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II nawili
sarCevi
saxelmZRvaneloSi gamoyenebuli pirobiTi niSnebi .......................................4
2.1. organuli naerTebi Cvens irgvliv .........................................................7
2.1.1. naxSirbadi - saocari elementi .............................................................11
2.1.2. navTobi, bunebrivi airi da naxSirwyalbadebi .....................................13
2.1.3. naxSirwyalbadebis klasifikacia ..........................................................16
2.2. najeri naxSirwyalbadebi .......................................................................22
2.2.1. alkanebi ...................................................................................................23
2.2.2. alkanebis fizikuri da qimiuri Tvisebebi ...........................................28
2.2.3. cikloalkanebi .......................................................................................35
2.3. ujeri naxSirwyalbadebi ........................................................................38
2.3.1. alkenebi ...................................................................................................39
2.3.2. alkinebi ...................................................................................................46
2.3.3. polimerebi da maTi mniSvneloba ..........................................................51
proeqti ....................................................................................................56
2.3.4. biodegradirebadi plastmasa ................................................................60
2.3.5. arenebi ....................................................................................................64
II Temis Semajamebeli ..............................................................................70

danarTebi
mdgradi ganviTarebis miznebi ...............................................................5
qimiur elementTa periodulobis cxrili ..........................................78

marilebis, mJavebisa da fuZeebis wyalSi xsnadoba ............................80

3
 saxelmZRvaneloSi gamoyenebuli pirobiTi niSnebi

Teoriuli masala jgufuri muSaoba

savarjiSoebi davaleba

amocanebi imsjele

informaciis moZieba eqsperimenti

qimia da garemo simulacia prezentacia

daamzade molekulis kiTxvebi

modeli

SeniSvna

saxelmZRvaneloSi arsebuli QR kodebis wasakiTxad, CamotvirTeT Play Store-dan

aplikacia QR Code Reader da daainstalireT smartfonze an planSetze. kodis
wakiTxvis Semdeg aplikacia gaxsnis Sesabamis bmuls.

4
 mdgradi ganviTarebis miznebi danarTi 1

1 siRaribis
aRmofxvra 2 nulovani
SimSili 3 janmrTeli
cxovreba da
keTildReoba

4 xarisxiani
ganaTleba 5 genderuli
Tanasworoba 6 sufTa wyali
da sanitaria

7 xelmisawvdomi da
mdgradi energia 8 Rirseuli samuSao
ekonomikuri zrda 9 mrewveloba
inovacia da
infrastruqtura

10 Semcirebuli
uTanasworoba 11 mdgradi qalaqebi
da dasaxlebebi 12 mdgradi
moxmareba
da warmoeba

13 klimatis cvlilebis
sawinaaRmdego
qmedebebi
14 okeanisa da zRvis
resursebi 15 dedamiwis
ekosistemebi

16 mSvidoba samarT-
lianoba Zlieri
instituciebi
17 partnioroba
miznebis
misaRwevad

5
 2.1 organuli naerTebi Cvens irgvliv
rogor naerTs uwodeben organuls?

vitalisturi Teoriis mixedviT: organuli naerTi

qimiuri nivTierebaa, romelic cocxal organizmSi
warmoiqmneba da sasicocxlo procesebSi monawileobs.
Teoriis mixedviT, organizmSi arsebuli `sasicocxlo
Zalebi“ warmoqmnida am nivTierebebs. miuxedavad imi-
sa rom organuli nivTierebebis miReba organizmis
gareSec SesaZlebelia, termini mainc arsebobs. Ta-
namedrove ganmartebis mixedviT, dnm-is giganturi
molekula da eTilis spirti, organul naerTebs mie-
kuTvneba.

eTilis spirti

 Sen SeZleb:
● imsjelo organuli naerTebis
rolze cocxal organizmSi;
● imsjelo organul naerTebze,
rogorc saTbobze;
● imsjelo organul naerTebze,
dnm
rogorc sakvebze;

dRes popularobiT sargeblobs e.w. biomeurneo-

● imsjelo organul naerTebze,
rogorc samkurnalo saSuale-
bebi. maTi warmomadgenlebisgan SeiZleba bevrjer
gaigo, rom mxolod biosasuqebs iyeneben. biosasuq- bebze;
Si isini gulisxmoben bunebrivad warmoebul sasuqs, ● imsjelo organul naerTebze,
Tumca sinTezurad miRebuli organuli sasuqiT am- rogorc higienisa da kosmeti-
didreben niadags. kur saSualebebze.

