21]. This forward–backward method uses the
principle of Kirchoff’s law to calculate the current. The first forward–backward sweep
method is a forward sweep to calculate the amount of current flowing in the line from the
earliest bus to the last. The second is a forward sweep to calculate the value of the voltage
reduction on each line by multiplying the previously calculated current value with the line
impedance value [22].
A genetic algorithm (GA) is an algorithm that seeks to apply an understanding of
natural evolution to problem-solving tasks. The approach taken by this GA is to combine
randomly the best solution choices in a set to obtain the next best solution generation,
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 3 of 25

namely, in a condition that maximizes its fit or commonly called fitness. This generation
will present improvements in the initial population. By doing this process repeatedly, this
GA is expected to simulate an evolutionary process. To use a GA, the problem solution is
represented as chromosomes. Three aspects are important for the use of a GA [23]: (1) defi-
nition of the fitness function; (2) definition and implementation of genetic representation;
and (3) definition and implementation of genetic operations. The minimizing of active
power losses in the network is taken into consideration as the objective function in the
optimization problem of optimal DG unit placement, finding the ideal placement and
size of the dispersed generating units utilizing the hybrid genetic dragonfly algorithm
as an optimization tool [24–27]. To allocate multiple DG units in a distribution network
in the most effective way, a powerful optimization technique based on the sine cosine
algorithm (SCA) and chaos map theory was proposed [28–31]. The genetic algorithm
(GA), differential evolution (DE), particle swarm optimization (PSO), artificial bee colony
(ABC), harmony search (HS), gray wolf optimization algorithm, and backtracking search
optimization algorithm have all been mentioned in this paper as being used to determine
the ideal size and location of DG units [32–36].
Based on the background, the optimization method that can be used is the genetic
algorithm. The purpose of this paper is to simulate the feeder distribution network of
the Lingke Krueng Cut PLN Banda Aceh City—Indonesia (Indonesian State Electricity
Company). The determination of this distribution network is because this feeder has a
value of electric power losses and a voltage reduction, and in this feeder, the voltage profile
is outside the allowable tolerance. To address this problem, it is possible to place DG in this
feeder with the hope of being able to improve the value of the power losses and the voltage
profile found in the distribution system feeders used for this optimization. To simulate the
distribution network in this study, the ETAP power station application was used, and the
Matlab application was used to analyze it.

2. Materials and Methods

The ETAP and Matlab apps were the ones utilized in this simulation. To create
“electrical digital twins” and analyze system dynamics, transients, and protection electric
power, ETAP (Electrical Transient Analyzer Program) version 19.0 was used. ETAP is a
software electrical network modeling and simulation software tool used by power system
engineers. In this work simulation, MATLAB 2018, a high-level programming language
designed primarily for numerical computing, programming, and visualization, was used.
A genetic algorithm was used to determine the optimal capacity and location of the
DG, which produces the minimum power loss value and also the voltage value according
to the standard provisions on the bus, namely 1.05 p.u. and 0.95 p.u., as shown in the flow
chart (Figure 1).
Energies 2023,16,
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27

Start

Read data: line data,

bus data, DG data

Initial Power Flow

Generate initial
population randomly

GA implementation
for optimization

Generate new Fitness objective

population optimization from DG

Create a new
Constraints met?
individual:reproduction, crossover

Simulation result output

Vary the load -50%, +50%

and 100%

Analysis of losses
and voltage

Conclusion

Finish

Figure1.1.Flow
Figure Flowchart
chartoptimization
optimizationwith
withGA.
GA.

2.1.
2.1.Power
PowerFlow
Flowin
inRadial
RadialDistribution
DistributionNetworks
Networks
2.1.1. Backward Sweep
2.1.1. Backward Sweep
The procedure for completing the power flow starts with a backward sweep. In the
The procedure for completing the power flow starts with a backward sweep. In the
first iteration, all voltages are assumed to be the same as the voltage at the main source.
first iteration, all voltages are assumed to be the same as the voltage at the main source. If
If there are multiple sources in the network, the compensating injection current at those
there are multiple sources in the network, the compensating injection current at those
sources is zero in the first iteration. On the other hand, the voltage at each point and the
sources is zero in the first iteration. On the other hand, the voltage at each point and the
compensation injection current are calculated in the previous iteration. When the voltage
compensation injection current are calculated in the previous iteration. When the voltage
at each point and the compensation injection current are known, the load current can be
at each point and the compensation injection current are known, the load current can be
found using Equation (1).
found using Equation (1). 
Pi + jQi ∗

Ildi = (1)
𝑃V𝑖 i + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 ∗
𝐼𝑙𝑑𝑖 = [ ] (1)
where I is the load current at point i; Pi is the active
ldi
𝑉𝑖 power requirement at point i; Qi is
the reactive
where 𝐼𝑙𝑑𝑖 power requirement
is the load pointi;i; 𝑃and
current atatpoint Vi isactive
𝑖 is the
the voltage point i.
poweratrequirement at point i; 𝑄𝑖
is the reactive power requirement at point i; and 𝑉𝑖 is the voltage at point i.
2.1.2. Forward Sweep
2.1.2.InForward
the forward sweep, starting from the main source point where the voltage value is
Sweep
known, the impedance and current flowing in each line are known, and all voltages are not
In the forward sweep, starting from the main source point where the voltage value is
renewed and ignore other sources, if any, as in Equation (2).
known, the impedance and current flowing in each line are known, and all voltages are
not renewed and ignore other V =sources,
V − ZifIany, asi in
= Equation
I, . . . , N (2). (2)
i ui i Li
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑢𝑖 − 𝑍𝑖 𝐼𝐿𝑖 i = I, …, N (2)
where Vi is the voltage at point i; Vui is the voltage on top of point i; Zi is the impedance of
where
line 𝑉𝑖 IisLi the
i; and voltage
is the at point
current i; 𝑉in
flowing i. voltage on top of point i; 𝑍𝑖 is the impedance
is the
𝑢𝑖 line
of line i; and 𝐼𝐿𝑖 is the current flowing in line i.
 Energies2023,
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Figure22isisan
Figure anexample
exampleof
ofaa6-bus
6-busradial
radialdistribution
distributionsystem
systemthat
thatcan
canbe
beformed
formedusing
using
theBBIC,
the BBIC,BCBV,
BCBV,and andDLF
DLFmatrices.
matrices.

S 1
B1 Z12
2
Z23
B2
3

Z34
B3
B5 4
Z36
Z45
B4
6 5

Figure 2. Sample of a 6-bus radial distribution system. Where S is source, B is the bus which is bus-1
Figure 2. Sample of a 6-bus radial distribution system. Where S is source, B is the bus which is bus-
to bus-5, while Z is the line impedance between buses, for example Z12 is the impedance between
1 to bus-5, while Z is the line impedance between buses, for example Z12 is the impedance be-
bus-1,
tweenand bus-2,
bus-1, andetc.
bus-2, etc.

1. Forming the BBIC Matrix

1. Forming the BBIC Matrix
Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) is applied to the system in Figure 2. The branch current
can beKirchhoff’s
expressed Current law (KCL)injection
by the equivalent is applied to thevalue
current system in Figure 2. The branch cur-
as follows:
rent can be expressed by the equivalent injection current value as follows:
B1 = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + I6 (3)
𝐵1 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 + 𝐼6 (3)
𝐵2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 + 𝐼6 (4)
B2 = I3 + I4 + I5 + I6 (4)
𝐵3 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 (5)

B3 =𝐵4I4=+ 𝐼I55 (6)

(5)
𝐵5 = 𝐼6 (7)
B4 =matrix
Based on the equation above, the BBIC I5 equation can be formed as follows:(6)
𝐵1 1 1 1 1 1 𝐼1
𝐵2 B5 = I6 (7)
0 1 1 1 1 𝐼2
𝐵3 = 0 0 1 1 0 𝐼3
Based on the equation above, the BBIC matrix equation can be formed as follows: (8)
𝐵4 0 0 0 1 0 𝐼4
 [𝐵5 ] [0 0 0 0 1][𝐼5 ]
B1 1 1 1 1 1 I1
 B2  above
 I2in
The branch current equation 0 can
1 be
1 arranged,
1 1   general, as follows:
   