7

leqsikoni
● karbonati _ naxSirJavas mari-
li, is Seicavs naxSirmJavas
naSTs =CO3;
● karbidi _ metalis naxSirbad-
Tan naerTi Al4C3 _ aluminis
karbidi;
● cianidi _ cianwyalbadmJavas
marili _ KCN _ kaliumis cia-
nidi.
es virusi iwvevs daavadebas — COVID-19
8
cocxali organizmebi bevr naerTs Seicaven. am
naerTebSi ki qimiuri elementi naxSirbadia warmod-
genili. organuli naerTebi naerTTa did jgufs war-
moadgens, romelSic ZiriTadad ori an meti naxSir-
badis atomi erTmaneTs da sxva atomebs kovalenturi
bmiT ukavSirdeba. es elementebia wyalbadi, Jangbadi,
azoti. gamonaklisia meTani, WianWvelaldehidi da Wi-
anWvelmJava, romlebic naxSirbadis erTs atoms Sei-
cavs da organuli naerTia. organizmi Seicavs cilebs,
naxSirwylebs, lipidebs da nukleinis mJavebs. zogier-
Ti organuli naerTi Zalian did kompleqss warmoad-
gens. araorganuli naerTebidan naxSirbads Seicavs:
naxSirorJangi, karbidebi, karbonatebi, cianidebi.
organuli naerTebis mniSvneloba cocxal
organizmSi
dRes msoflioSi COVID-19 pandemiis gamo cxovre-
bis ritmi da forma Seicvala. am cvlilebis mizezi
swored organuli naerTebisgan Semdgari virusia.
is Seicavs cilebs, lipidebs, nukleinis mJavasa da
naxSirwylebs. msoflios samecniero sazogadoeba ar-
aerT kvlevas atarebs virusis sawinaaRmdego vaqcinis
Sesaqmnelad. vaqcinebi gadian kvlevis etapebs. moqme-
di vaqcinebic organul naerTebs Seicaven.
glikoproteini
rnm da
proteini
 nukleinis mJavebis wyalobiT xdeba memkvidreobiT
informacis gadacema;

cilebi
● aSeneben ujredebs, mcire Wrilobis Sexorceba ki
cilebis gareSe warmoudgenelia;
● icven organizms mikrobebisgan _ antisxeulebi
gamalebiT ebrZvian organizmSi SemoWril mters;
● aCqareben qimiur procesebs, maT gareSe zogierT
reaqcias ramdenime saaTi an dRe dasWirdeboda;
● gadaaqvT nivTierebebi, hemoglobini Jangbadisa
da naxSirorJangisTvis satransporto saSualebas
warmoadgens; antisxeuli

● ujreds atyobineben garemoSi momxdari cvli-

lebis Sesaxeb da isic Sesabamisad reagirebs;
● organizms Tu Zalian gauWirda, cilebis da-
JangviT energiasac iRebs;
● nebismieri nabijis gadadgma, asos warmoTqma ci-
lebis gareSe warmoudgenelia;

naxSirwylebi
● energiis wyaroa; fermenti katalaza
● ujredebis samSeneblo masalaa.

ujredisi anu celuloza

ujredis kedlebi

celulozis
boWkoebi
makrofib-
rilebi

ujredebi

celulozis
jaWvebi
mikrofib-
rilebi
celulozis
molekulebi
boWkoebi
mcenare

9
 lipidebi
qolesterini
● aSenebs yvela ujredis membranas;
● energiis wyaroa;
● gicavs organizmSi warmoqmnili siTbos dakargvis-
gan;
● yvela organos irgvliv qmnis garss da asrulebs
amortizatoris funqcias;
● wylis wyaroa aqlemisTvis da msgavs pirobebSi
mcxovrebi organizmebisTvis;

organul naerTebs miekuTvneba vitaminebi, hor-

monebi.
organuli naerTebisgan Sedgeba sawvavi, bunebrivi
gazi, navTobi, qvanaxSiri, torfi. dRes 20 milionamde
organuli nivTiereba arsebobs. amis mizezs mogvi-
anebiT gaecnobi.
nebimieri medikamenti organuli naerTis an naer-
Tebisgan Sedgeba.
hormonebi
organul naerTebs Seicavs antifrizi

ras niSnavs termini `antifrizi“?