 B3  = 0 0 1 1 0 I3  (8)
  [𝐵] = [𝐵𝐵𝐼𝐶][𝐼]  (9)
 B4  0 0 0 1 0 I4 

2. B5
Compiling the BCBV Matrix 0 0 0 0 1 I5

Thebranch
The relationship
currentbetween branch
equation abovecurrent and bus voltage
can be arranged, canas
in general, befollows:
expressed as fol-
lows:
[ B] = [ BBIC ][ I ] (9)
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 − 𝐵1 𝑍12 (10)
2. Compiling the BCBV Matrix 𝑉3 = 𝑉2 − 𝐵2 𝑍23 (11)
The relationship between branch current and bus voltage can be expressed as follows:
𝑉4 = 𝑉3 − 𝐵3 𝑍34 (12)
V2 = V1 − B1 Z12 (10)
𝑉5 = 𝑉4 − 𝐵4 𝑍45 (13)

𝑉6 = 𝑉3 − 𝐵5 𝑍36 (14)
V3 = V2 − B2 Z23 (11)
By substituting Equation (10) into Equation (11), the voltage at bus 3 is obtained as
follows:
V4 = V3 − B3 Z34 (12)
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 6 of 25

V5 = V4 − B4 Z45 (13)

V6 = V3 − B5 Z36 (14)
By substituting Equation (10) into Equation (11), the voltage at bus 3 is obtained
as follows:
V3 = V1 − B1 Z12 − B2 Z23 (15)
The value of the voltage at the other bus can be written as follows:

V4 = V1 − B1 Z12 − B2 Z23 − B3 Z34 (16)

V5 = V1 − B1 Z12 − B2 Z23 − B3 Z34 − B4 Z45 (17)

V6 = V1 − B1 Z12 − B2 Z23 − B5 Z36 (18)

Based on Equations (10), (15)–(18), the following equations can be arranged to calculate
the voltage reduction:
      
V1 V2 Z12 0 0 0 0 B1
V1  V3   Z12 Z23 1 1 0  B2 
 
     
V1  − V4  =  Z12 Z23 Z34 1  B3 
0  (19)
 
    
V1  V5   Z12 Z23 Z34 Z45 1  B4 
V1 V6 Z12 Z23 0 0 Z36 B5

Equation (19) can be arranged, in general, as follows:

[∆V ] = [ BCBV ][ B] (20)

Then, Equation (8) can be substituted into Equation (20) so that the equation becomes

[∆V ] = [ BCBV ][ BBIC ][ I ] (21)

[∆V ] = [ DLF ][ I ] (22)

by obtaining the BIBC, BCBV, and ∆V matrices, we can calculate the voltage value at each
bus. The voltage value at each bus can be calculated with the following equation:

[Vi ] = [V 1 ] − [∆V] (23)

2.2. DG Data Reading

In the initial process before selecting or optimizing the placement and capacity of DG,
the thing to carry out is find out how many individuals will be generated and also how
many variables will be generated as a comparison of other variables. Where the variables
in question are: (1) Capacity P contains the maximum value of DG capacity to be installed
in the system, and the installed value is active power P (kW). The P value that will be
installed during the process is a max of 500 kW, which is the maximum output power limit
of the small type of distributed generation. (2) In this paper, the number of DGs that will
be installed on the system is 3 DGs.

2.3. DG as Negative Load

Two types of buses have different characteristics, as a load (load) or as a generator. The
load absorbs power from the system while the generator supplies power. The generator
flow direction is opposite to the load power flow direction when it is installed in the
 Energies 2023, 16, 5388 7 of 25

distribution line. The type of bus for injecting DG into the system is a load bus, but with a
negative sign which will carry information that DG acts as a generator [37].
Based on Figure 3, it can be understood that when a load is installed in the form of
distributed generation with a capacity of 10 + j5, the total load attached to bus 2 is 20 + j10
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW− 10 − j5 = 10 + j5. If the distributed generator on bus l is replaced with a load that7has
of 27
the
same value, the total load installed is 20 + j10 + 10 + j5 = 30 + j15.

k l
−10−j5

R+jX
10+j5
20+j10

Figure 3. Distributed Generator is modeled as Negative Load.

Figure 3. Distributed Generator is modeled as Negative Load.
2.4. Raise the Initial Population
2.4. Raise
Thethe Initial
initial Populationis generated randomly, so the placement of DG is conducted
population
The initial
randomly population
without having is
to generated
look at whichrandomly, so theThis
bus to place. placement of DG
individual is conducted
design is nothing
randomly
but a groupwithout having tothat
of individuals lookwill
at which bus to place.
be processed Thisinindividual
together one cycle of design is nothing
the evolutionary
but a groupThe
process. of individuals that will
first determines thebepop
processed together as
size parameter in one
the cycle of the evolutionary
individual variable to be
generated,
process. Theand
firstthen string length
determines the popas the
sizenumber of genes
parameter as theorindividual
a representative
variableof to
thebenumber
gen-
of buses
erated, andtothen
be processed.
string lengthThe as placement
the numberand capacity
of genes or agenerated
representativefor each variable
of the numberare
ofcarried
buses tooutbewith a limitation
processed. of 3 DG placements
The placement at thegenerated
and capacity bus position, where
for each each placement
variable are car-
is given
ried a capacity
out with with the
a limitation of 3result of optimizing
DG placements the bus
at the capacity itself.where each placement
position,
In the generated population is the use of binary numbers
is given a capacity with the result of optimizing the capacity itself. where every 1 (one) value
represents a DG placement, while a value of 0 (zero)
In the generated population is the use binary numbers where means there is no DG 1placement.
every (one) value
represents a DG placement, while a value of 0 (zero) means there is no DG placement.
2.5. Objective Function
The method
2.5. Objective used to determine the most optimal DG location is to find the minimum
Function
losses between the
The method used buses installed the
to determine by DG while
most taking
optimal DGinto account
location is tothe limitations
find of DG
the minimum
capacity. The objective function is as follows:
losses between the buses installed by DG while taking into account the limitations of DG
capacity. The objective function is as follows: n
F = Min { Pt = ∑ I2 R }
𝑛 i 2i
(24)
𝐹 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛 {𝑃𝑡 = ∑ 1 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 }
i =𝑖=1 (24)
where
whereFFisisthe
theobjective
objectivefunction,
function,PtPtisisthe
thetotal
totalactive
activepower
powerloss,
loss,Ii Iis the i-th bus line
i is the i-th bus line
current, Ri is the i-th bus resistance, and n = the number of buses in the system.
current, Ri is the i-th bus resistance, and n = the number of buses in the system.
Subjective
Subjectivefunction
functionisisasasfollows:
follows:
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑛
n 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑃𝐷𝐺 = ∑n𝑖=1(𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ) (25)
where 𝑃𝐺𝑖 is the active power ∑ PGi + PDG
generated = ∑𝑃( Pi is
(kW); 𝐷𝐺
+ the )
Plossactive power DG (kW); 𝑃𝑖 (25) is
i =1 i =1
power on load (kW); and 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 is power loss (kW).
Limits
where orthe
PGi is constraints are rules
active power in the(kW);
generated form of
PDG parameter values
is the active thatDG
power must be passed
(kW); in
Pi is power
a on load (kW);
process and Ploss function.
as a selection is power loss (kW). make the selection process more effective
Boundaries
because there are conditions that must be met. The limitations used in this final project
are
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 < 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑠 (26)
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 − 5% × 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)/𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 (27)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 + 5% × 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)/𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 (28)
This limit is the standard voltage tolerance allowed on the bus system that applies to
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 8 of 25

Limits or constraints are rules in the form of parameter values that must be passed
in a process as a selection function. Boundaries make the selection process more effective
because there are conditions that must be met. The limitations used in this final project are

Vmin < Vbus < Vmaks (26)

Vmin = (Vbase − 5% × Vbase)/Vbase (27)

Vmax = (Vbase + 5% × Vbase)/Vbase (28)

This limit is the standard voltage tolerance allowed on the bus system that applies to
most large companies, which is a max value of 1.05 p.u. and a min of 0.95 p.u.

2.6. Create the New Population

The optimization process using GA sometimes requires the creation of new individ-
uals. This happens because the initial population has a fitness value that is less than
optimal, so it is necessary to generate new individuals to find optimal results from the
previously generated initial population. This process occurs utilizing reproduction and
crossover processes.

2.7. Generate New Population

To generate a new population, you must first know the condition of the individuals
because there are several individuals in the population. The number of individuals can be
generated by a new population randomly so that it can be directly processed into fitness to
find optimal results.

2.8. Location Determination DG using GA

The following is a design for determining the location of DG. This design is determined
based on the total power losses in the system according to Equations (29) and (30).