ra funqcias unda asrulebdes is?

higienuri da kosmetikuri saSualebebic organul

naerTebs Seicavs.

torfi

davaleba

1. dawere ese: rogori iqneboda samyaro organuli

kosmetikuri saSualebebi
naerTebis gareSe. moitane saWiro argumentebi.

10
 2.1.1 naxSirbadi, saocari elementi
dRes cnobilia 118 qimiuri elementi. maTgan nax-  Sen SeZleb:
Sirbadi erTaderTia, romlis 20 milionamde naerTi
arsebobs. es misi gansakuTrebuli unariT aixsneba. ● periodulobis cxrilis gamo-
naxSirbads SeuZlia daukavSirdes naxSirbadis atom- yenebiT daaxasiaTo naxSirba-
ebs da bevr sxva elements. SeuZlia warmoqmnas bevri dis atomi;
Zalian gansxvavebuli naerTi. naxSirbadis naerTebis ● axsna naxSirbadis atomis unari,
aseTi mravalferovneba atomis aRnagobas ukavSird- warmoqnas erTmagi, ormagi da
eba. sammagi bmebi;
naxSirbadi arametalia da mdebar- ● nivTierebis Tvisebebi daukav-
obs meToTxmete jgufSi. misi jgufis Siro kovalentur bmas;
sxva elementebis msgavsad, gare ener-
● gaecno pirveli organuli mo-
getikul Sreze aqvs oTxi eleqtroni.
lekulis warmoSobis hipoTe-
naxSirbadis gare Sris oTxive eleqt-
zas.
roni gauwyvilebelia. maTi ganawileba
suraTzea mocemuli.

ramdeni eleqtroni sWirdeba naxSirbadis

atoms gare Sris dasasruleblad?

rogor SeiZleba daisrulos naxSirbadma

gare Sre?

naxSirbadis atomi kovalentur bmas warmoqmnis sxva

naxSirbadTan, an sxva arametalebTan. yvelaze met naerTSi
naxSirbadis atomis aRnagoba
is wyalbadatomebs ukavSirdeba. Tu naerTi mxolod naxS-
rbadis da wyalbadis atomebs Seicavs, mas naxSirwyalbadi
ewodeba. naxSirbads SeuZlia warmoqmnas erTmagi, ormagi
an sammagi bma naxSirbadis sxva atomTan. erTmag bmaSi nax-
Sirbadis atomebs Soris warmoiqmneba erTi saziaro ele-
qtronuli wyvili, ormagi bmis SemTxvevaSi naxSirbadis
atomebs Soris warmoiqmneba ori saziaro wyvili, sammagi
bmis SemTxvevaSi ki sami. meTani

suraTze mocemul TiToeul naerTSi ramden C2H6 C2H4 C2H2

bmas warmoqmnis naxSirbadis atomi, meore nax-
SirbadatomTan? H_C≡C_H

11
 davaleba

1. rogor davadginoT ramdeni qimiuri bmis warmoqmna SeuZlia erT romelime ele-
ments?
2. Seni azriT, ramden kovalentur bmas warmoqmnis azoti da ratom? Seni azriT,
ramden kovalentur bmas warmoqmnis qlori da ratom?
3. ra tipis qimiur bmebs warmoqmnis naxSirbadis atomi?
4. rogor warmoiqmneba erTmagi, ormagi da sammagi bmebi?
5. Seni azriT, arsebobs oTxmagi bma? ratom?