Sr = Sload − SDG (29)

PDG,loss = real (Sr ) (30)

where Sload and SDG are the power consumed by the load and the power generated by DG;
so, to obtain the amount of power loss after installing DG, the power consumed by the load
is reduced by the power generated by DG.
Determining the location of the DG using the genetic algorithm method is searched
based on the random value assigned by the GA to each variable. The random value is in
the form of a binary value which is then used as a solution in determining the location of
the DG. The optimal installation of DG in a distribution system that has a large number
of buses is a problem that can only be solved by an optimization method. Because the
possibility of installing DG in the system is very large, it is assumed that every bus allows
DG installation except for the grid bus. So, with so many possible combinations in this
paper, a genetic algorithm method is used to obtain the determination of the DG location
enabling all of these combinations to be resolved optimally to minimize the total system
power loss.

3. Results
The data obtained from PT PLN (Office of the Indonesian State Electricity Company)
UP3 (Unit Pelaksana Pelayanan Pelanggan/unit of − executor − service − customer) Banda
Aceh, Indonesia, for the Lingke Krueng Cut feeder, consist of 37 distribution transformer
buses with power data for each transformer, loading, resistance, and reactance.
 Energies 2023, 16, 5388 9 of 25

Figure 4 shows a single line diagram of the distribution network of the Lingke KRC
feeder which will be used in the DG placement optimization simulation to minimize the
resulting line losses, maintain a satisfactory voltage profile, and then calculate the load
variations. Bus numbers from 1 to 37 are from the source to the farthest load, or the
023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 27power flow, the
location of the bus that is likely to be placed by DG, but for optimal
position and capacity must be searched using a genetic algorithm and following changing
load conditions.

27
2
3
28
4

6
29 7 15
9 16
8
17

30 31 18
19
10
11
12
32
20
33 21
34 22
23
35 13
24
14
25
36 37
26

Figure 4. Single line diagram of the Lingke KRC feeder. Numbers 1 to 37 are the bus numbering from
the source to all loads in the feeder, while the arrows are loads from the bus in question.

Figure 4. Single line

3.1.diagram of the Lingke
Data Analysis beforeKRC feeder. Numbers 1 to 37 are the bus numbering
DG Placement
from the source to all loads in the feeder, while the arrows are loads from the bus in question.
The results of the power flow using the application obtained total losses for ac-
tive power amounting to 54.67337875 kW, while total losses in reactive power obtained
3.1. Data Analysis before DG Placement
amounted to 13.76872173 kVAr. The largest active power loss occurred on bus 4 to bus 5
The resultswhich
of the waspower flow using
12.33711406 kW, the
andapplication
the largestobtained
reactive total
power losses for activeon bus 3 to bus 4
loss occurred
power amounting which was 3.525 kVAr. The value of the largest power loss on theobtained
to 54.67337875 kW, while total losses in reactive power line from bus 4 to bus 5
amounted to 13.76872173
was due tokVAr. having The largest
a long active so
distance, power loss occurred
the resistance on bus 4 to
and reactance busalso
were 5 large and also
which was 12.33711406
due to the kW,large
and loading
the largest on reactive power loss the
bus 4. Meanwhile, occurred
smalleston active
bus 3 to bus loss value was
power
4 which was 3.525 kVAr.onThe
located busvalue
line 25of to
thebuslargest power
26 with loss onpower
an active the line from
loss bus 4 to buskW.
of 0.003382293
5 was due to having As a long distance,
a result of the so the resistance
power flow, thereand were reactance were that
several buses alsoexperienced
large and under voltage.
also due to the large
Out of a total of 37 buses in the network, 15 buses experienced value
loading on bus 4. Meanwhile, the smallest active power loss under voltage or the
was located on bus line 25
voltage was tooutside
bus 26 with an active power
the minimum limit set lossbyof 0.003382293
PLN, namely 0.95kW.p.u. Installation of DGs
As a result on
of the
thepower
network flow,canthere
improvewerethe several
voltagebuses that experienced
profile. However, the under volt- of DGs in the
installation
age. Out of a total of 37 busessystem
distribution in the cannetwork, 15 buses
also allow experienced
the voltage on theunder
bus tovoltage or theover-voltage, so
experience
it is necessary
voltage was outside the minimum to determine
limit set by thePLN,
location
namelyof the installation
0.95 and the
p.u. Installation ofcapacity
DGs that may be
on the network installed
can improve on thethenetwork
voltageso that the
profile. voltage isthe
However, at the standardof
installation provisions
DGs in the on the bus, namely
1.05can
distribution system p.u.also
andallow
0.95 p.u. The following
the voltage on the bus is ato
graph of the relationship
experience over-voltage,between
so it the buses in
the Lingkethe
is necessary to determine KRC feederofdistribution
location the installationsystemand and the voltage
the capacity thatprofile
may be ofin-
each bus at initial
conditions
stalled on the network (Figure
so that 5).
the voltage is at the standard provisions on the bus, namely
1.05 p.u. and 0.95 p.u. The following is a graph of the relationship between the buses in
the Lingke KRC feeder distribution system and the voltage profile of each bus at initial
conditions (Figure 5).
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 27

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 27

Energies 2023, 16, 5388 10 of 25
1

0.98
1
0.96

(pu) (pu)
0.98
0.94

ProfileProfile
0.96
0.92
0.94
Voltage 0.9
0.92
Voltage
0.88
0.9
0.86
0.88
0.84
0.86
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
0.84 Bus Number
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
Bus Number
Figure 5. Voltage profile of the Lingke KRC feeder.
Figure 5. Voltage profile of the Lingke KRC feeder.
3.2. Optimization
Figure of DG of
5. Voltage profile Placement
the Lingkeand Capacity
KRC feeder.under Normal Load
3.2. Optimization of DG Placement and Capacity under Normal Load
The determination of place and capacity is randomly generated by the GA, where the
maximum Thecapacity
determination
3.2. Optimization of DGused byofDG
place
Placement and
isand
500 capacity
Capacity
kW. is randomly
under
Placement Normal generated
of DG inby
Load
and size thetheGA GA, wheretothe
process
maximum capacity
The determination
use random used
generation,of by
place
then DG is 500
and capacity
become kW. Placement
is randomly
a growing and size
generated
population of DG in
by the GA,
by undergoing the GA
whereprocess
a genetic the
al-
to
maximum
gorithmuse random generation, then become a growing population by undergoing
capacity used by DG is 500 kW. Placement and size of DG in the GA process
process. a genetic
to
usealgorithm
random process.
generation, then become a growing population by undergoing
Individuals are generated using binary numbers where each value of 1 (one) is a DG a genetic al-
gorithmIndividuals
placement, while a are
process. generated using binary numbers where each value of 1 (one) is a DG
value of 0 (zero) means there is no DG placement. In the individual
placement,
Individualswhile a value of using
0 (zero) means there is no DG placement. In(one)
the individual
showing the bestare generated
chromosome binary
generated, thenumbers
numberwhere each value of
of chromosomes is 1five. is a DG
Then, the
showing the best chromosome generated, the number of chromosomes is five. Then, the
placement,
best while aisvalue
chromosome of 0(Figure
selected (zero) 6),
means therethe
namely, is no DG placement.
chromosome In the
that has the individual
minimum
best chromosome is selected (Figure 6), namely, the chromosome that has the minimum
showing
active the best
power loss chromosome
value, in this generated, the number
case, chromosome of chromosomes
number 1, which has isanfive. Then,
active the
power
active power loss value, in this case, chromosome number 1, which has an active power
best chromosome
loss of 9.9443 kW. is selected (Figure 6), namely, the chromosome that has the minimum
loss of 9.9443 kW.
active power loss value, in this case, chromosome number 1, which has an active power
loss of90
9.9443 kW.