pirveli organuli molekula

ukve ici rom nebismieri cocxali organizmi Seicavs organul molekulebs. organu-
li molekulebi ujredze adre Camoyalibda, daaxloebiT 4 miliardi wlis win. rogor
warmoiqmna es samSeneblo `blokebi”?
mecnierebis azriT, elvam dedamiwis atmosferoSi qimiuri reaqciebis warmarTva
gamoiwvia. adreul atmosferoSi arsebobda amiaki, meTani, wylis orTqli da naxSirba-
dis dioqsidi. mecnierebma Camoayalibes hipoTeza, romlis Tanaxmadac araorganuli
naerTebidan warmoiqmna organuli molekulebis `narevi~. 1953 wels mecnierebma, stenli
milerma da harlod ureim, es hipoTeza eqsperimentulad Seamowmes da Seqmnes eqsperi-
mentis simulacia, raTa daedginaT SeiZleboda Tu ara aseTi gziT organuli naerTis
miReba. maT gamoiyenes adreul atmosferoSi arsebuli airebi. airebis narevSi gaatares
eleqtro deni (elvis msgavsad) da erT kviraSi warmoiqmna ramdenime organuli naerTi.

eleqtrodebi
cirkulaciis mimarTuleba

naperwkali airis
H2O, CH4. Sesasvleli
NH3, H2 airebi CH4, NH3

gaciveba

wyali

stenli mileris da siTbos

wyaro
harlod ureis eqsperimenti

12
2.1.2 navTobi, bunebrivi airi da naxSirwyalbadebi
nedli navTobi  Sen SeZleb:
● daasaxelo navTobis Semadgene-
nedli navTobi ZiriTadad Sedgeba naxSirwyalba-
li qimiuri naerTebi;
debisgan. naxSirwyalbadebi mxolod wyalbadis da nax-
Sirbadis atomebisgan Sedgeba. msoflioSi navTobs ar- ● daadgino navTobis xarisxis
aerTi qveyana moipovebs, Tumca adgilmdebareobasTan ganmsazRvreli faqtorebi;
erTad mopovebuli navTobis xarisxic gansxvavebulia. ● Seadgino is qimiuri reaqciebi,
navTobis klasifikaciisTvis iyeneben mis simkvrives romlebic mimdinareobs navTo-
da masSi gogirdis Semcvelobas. bis gadamuSavebis procesSi;

nedli navTobi

msubuqi navTobi ρ < 0.828 g/sm3 leqsikoni

saSualo simZimis navTobi 0.828 g/sm ρ<< 0.884 g/sm
3 3
● naxSirwyalbadi _ organuli
mZime navTobi ρ > 0.884 g/sm3 naerTi, romelic naxSirbadi-
sa da wyalbadis atomebisgan
msubuqi navTobi didi raodenobiT Seicavs benzins, Sedgeba;
mcire raodenobiT _ fisebs. mas umaRlesi xarisxis
● distilacia _ gamoxda _ du-
zeTebis misaRebad iyeneben. mZime navTobi didi raode-
Rilis temperaturiT gansx-
nobiT Seicavs fisebs, amitom misgan zeTi ar mzaddeba.
vavebuli siTxeebis gamoyofa
simkvrivis mixedviT navTobis klasifikacia ar aris
narevidan.
zusti, amitom bolo wlebSi naklebad sargebloben.
● nedli navTobi _ wiaRSi bune-
gogirdis Semcvelobis mixedviTac navTobis sam brivad warmoqmnili, gadau-
kategorias gamoyofen. muSavebeli Txevadi naxSir-
wyalbadebis narevi, agreTve
mcire gogirdiani ω% (S) < 0.2%
imgvarad gadamuSavebuli ned-
saSualod gogirdiani 0.2% < ω% (S) < 0.5% li navTobi, rom SesaZlebeli
maRalgogirdiani ω% (S) > 0.5% iyos misi transportireba.