80
90 Active Power Reactive Power
70
80
60 Active Power Reactive Power
(kW) (kW)

70
50
60
LossesLosses

40
50
30
40
20
30
10
20
0
10 1 2 3 4 5
0 Chromosome Number
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 6. Total loss of active power for each chromosome.
Chromosome Number
Figure 6. Total loss of active power for each chromosome.
Optimization results show that the positions or placements of DGs are on bus 18 with
a size of 190
Optimization
Figure 6. Total losskW, bus 20
ofresults
active with
show
power fora each
that size of 463 kW,
the positions
chromosome. and bus 32 of
or placements with
DGsa are
sizeonofbus
37018kW.
withThe
following results are shown in Table 1. At a normal load for three
a size of 190 kW, bus 20 with a size of 463 kW, and bus 32 with a size of 370 kW. The DGs, the placement
and active
Optimization
following andare
results reactive
results
shown power
show
in Tablelosses
that the are obtained.
positions
1. At a normal Genetic
orload
placements algorithm
ofDGs,
for three DGsthe (GA)
are optimization
on bus 18 with
placement and
for
active normal
a size of
and190 loads
kW, bus
reactive obtained
20 with
power the optimal
a size
losses placement
of 463 kW,Genetic
are obtained. and
and bus size of DG,
32 with (GA)
algorithm namely
of 370on
a sizeoptimization
kW.buses
for 18,
The
20, and results
following 32 withare DG sizes in
shown of Table
190, 463, and
1. At 370 kW,
a normal respectively.
load Afterthe
for three DGs, optimization using
placement and
the GA
active and(genetic
reactivealgorithm),
power losses thearetotal value ofGenetic
obtained. active power losses(GA)
algorithm is 9.9443 kW with for
optimization three
 32 with DG sizes of 190, 463, and 370 kW, respectively. After optimization using the GA
(genetic algorithm), the total value of active power losses is 9.9443 kW with three DG
placements on the bus. Whereas, before the placement of DG, there was a total value of
active power losses of 54.6733 kW. This proves that the placement of DG can improve
active power losses. There is an improvement in the voltage profile at each bus after the
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 11 of 25
placement of DG compared to before the placement of DG, with an average voltage profile
improvement of 0.032745 p.u.

Table
DG 1.placements
Results of determining
on the bus.the location before
Whereas, and capacity of DG.
the placement of DG, there was a total value
of active power losses of(No
DG Location 54.6733
Bus) kW. This proves that the DGplacement
Capacityof DG can improve
(kW)
active power losses. There is an improvement in the voltage profile at each bus after the
Bus 18 190
placement of DG compared to before the placement of DG, with an average voltage profile
Bus 20 463
improvement of 0.032745 p.u.
Bus 32 370
Active
Tablepower losses
1. Results after/before
of determining 9.9443 of
the location and capacity kW/54.67337875
DG. kW
% Loss Reduction 81.8114%
Reactive power DG Location
losses (No Bus)
after/before DG Capacity kVAr
2.2130 kVAr/13.76872173 (kW)
Bus 18 190
3.3. Bus 20
Comparison 463
of Data Results before and after Optimization of DG Placement
Bus 32 370
Figure
Active 7 shows
power lossesdata results before optimization
after/before 9.9443and after DG is installed.
kW/54.67337875 kW Before op-
timizing, the largest
% Loss Reduction power loss occurred in line 4, namely
81.8114% 12.33711406 kW; after optimi-
zation, it decreased
Reactive to 1.2864
power losses kW, decreasing by2.2130
after/before 11.050714 kW. As for the
kVAr/13.76872173 kVArcomparison of
the voltage profile, it can be seen in Figure 8.
3.3.Figure 8 can of
Comparison beData
seenResults
as a comparison of Optimization
before and after the voltage profile without and with DG
of DG Placement
installation optimization. Before DG was installed, there were still several buses that were
Figure 7 shows data results before optimization and after DG is installed. Before
under
optimizing, the largest power loss occurred in line 4, namely 12.33711406within
voltage; however, after DG was installed, all voltage profiles were the al-
kW; after opti-
lowable tolerance limits. If the load is constant, the line power loss can
mization, it decreased to 1.2864 kW, decreasing by 11.050714 kW. As for the comparisonbe reduced by of
reducing the line
the voltage current
profile, bybe
it can increasing the system
seen in Figure 8. voltage profile.

14
12
Before After
Power Loss (KW)

10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Line Number 12 of 27

Figure 7. Comparison of active power loss before and after optimization.

Figure 7. Comparison of active power loss before and after optimization.
1.02
Before After
1
0.98
Voltage Profile (pu)

0.96
0.94
0.92
0.9
0.88
0.86
0.84
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
Bus Number
Figure 8. Comparison of voltage profiles before and after DG placement optimization.
Figure 8. Comparison of voltage profiles before and after DG placement optimization.
Figure 8 can be seen as a comparison of the voltage profile without and with DG
3.4.installation
Comparisonoptimization. Beforewith
of Calculation Results DG ETAP
was installed,
and GA asthere were still several buses that
Validation
Testing the results of simulated data on ETAP after DG placement is intended to
compare the value of active power losses and the value of reactive power losses by calcu-
lating using the GA with Matlab. In addition, it aims to prove validation between ETAP
and the GA with Matlab.
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 12 of 25

were under voltage; however, after DG was installed, all voltage profiles were within the
allowable tolerance limits. If the load is constant, the line power loss can be reduced by
reducing the line current by increasing the system voltage profile.

3.4. Comparison of Calculation Results with ETAP and GA as Validation

Testing the results of simulated data on ETAP after DG placement is intended to com-
pare the value of active power losses and the value of reactive power losses by calculating
using the GA with Matlab. In addition, it aims to prove validation between ETAP and the
GA with Matlab.
In Table 2, in the GA calculations on Matlab on bus 5 to bus 6, the power losses were
0.1097 kW, while in the ETAP simulation, the power losses were 0 kW, with a difference
of 0.1097 kW. Likewise, on bus lines 6 to 7 and 7 to 9, the power losses were greater with
the GA in Matlab, compared to the ETAP simulation. However, on lines 1 to 27, the active
power losses of 0.2248 kW on the GA on Matlab and 1.5 kW on ETAP were much larger.
Overall, the power losses were 9.9443 kW on the GA on Matlab and 13.7 on ETAP. The
reactive power losses in the calculation of the GA on Matlab are 2.2130 kVAR; meanwhile,
in the ETAP simulation, the power losses were 7.2 kVAR. This shows that the simulation
with the GA on Matlab is better.

Table 2. Comparison of ETAP and GA calculation results.

ETAP GA
From To
Bus Bus P Loss P Loss Q Loss
Q Loss (kVAr)
(kW) (kW) (kVAr)
1 2 1.2 0.4 1.7803 0.3564
2 3 0.6 0.1 0.5971 0.1195
3 4 0.2 0.4 0.2070 0.4145
4 5 1.0 0.2 1.1465 0.2295
5 6 0 0 0.1027 0.0206
6 7 0 0 0.1268 0.0254
7 8 0.3 0.1 0.2518 0.0504
7 9 0.3 0.1 0.0416 0.0083
8 10 0.1 0 0.2710 0.0542
10 11 0.2 0 0.2959 0.0592
11 12 0.1 0 0.4217 0.0844
12 13 0.2 0 0.1560 0.0312
13 14 0 0 0.0057 0.0011
5 15 0 0 0.0273 0.0055
15 16 0 0 0.0563 0.0113
16 17 0 0 0.0089 0.0018
8 18 0 0 0.3150 0.0603
18 19 0 0 0.0080 0.0016
12 20 0.2 0 1.2371 0.2297
20 21 0.1 0 0.3344 0.0413
21 22 0.3 0 0.6403 0.0282
22 23 0.1 0 0.1416 0.0122
23 24 0 0 0.0391 0.0239
24 25 0 0 0.0298 0.0013
25 26 0 0 0.0031 0.0028
1 27 1.5 0.2 0.2448 0.0357
27 28 0 0 0.0091 0.0063
27 29 0 0 0.0600 0.0190
29 30 0 0 0.0056 0.0011
29 31 0.2 0 0.0111 0.0022
27 32 0.7 0.1 0.4481 0.0897
32 33 0.2 0 0.2250 0.0450
33 34 0.4 0.1 0.4225 0.0846
34 35 0.2 0 0.1670 0.0334
35 36 0 0 0.0075 0.0015
35 37 0.1 0 0.0987 0.0198
Total 13.6 7.2 9.9443 2.2130

3.5. Optimization of DG Placement and Capacity with Load Decrease and Load Increase for
All Percentages
In Figure 9, the voltage profile becomes more stable with 25% and 50% load reduction.
At the placement of three DGs, when the load reduction is 25%, the losses become 6.7279 kW.
The voltage looks more stable with a 50% reduction in load. Figure 9b shows the voltage
profile after the load is reduced by 50%. It can be seen that the voltage profile is better than
 Energies 2023, 16, 5388 13 of 25

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 27

the voltage profile in Figure 9a. In general, for each bus, it is closer to the ideal one per
unit (p.u.).