13
 maRali xarisxis navTobs miekuTvneba msubuqi da mcire gogirdiani navTobi, radgan
misi gadamuSaveba ar moiTxovs kompleqsur da energiis xarjviT mimdinare proce-
durebs. Sesabamisad masze moTxovnileba metia.
saudis arabeTi msoflioSi navTobis umsxvilesi momwodebelia, Tumca xarisxis mi-
xedviT msoflioSi saSualo poziciebs ikavebs. saudis arabeTSi mopovebuli navTobis
simkvrive saSuloze maRalia, xolo masSi gogirdis Semcveloba 1.5-3%-ia, rac gaci-
lebiT maRalia vidre sxva qveynebis. gogirdis yvelaze mcire SemcvelobiT xasiaTdeba
malaiziaSi mopovebuli navTobi, Tumca misi simkvrive TiTqmis umaRlesia. umdablesi
simkvrive, Tumca gogirdis umaRlesi Semcveloba aqvs meqsikaSi mopovebul navTobs.
dReisTvis ukve cnobilia navTobis qimiuri Sedgeniloba. swored navTobis praqtikuli
gamoyeneba gaxda naxSirwyalbadebis Seswavlis mizezi. qimiuri Sedgenilobis mixedviT
navTobi sami saxis aris:

navTobi

parafinuli Seicavs cikloparafinuli Seicavs aromatuli Seicavs ZiriTa-

ZiriTadad alkanebs ZiriTadad cikloalkanebs dad benzols da toluols

(pensilvaniis, groznos, (baqos navTobi) (norios, borneos navTobi)

kuveitis navTobi)

navTobTan erTad moipoveba kidev erTi wiaRiseuli, bunebrivi airi. igi ufero aale-
badi airia, romelic naxSirwyalbadebisgan, umetesad meTanisa da eTanisgan Sedgeba.
igi aseve Seicavs propan-butanis narevs, romelsac Txevad airsac uwodeben. msofli-
oSi bunebrivi airis maragis udides nawils flobs ruseTi, romlis Rirebulebac 75.5
milion aSS dolars aRwevs. rac Seexeba bunebrivi airis xarisxs, igi izrdeba wyalbadis
masis naxSirbadis masasTan fardobis zrdasTan erTad.
navTobi warmoadgens, duRilis temperaturiT gansxvavebuli, Txevadi naxSirwyal-
badebis narevs. misi gadamuSaveba or etaps moicavs. pirvel etapze xdeba misi fraqci-
uli gamoxda.
meore etapze xdeba qimiuri gardaqmna. vinaidan navTobic da bunebrivi airic Sedgeba
naxSirwyalbadebisgan, mniSvnelovania naerTTa am klasebis detaluri Seswavla. maT
momdevno gakveTilebSi gaecnobi.

14
 naxSirbadis ufro dabali
atomebis duRilis
raodenoba temperatura
navTobis Tanmxlebi airi
C1—C4 < 40°C

benzini C5—C12 40—200°C

navTi C12—C16 175—275°C

mazuTi C15—C18 250—400°C

sapoxi masalebi C17—meti >300°C

C20—meti >350°C
narCenebi
grZeli ufro maRali
naxSirbaduli duRilis
jaWvi temperatura

davaleba
moiZie informacia

1. moiZie informacia saqarTveloSi arsebuli navTobisa da gazis sabadoebis Sesaxeb.

wiaRiseuli daitane rukaze. axseni, ratom ar xdeba saqarTveloSi navTobis mo-
poveba da gadamuSaveba.

15
 2.1.3 naxSirwyalbadebis klasifikacia
 Sen SeZleb: naxSirwyalbadebis Sedgeniloba
● zogadi formulis gamoyenebiT naxSirwyalbadebis zogadi formulaa CnHm. sadac
Seadgino naxSirwyalbadis mo- n da m mTeli naturaluri ricxvebia.
lekuluri formula; naxSirwyalbadebis klasifikacia xdeba Sedgenilo-
● Seadaro molekuluri da empir- bis da aRnagobis mixedviT.
iuli formulebi da imsjelo
TiToeulis mniSvnelobaze; ra gansxvavebaa rombsa da texils Soris?