1.015 1.015

1.005 1.005
Voltage Profile (pu)

Voltage Profile (pu)

0.995 0.995

0.985 0.985

0.975 0.975

0.965 0.965

0.955 0.955
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
Bus Number Bus Number

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Voltage
Figure profile
9. Voltage forfor
profile (a) (a)
25% load
25% decrease
load andand
decrease (b)(b)
50% load
50% decrease.
load decrease.

Table
Table 3 is thethat
4 shows optimization of DG
active power placement
losses increaseforwith
a reduced
a 25%load
loadofaddition,
25% and with
50%, which
the
averages a loss reduction of 79.0352%.
placement of three DGs, and the losses increase when the additional load is 50%. The ad-
dition of 75% load causes active power losses to increase to 35.3814 kW. Losses increase
forTable 3. Resultsofofthree
the addition determining
DGs withthe alocation and capacity
100% increase of DG with 25% and 50% load reduction.
in load.
Table 1 shows the optimization of the placement and size of DG capacity. At three
Active
locationsLoadwith normal load, the active power loss decreased
DG Location DG Capacity Power
from 54.67337875
Reactive kW%(before
Loss
optimization) Power
Conditionto 9.9443 (NokW.
Bus)So, the application
(kW) of the genetic algorithm methodReduction
Losses for opti-
Losses
mizing the placement and size of DG capacity appears to work on the
after/before Lingke KRC feeder.
The percent loss
The 25% of
reduction
Bus 1 reached 81.8114%.
266 Furthermore,
6.7279
by reducing the load by 25%,
optimization
load will result in
Bus 5active power losses
277 that decrease
kW/32.249 to 6.7279 kW,
1.2999 kVAras well as a 50%
79.2771
load reduction,
reduction which looks
Bus 21 like number 340 three. Meanwhile,
kW a 25% increase in load opti-
mization results
The 50% of in active
Bus 11power losses207 increasing to 15.2266, and an increase in load of
2.9825
50%, 75%, and 100% will
load Buscontinue
17 to add
207 active power losses. Reactive
kW/14.064 power losses
0.7113 kVAr will
78.7933
also tend to increase with
reduction Bus 22increasing loads.
492 It can be seen kW that the genetic algorithm used
can reduce power losses with optimal
Average LossDG placement
Reduction (%) and size even though they79.0352%increase
with increasing load.
Figure 10 shows the voltage starts to fluctuate with a 25% load increase. The addition
Table 4 shows that active power losses increase with a 25% load addition, with the
of a 50% load voltage profile increasingly fluctuates but still within tolerance limits. The
placement of three DGs, and the losses increase when the additional load is 50%. The
voltage reduces for buses far from the source, such as buses 13, 20, and 37. The addition
addition of 75% load causes active power losses to increase to 35.3814 kW. Losses increase
of 75% load causes the voltage profile to decrease. It can be seen that the voltage profile
for the addition of three DGs with a 100% increase in load.
fluctuates more and more with an increase of 100% load, especially on buses far from the
source.
Figure 10a shows the voltage profile after the load increases by 25%. The curve shows
a decrease in voltage and is more clearly seen in Figure 10b when the voltage profile is
decreasing due to an additional 50% load. Figure 10c shows that an increase of 75% load
decreases the size of the voltage profile and, together with Figure 10d, for an additional
100% load, the voltage profile decreases further away from the ideal value, although it is
still within the tolerance level due to optimization with the genetic algorithm.
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 14 of 25

Table 4. Results of determining the DG location and capacity of load increases: 25%, 50%, 75%,
and 100%.

Active
Reactive
Load DG Location DG Capacity Power % Loss
Power
Condition (No Bus) (kW) Losses Reduction
Losses
after/before
Bus 9 483 15.2266
The 25% load
Bus 22 465 kW/93.172 3.1142 kVAr 83.6575%
increase
Bus 33 118 kW
Bus 7 418 22.9233
The 50% load
Bus 24 445 kW/136.94 5.8553 kVAr 83.2603%
increase
Bus 34 466 kW
Bus 8 400 35.3814
The 75% load
Bus 13 456 kW/190.34 7.1415 kVAr 81.4114%
increase
Bus 21 395 kW
Bus 8 485 50.8650
The 100%
Bus 23 489 kW/254.02 10.3729 kVAr 79.9759%
load increase
Bus 24 302 kW
Average Loss Reduction (%) 82.0762%

Table 1 shows the optimization of the placement and size of DG capacity. At three
locations with normal load, the active power loss decreased from 54.67337875 kW (before
optimization) to 9.9443 kW. So, the application of the genetic algorithm method for opti-
mizing the placement and size of DG capacity appears to work on the Lingke KRC feeder.
The percent loss reduction reached 81.8114%. Furthermore, by reducing the load by 25%,
optimization will result in active power losses that decrease to 6.7279 kW, as well as a
50% load reduction, which looks like number three. Meanwhile, a 25% increase in load
optimization results in active power losses increasing to 15.2266, and an increase in load of
50%, 75%, and 100% will continue to add active power losses. Reactive power losses will
also tend to increase with increasing loads. It can be seen that the genetic algorithm used
can reduce power losses with optimal DG placement and size even though they increase
with increasing load.
Figure 10 shows the voltage starts to fluctuate with a 25% load increase. The addition
of a 50% load voltage profile increasingly fluctuates but still within tolerance limits. The
voltage reduces for buses far from the source, such as buses 13, 20, and 37. The addition
of 75% load causes the voltage profile to decrease. It can be seen that the voltage profile
fluctuates more and more with an increase of 100% load, especially on buses far from
the source.
Figure 10a shows the voltage profile after the load increases by 25%. The curve shows
a decrease in voltage and is more clearly seen in Figure 10b when the voltage profile is
decreasing due to an additional 50% load. Figure 10c shows that an increase of 75% load
decreases the size of the voltage profile and, together with Figure 10d, for an additional
100% load, the voltage profile decreases further away from the ideal value, although it is
still within the tolerance level due to optimization with the genetic algorithm.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 15 of 25

1.015 1.015

1.005 1.005

Voltage profile (pu)

Voltage Profile (pu)

0.995 0.995

0.985 0.985

0.975 0.975

0.965 0.965

0.955 0.955
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
Bus Number Bus Number

(a) (b)
1.015 1.015

1.005 1.005
Voltage Profile (pu}

Voltage profile (pu)

0.995 0.995

0.985 0.985

0.975 0.975

0.965 0.965

0.955 0.955
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
Bus Number Bus Number
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

(c) (d)
Figure 10.10.
Voltage profile
Voltage forfor
profile (a)(a)
25%, (b)(b)
25%, 50%, (c)(c)
75%, and (d) 100% of of
load increases.
3.6.Figure
Comparison of Active Power Losses for50%,
Normal75%,Loadand
and(d) 100%
25% load
Reduction increases.
and 50% Reduc-
tion
3.6.4.Comparison
Table of Active Power
Results of determining Losses
the DG for Normal
location Load and
and capacity 25%increases:
of load Reduction and50%,
25%, 50%75%,
Reduction
and
100%.Figure 11a shows that the voltage profile is more stable for a 25% decrease
Figure 11a shows that the voltage profile is more stable for a 25% decrease in load thanin load
than
forfor a normal
a normal load.
load. WithWith the 50%
the 50% load load reduction,
reduction, the voltage
the voltage becomesbecomes more stable
more stable than the
than the normal load (Figure 11b). Active Power Reactive
normal load (Figure DG 11b).
Location DG Capacity % Loss Re-
Load Condition Losses after/be- Power
(No Bus) (kW) duction
fore Losses
1.02 1.02
Bus 9 483
The 25% 1.01load in- 15.2266
1.01 3.1142
Bus 22 465 83.6575%
crease kW/93.172 kW kVAr
Voltage Profile (pu)

Voltage Profile (pu)

1 Bus 33 118 1
Bus 7 418
The 50% 0.99load in- 22.9233
0.99 5.8553
Bus 24 445 83.2603%
crease 0.98 kW/136.94
0.98
kW kVAr
Bus 34 466

The 75% 0.97load in- Bus 8 400 0.97

35.3814 7.1415
Bus 1325% Decrease
456 50% Decrease
81.4114%
crease 0.96 Normal kW/190.34
0.96 kW kVArNormal
Bus 21 395
0.95 Bus 8 485 0.95
The 100% load 1 4in-
7 Bus
10 1323
16 19 22 25489
28 31 34 37 50.8650 1 4 7 10 10.3729
13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
79.9759%
crease Bus Number kW/254.02 kW kVAr
Bus Number
Bus 24 302
Average Loss Reduction (%) 82.0762%
(a) (b)
Figure 11.11.
Figure Comparison of the
Comparison normal
of the load
normal voltage
load profile
voltage with
profile (a) (a)
with 25% reduced
25% load
reduced andand
load (b)(b)
50%50%
reduced load.
reduced load.

3.7. Comparison of Active Power Losses for Normal Load and for 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
Increases in Load
Figure 12a shows the voltage profile decreases with the addition of a 25% load. The
voltage profile at load increases by 50% to be more fluctuating compared to normal load
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 16 of 25

3.7. Comparison of Active Power Losses for Normal Load and for 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
Increases in Load
Figure 12a shows the voltage profile decreases with the addition of a 25% load. The
voltage profile at load increases by 50% to be more fluctuating compared to normal load
(Figure 12b). The voltage profile is increasingly fluctuating with the addition of a 75% load
(Figure 12c). Figure 12d shows that at a load increase of 100%, the voltage profile becomes
more fluctuating than the normal load but still within tolerance limits. The comparison
of the voltage profiles of each bus when optimizing the placement with the DG capacity
under normal load conditions shows a better voltage profile when the load is reduced
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of by
27
25% on the blue line (Figure 11a). Figure 11b shows that the voltage profile is getting better
with a 50% reduced load.

1.02 1.02
50% Increase
1.01 1.01 Normal
Voltage Profile (pu)

Voltage Profile (pu)

1 1
0.99 0.99
0.98 0.98
0.97 0.97
25% Increase
0.96 0.96
Normal
0.95 0.95
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
Bus Number Bus Number

(a) (b)
1.02 1.02

1.01 1.01
Voltage Profile (pu)
Voltage Profile (pu)

1 1

0.99 0.99

0.98 0.98

0.97 0.97
75% Increase 100% Increase
0.96 0.96
Normal Normal
0.95 0.95
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
Bus Number Bus Number

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure12.
12.Comparison
Comparisonof ofthe
thenormal
normalload
loadvoltage
voltageprofile
profilewith
with(a)
(a)25%
25%added
addedload,
load,50%
50%added
addedload,
load,
75% added load, and (b) 100% added load.
75% added load, and (b) 100% added load.

The results
Figure 12a of optimization
shows, through the
on the contrary, thatGA withbyandetermining
increase inthe location
load of 25%, and
thecapacity
voltage
of the DG are presented in Tables 1, 3, and 4. It can be seen that power
profile begins to decrease compared to normal load, and this is increasingly evident inlosses for decreasing
or increasing
Figure loads 12c
12b. Figure canshow
always bethe
that minimized,
load voltage andprofile
the average reduction
increases in power
with larger losses
fluctuations.
isFigure
81.1695% (determining
12d shows the location
the magnitude of theand capacity of
fluctuation DG before
is seen and after
more clearly dueload decreasing
to the addition
and
of a after
100%load
load.increasing). Theload,
The larger the smallest percentage
the larger decrease
the current in power
drawn from thelosssource,
was 78.7933%,
causing a
which
voltage was
dropseenonwhen the load and
the network was reducing
reduced to the50%, and the
amount largest decrease
of voltage the customer in power loss
receives.
was 83.6575%,
However, which was
the voltage recorded
profile when the
is also affected byload was increased
the distance by 25%.
of the load fromIn thegeneral,
source the
due
to the increase in impedance, where the farther from the source, the
decrease in percentage power losses appears to be larger after increasing the load when smaller the voltage
performing DG optimization on the Lingke KRC feeder using the GA method. Optimiza-
tion of the DG placement with the GA method also managed to maintain the lowest volt-
age profile value within the allowable tolerance limits, such as from 0.95 to 1.05 p.u. The
lowest voltage occurs when the load increases to 50%, namely 0.9717 p.u. on bus 15. Nor-
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 17 of 25

profile received by the load. Thus, here, because of the optimization of the genetic algorithm,
all voltage fluctuations are still within the allowable tolerance limits.
The increase in loss load appears to increase, but the voltage profile is still maintained
at a certain limit even though, in general, there is a decrease. For a reduced load of 50%,
the voltage profile is more stable, while with an increase in load of 50%, the voltage begins
to fluctuate and you can see lower voltages on buses 14, 26, and 37. Relatedly, with a 100%
increase in load, there is a decrease in voltage, especially on buses that are far away from
sources such as buses 7, 16, and 37. But, in general, the bus voltage is still within tolerance
limits and losses are still minimized compared to conditions before optimization.
The results of optimization through the GA by determining the location and capacity
of the DG are presented in Tables 1, 3 and 4. It can be seen that power losses for decreasing
or increasing loads can always be minimized, and the average reduction in power losses is
81.1695% (determining the location and capacity of DG before and after load decreasing
and after load increasing). The smallest percentage decrease in power loss was 78.7933%,
which was seen when the load was reduced to 50%, and the largest decrease in power loss
was 83.6575%, which was recorded when the load was increased by 25%. In general, the
decrease in percentage power losses appears to be larger after increasing the load when
performing DG optimization on the Lingke KRC feeder using the GA method. Optimization
of the DG placement with the GA method also managed to maintain the lowest voltage
profile value within the allowable tolerance limits, such as from 0.95 to 1.05 p.u. The lowest
voltage occurs when the load increases to 50%, namely 0.9717 p.u. on bus 15. Normally, the
smallest voltage occurs at the load farthest from the source and the load is larger, but with
optimal DG placement and capacity through the GA method, it can produce a voltage that
is still within tolerance even on the farthest bus. As shown in Figure 11, even though the
load is reduced from the normal load, the voltage profile still looks better, and it can be seen
that the reduced load curve (25% and 50%) is still above the normal load curve. Meanwhile,
for above-normal loads, the voltage profile is seen to fluctuate above and below the normal
load voltage profile. The larger the increase in load, the larger the fluctuation, but with the
placement and capacity of DG through optimization of the GA, a large constant voltage
profile is obtained within the allowable standard range (between 0.95 and 1.05 p.u.).

4. Discussions
A simulation of the artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm was used to examine a novel
optimization technique. The system’s overall real power loss can be reduced by choosing
the ideal DG unit’s size, power factor, and location [38]. Optimization of the positioning
and sizing of the photovoltaic (PV) system as DG for loss mitigation was assessed in the
Purworejo region of Indonesia [39]. The entire distribution system losses for PT PLN ULP
Purworejo amount to 10.467% in technical and non-technical losses, which is significantly
more than the allowed maximum (5%). Investigations were conducted into methods for
the positioning and sizing of distributed generations (DGs) that maintain voltage stability
and minimize total power loss in the power system. The strategy is to choose the best DG
location and power capacity while ensuring voltage stability as the load changes. With the
help of the Voltage Stability Margin Index (VSMI), vulnerable buses are identified. The
curve-fitting method in Matlab is used to determine the DG unit’s ideal size [40]. The
scheme proposed in this paper is power flow, namely the process of distributing electrical
energy to customers. Parameters for the successful distribution of electrical energy are line
power losses, and the voltage profiles received by customers can be planned using the GA
approach. The bus that has the highest voltage variations is the one that is the furthest from
the source and has a heavy load, according to the findings of this study using the genetic
algorithm technique using the ETAP and Matlab applications. This is brought on by the
high impedance brought on by distance and also influenced by heavy loads. In contrast, a
more stable voltage will be applied to the bus that is close to the source.
The increase in the load of electrical energy is very high at this time. However, research
that makes the increase in load as a matter of influence is still lacking because current
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 18 of 25

research is still more for constant loads which are generally applied to the IEEE test system
rather than real loads in the field. On the other hand, in previous studies, it could still
be improved due to the low percentage of reduction in power losses. The network was
reconfigured and the size of the DG was optimized using various approaches. These
techniques are also rapid and call for the fewest possible iterations. Each method makes use
of different goals and constrained constants based on one or more algorithms, including
trial-and-error, simulated annealing, tabu search, evolutionary algorithm, genetic algo-
rithm, evolutionary programming, ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization,
harmony search algorithm, artificial bee colony, fuzzy, and firework algorithm. To evaluate
the effectiveness of the suggested simultaneous method, these algorithms were tested on
the reconfiguration and sizing of the DG [41]. The application of the genetic algorithm
(GA) and other algorithms to determine the optimal capacity and location of DGs was
reported, as shown in Table 5. In general, the proposed algorithm can solve DG allocation.
The maximum average voltage occurs when DG is placed, and the total power losses active
occurs when DG is placed.

Table 5. A brief description of this work’s primary benefits and differences for GA optimization.

Reference Basic Objectives Benefits Differences with Other Works

Zakaria et al., 2020 [42]
Alinejad-Beromi et al., 2007 [43]
Naderipour et al., 2021 [44]
Wang and Zhong [45]
To determine the optimal capacity and
location of DG by using genetic
algorithm (GA) and ant colony
algorithm (ACA).
Optimal DG allocation to improve the
voltage profile and reduce power
losses.
Allocation of capacitors and DG to
minimize energy losses, peak losses,
and capacitor costs in grid-connected
and islanded modes, considering
different load levels.
The allocation of DGs and capacitors
takes the voltage profile into account.
Its application is not in real systems but in
Optimal DG location and capacity can
IEEE systems with 57 buses. Otherwise,
reduce active power losses.
the load used is a fixed load.
The maximum average voltage occurs
when DG is placed on bus 13, and the
The load used in the study is a fixed load.
total active power losses occur when
DG is placed on bus 9 and bus 13.
- Capacitors only inject reactive
The total cost, loss costs, and load power and tend only to rectify the
power losses at fixed loads are lower voltage, slightly reducing losses.
than other types of loads. - The study focuses on costs.
- Capacitors only inject reactive
power.
- The system applied is the IEEE
DG is more influential in the 41-bus model (not a real field
application).
improvement of the voltage profile.
- The load used is a fixed load.
- DG placement without taking into
account power losses.

- Deployment of DG and also

The use of network reconfiguration in
Rao et al., 2013 [46]
the utilization of DG.
Effect of the number of DG locations
in reducing losses for different loads.
network reconfiguration.
- The system applied is the IEEE
standard system.
- Uses the sensitivity factor (LSF) in
determining DG location
candidates
- The position of DG is fixed with
increasing load.

- The system implemented are the

Optimal allocation of DG using the standard IEEE 33 bus system and 69
Kashyap et al., 2017 [47] The GA provides a higher percentage bus system, not considering the
GA.
increase in load.

Optimal location and capacity of

Nayeripour et al., 2013 [48]
Yammani et al., 2016 [49]
Imran et al., 2014 [50]
Considers different safety and load The system implemented is a Standard
multiple DG objects for transient
types. IEEE 33 bus system.
stability.
- The system implemented is a
Combination of several functions of standard system: 33-bus.
Multi-objects for optimal DG
the power loss object, voltage profile, - Different load models.
allocation.
and cost. - Research conducted without
considering the increase in load.
DG optimal allocation and network Applied for IEEE standard systems, which
Power losses and voltage profiles.
reconfiguration. are not real systems in the field.
Energies 2023, 16, 5388
Reference
Prabha and Jayabarathi, 2016 [51]
Mistry and Roy, 2014 [52]
Moradi et al., 2014 [53]
Doagou-Mojarrad et al., 2013 [54]
Biswas et al., 2012 [55]
Esmaili, et al. [56]
Gitizadeh et al., 2012 [57]
El-Zonkoly, 2011 [58]
Biswas, 2014 [59]
Kim, et al., 2008 [60]
Vita, 2017 [61]
Kalantari and Kazemi, 2011 [62]
Parizad et al., 2010 [63]
Aman et al., 2014 [64]
Rath et al., 2023 [65]
Table 5. Cont.
Basic Objectives
DG placement and capacity.
Increased loading with DG placement.
Placement of the optimal location and
capacity of DG and capacitors with
the hybrid method.
Optimal DG location and capacity for
energy losses, total cost of electricity,
and total emissions as a multi-object.
Optimal DG placement with technical
and economic constraints.
Placing and sizing of DGs to improve
voltage stability and reduce losses.
Distribution network expansion
planning with DG.
DG placement with PSO.
Placement and location, apart from
reducing power losses and improving
the voltage profile, are also large
harmonics and voltage profiles.
Determine DG location and capacity
to obtain minimum power loss and
improve voltage profile.
Location and DG capacity are needed
to reduce power losses and improve
the voltage profile.
Location and capacity of DG and
capacitor bank with the GA.
Optimal location and capacity with
the sensitivity method.
The location and capacity of DGs in
improving the loading system without
violating the limits.
Genetic algorithm method for
determining the location and size of
DG on a radial distribution network.
Benefits
Reducing power losses and improving
voltage profiles.
Increased loading capacity without
violating the voltage range limit.
Decreased power losses and increased
voltage profile.
Reducing overall electrical energy
waste, overall electrical energy
expense, and overall created pollution.
Effect of DG placement on voltage sag
disturbance.
Multiple DG placements do not
always reduce losses.
Can reduce Investment and
Operational (I&O) and Unsupplied
Energy (ENS) costs.
Improved voltage profile and large
losses.
In addition to obtaining the optimal
DG location and capacity, total
harmonic distortion (THD) results
below 5% were also obtained.
The total energy losses and DG
capacity can be reduced if the load
voltage characteristics are taken into
account.
Shows the effect of two different types
of DG, namely photovoltaic (PV) and
wind turbines.
Could reduce power losses and
improve the voltage profile.
Demonstrates the efficiency of this
method for improvement of the
voltage profile, reduction in power
losses, as well as increasing power
transfer capacity, maximum load, and
voltage stability margin.
The penetration of 40% can reduce
losses by 60–75%, the maximum
loading increases by 15–40%, and, in
general, the voltage improvement
increases.
Reducing power losses results in
better results at higher penetrations
and without violating the permissible
voltage limits.
19 of 25
Differences with Other Works
- The system implemented is the
IEEE standard system: 33-bus and
69-bus.
- Uses the sensitivity factor (LSF) in
determining DG location
candidates.
- The research applied to the load
model is different.
- The system implemented is a
standard system: 33-bus.
- The simulation is carried out for the
development of loads for 4 years.
The system applied is a standard system:
33-bus IEEE.
The system applied is a standard system:
33-bus IEEE.
- The system applied is the IEEE
standard system.
- System condition during voltage
sag disturbance.
- The system applied is the IEEE
standard system.
- The type of DG used is the one that
injects reactive power.
- The simulation is carried out for the
development of loads for 4 years.
- Hybrid particle swarm
optimization (PSO); shuffled frog
leaping (SFL) algorithm.
- The method used is the PSO
approach.
- The system applied is the IEEE
standard system.
- The research applied to the load
model is different.
- Uses the weighting method for
multi-function objects.
- The method used is the PSO
approach
- The system applied is the IEEE
standard.
- Multi-objects set to fuzzy goal
programming (FGP) and traced
with the GA.
- The system applied is the IEEE
standard.
- The system applied is the IEEE
standard.
- There is a DG type which, on the
contrary, lowers the voltage.
- Requires a capacitor in the
application.
- Its application in different systems.
- The system applied is the IEEE
standard.
- Separately, one by one it is carried
out, such as minimizing power
losses and then improving the
voltage profile.
Radial distribution test on: Standard IEEE
16 bus systems: 16 bus, 33 bus and 69 bus
system.
Starting from a simple radial system to the
standard IEEE system.
Energies 2023, 16, 5388
Reference
El-Zonkoly, 2011 [66]
Moradi and Abedini, 2012 [23]
Radosavljevi et al., 2020 [67]
Karunarathne et al., 2020 [68]
Siregar et al., 2020 [69]
Essa et al., 2021 [70]
Abbas et al., 2022 [71]
Ntombela et al., 2023 [72]
Alizadeh et al., 2023 [73]
Proposed approaches:
Table 5. Cont.
Basic Objectives
With multi-function objects,
determine optimal DG location and
capacity for different load models.
Determination of the optimal DG
location and capacity to reduce power
losses with the GA–PSO hybrid
method.
Placement and DG capacity from
combined PV and wind.
Refinement of premature convergent
algorithms, output accuracy, and
complexity.
Determining the optimal location and
capacity of the DG using the GA and
determining the size of the PV with an
artificial neural network (ANN).
Determine the best conditions for the
reconfiguration and combination of
DG with shunt capacitors.
Optimal DG allocation for 24 h load
variations.
Reduce computation time in DG
optimal allocation and
reconfiguration.
Determine optimal capacity and
location in PV applications to reduce
power losses and improve voltage
profiles.
Minimizing power losses for sitting
and sizing on DGs, considering the
voltage profile at different loads using
a genetic algorithm.
20 of 25
Benefits Differences with Other Works
- Increased voltage for different
load models.
- There are lines whose loading
is fixed, decreases, and
increases, but the loading is
still within the allowable limits. The system applied is the standard IEEE 30
- Short-circuit current level bus system.
before and after DG.
- Loading capacity increases,
and voltage stability margin
increases.
Determination of its location using the
GA and determination of its capacity
using PSO:
- Number of iterations and
running time. The system applied are the standard IEEE
- Output variances. 33 bus and 69 bus system.
- Objective function values.
- Stability and voltage
regulation.
- The system implemented is an IEEE
standard system, not a real feeder
Minimizing energy losses and system.
increasing profits. - Performed for daily load variations
and four season influences.
- System applied to IEEE model
system and 54-bus rail system (on
Reduction in power losses. Malaysian 54-bus feeder).
- The load used is a fixed load.
- Optimal DG location and
capacity result in low power
losses and a good voltage
profile. Without considering the increase in load.
- Determination of PV size based
on ANN.
- The system applied is not a real
system but an IEEE 33- and 69-bus
- Can reduce active power
system.
losses.
- The load used has light, nominal,
- Increasing DG and capacitors
and heavy load conditions.
do not always give the best
- Through reconfiguration and
results, such as an increase in
combination of DG with shunt
system costs, maintenance, and
capacitors.
distance of gas supply.
- Uses the binary particle swarm
optimization (BPSO) method.
- Applied to the CIGRE MV
Benchmark Model.
- The best allocation for each
- Calculated for load development 24
hour.
h (a day).
- Best allocation for all hours.
- Applied for DG PV and wind types.
- The system implemented is the
Attempting to reduce power loss and IEEE 30-bus standard system, not a
correct voltage requires less real system.
computation time. - Without considering the increase in
load.
- The system applied is not a real
system but an IEEE 33- and 69-bus
Improved voltage profile and reduced system.
power losses. - Study of the effect of changes in
power factor.
- The system implemented is a real
system in the field.
- Performed a simulation with a large
Power losses can be reduced by an
variation in the load.
average of 81.1695% for each load
- Average losses reduced by 80%
condition, and the voltage profile is
(better).
maintained within the allowable
- Better voltage profile close to 1 p.u.
range, namely between 0.95 and 1.05
(better).
p.u. (better).
- DG generating active power can
reduce power losses and improve
the voltage profile.
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 21 of 25

Table 6 shows a similar case between 33-bus IEEE using the harmony search algorithm,
firework algorithm (FWA), and 37-bus using the genetic algorithm (GA). The nominal
load with the loss reduction genetic algorithm reached 81.2883%, while in the HSA loss
reduction was only 52.26%, and the FWA loss reduction was 56.24%, with the addition of
three DGs each. Likewise, for low and high loads, the GA is still better than the HSA and
FWA. The successive percentages of the average voltage drop on the GA, HSA, and FWA
were 80.311%, 52.4633%, and 56.4633%. Furthermore, the minimum voltage profile for
nominal load using the GA was 0.9907 p.u. (better), while in the HSA, it was only 0.9670
p.u., and in the FWA, it was 0.9680 p.u. Light and heavy loading as well as the lowest
voltage profile remain at a better GA. Table 7 describes the IEEE 33-bus case using the GA,
showing that the reduction in losses is 47%, while with a PSO of 45%, the GA is better than
PSO. This is the same case as the placement of six pieces of DGs.

Table 6. Comparison of the performance results of genetic algorithm (GA), harmony algorithm search
(HSA), and firework algorithm (FWA).

Load Level
Case
Light (0.5) Nominal (1.0) Heavy (1.6)
Size of DG in 0.207 (11) 0.190 (18) 0.418 (7)
Genetic MW (Bus 0.207 (17) 0.463 (20) 0.445 (24)
Algorithm (GA) Number) 0.492 (22) 0.370 (32) 0.466 (34)
(37-bus Lingke Power Loss (kW) 2.9825 9.9443 30.9055
Krueng Cut) % Loss
78.7933 81.8114 80.3287 (80.3111)
Reduction
Minimum
0.9925 0.9907 0.9713
Voltage (p.u.)
Size of DG in 0.1303 (18) 0.1370 (18) 0.1939 (18)
Harmony Search MW (Bus 0.1777 (17) 0.5724 (17) 0.9108 (17)
Algorithm (HSA) Number) 0.5029 (33) 1.0462 (33) 1.6115 (33)
(33-bus Power Loss (kW) 23.29 96.76 260.97
IEEE) [46] % Loss
50.5 52.26 54.63 (52.4633)
Reduction
Minimum
0.9831 0.9670 0.9437
Voltage (p.u.)
Size of DG in 0.2948 (14) 0.5897 (14) 0.9441 (14)
Firework
MW (Bus 0.0947 (18) 0.1895 (18) 0.3013 (18)
Algorithm
Number) 0.5072 (32) 1.0146 (32) 1.6784 (32)
(FWA)
Power Loss (kW) 21.37 88.68 238.07
(33-bus
% Loss
IEEE) [50] 54.58 56.24 58.57 (56.4633)
Reduction
Minimum
0.9844 0.9680 0.9484
Voltage (p.u.)

Utilizing a genetic algorithm to reduce power losses for seating and sizing on DG
while taking the voltage profile at various loads was evaluated in this work. For each
loading scenario, power losses can be minimized by an average of 80%, while the voltage
profile is kept within the permitted range, which is between 0.95 p.u. and 1.05 p.u. (best).
The outcome demonstrates that the system put into place is an actual system in use. In
conducting a simulation with a wide range of loads, losses on average were cut by 80%
(better). A better voltage profile is one p.u. or less. Power losses can be decreased and
the voltage profile can be improved using DG active power generation. According to this
study’s findings, the bus with the biggest load and the farthest distance from the source
also has the most voltage swings. This is a result of the high resistance created by the
distance and the heavy load. On the other hand, a bus that is close to the source will acquire
a more stable voltage.
Energies 2023, 16, 5388 22 of 25

Table 7. Comparison of performance results using genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm
optimization (PSO).

Reference Parameter Performance Result

DG optimum location 6
DG optimal size (kW) 2600 kW (2.6 MW)
Genetic Algorithm (GA)
Power Loss (kW) 111.03
(33-bus IEEE) [47]
% Loss Reduction 47.39
Minimum Voltage (p.u.) 0.9425
DG optimum location 6
DG optimal size (kW) 3150 kW (3.15 MW)
PSO (33-bus IEEE) [74,75] Power Loss (kW) 115.29
% Loss Reduction 45.36
Minimum Voltage (p.u.) -

5. Conclusions
This work evaluated the capacity and position of DG by taking load changes into
account using a genetic algorithm approach. So, it can be concluded that with the genetic
algorithm method, it is possible to determine the location and capacity of the DG to be
placed in the network, thereby reducing line power losses and maintaining the voltage
profile within acceptable tolerance levels. The magnitude of the load has an impact on
optimization; the larger the load, the larger the power losses and the more fluctuating the
voltage profile. Conversely, the lighter the load, the more power losses will decrease and
the voltage will become relatively stable. The results of this study indicate that the bus
that experiences the largest voltage fluctuations is the farthest from the source and has a
large load. This is due to the large impedance due to distance and is also influenced by
the large load. Conversely, a bus that is near the source will receive a more stable voltage.
The limitation of this work is that the network condition is fixed and the type of DG used
is only one type which only injects P (active power). Further studies are evaluating the
effect of network reconfiguration and different DG types so that the network can inject P
(active power), Q (reactive power), or both P and Q, and the consequences for network
losses and voltage profiles. The development of the best method for running DG units
while considering wholesale electricity pricing must be prioritized.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.H.S., Y.A., T. and A.; methodology, R.H.S., Y.A., T. and
A.; software, R.H.S.; validation, R.H.S.; formal analysis, R.H.S.; investigation, R.H.S.; resources, R.H.S.;
data curation, R.H.S.; writing—original draft preparation, R.H.S. and A.; writing—review and editing,
R.H.S., Y.A., T. and A.; visualization, R.H.S.; supervision, Y.A., T. and A.; project administration,
R.H.S.; funding acquisition, R.H.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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