● qimiuri formulis mixedviT

naerTi miakuTvno Sesabamis
klass;
● imsjelo empiriuli da mole- naxSirwyalbadebis klasifikaciaSi maT Soris ar-
kuluri formulebis upirate- sebuli gansxvaveba dagexmareba.
sobasa da naklovanebaze.
romeli naerTi hgavs romelime geometriul
figuras? texils? (sur. 1)

cikluri ewodeba iseT naerTs, romlis moleku-

laSi naxSirbadatomebisgan warmoqmnili jaWvi Sek-
rulia sxvadasxva zomis ciklis saxiT.

naxSirwyalbadi

RiajaWviani
cikluri
(acikluri)

suraTze gamosaxuli naerTebidan ciklopropani mie-

kuTvneba ciklur naxSirwyalbadebs, pentani ki Ria-
(sur. 1) jaWvian naxSirwyalbadebs.

ukve ici, rom naxSirbadi organul naerTebSi warmo-

qmnis oTx kovalentur bmas, romliTac SesaZlebelia
is ukavSirdebodes wyalbadis atomebs da erTmaneTs.
naxSirwyalbadebs yofen najer da ujer naxSirwyal-
badebad.

suraTze (sur. 2) warmodgenili informaci-

is mixedviT ivaraude, romeli naxSirwyal-
badi SeiZleba iyos najeri? ujeri?

16
 H
H H
H C H C C H C C H
H H H

alkani alkeni alkini

(sur. 2)

 najer naxSirwyalbadebSi, naxSirbadi SeerTebu-

lia wyalbadatomebis maqsimalurad SesaZlebel
raodenobasTan. e.i. misi valentoba zRvramdea
gajerebuli wyalbadis atomebiT. maTSi mxolod
martivi bmebia. RiajaWvian najer naxSirwyal-
badebs warmoadgens alkani, alkanis zogadi for-
mulaa CnH2n+2.
 ujeri naxSirwyalbadebis molekulaSi naxSirbadis
TiToeul atoms rCeba TiTo Tavisufali valen- ciklopentani
toba (alkenis) da ori Tavisufali valentoba,
alkinis SemTxvevaSi, romlis saSualebiTac erT-
maneTTan amyareben ormag an sammag bmebs. ujer
naxSirwyalbadebs, romelic Seicavs erT ormag
bmas alkenebi ewodebaT CnH2n. ujer naxSirwyal-
badebs, romlis jaWvi Seicavs erT sammag bmas alk-
inebi ewodeba CnH2n-2

daakvirdi alkanis, alkenis da alkinis zo-

gad formulebs da axseni, ratom ar Sei-
Zleba wyalbadis atomebis raodenoba iyos
kenti?

cikluri naxSirwyalbadebic iyofa cikloalkane-

bad da aromatul naxSirwyalbadebad.

rogor qimiur bmebs unda Seicavdes najeri

cikluri naxSirwyalbadi?

17
 cikluri
naxSirwyalbadebi

cikloalkani aromatuli
CnH2n naxSirwyalbadebi Cn H2n-6

pirveli da meore sqemis gaerTianebiT miviRebT:

naxSirwyalbadebi

cikluri RiajaWviani
naxSirwyalbadebi naxSirwyalbadebi

aromatuli najeri ujeri

cikloalkani naxSirwyalbadi
(areni) alkani alkeni alkini

molekulri da empiriuli formula

ra informacia SegiZlia miiRo naerTis

formulis gamoyenebiT?

araorganul naerTebze mniSvnelovan informacias

iZleva maTi elementuri Sedgeniloba. organuli
naerTebis formulebs Tu gadaxedav, maTi umravle-
sobis elementebis moluri Tanafardoba erTnairia.
naerTebis elementebis Tanafardobis dadgena mar-
tivia, Tumca naerTebis umravlesoba Seicavs naxSir-
bads, wyalbads, Jangbads da azots. Tu Cven zustad
ar gvecodineba naerTSi atomebis raodenobebi, ver
gavigebT romel naerTzea saubari.
empiriuli formula gviCvenebs naerTSi elemen-
tebis Tanafardobas. radgan ionuri naerTis struq-
tura samganzomilebiani kristaluri meseria, romel-
Sic dadebiTi da uaryofiTi ionebia ganlagebuli,
amitom ionuri naerTis yvela formula empiriulia
(umartivesia).

18
 ganvixiloT eTilenis, umartivesi alkenis for-
mula C2H4. Tu indeqsebs SevkvecavT orze, miviRebT
empiriul formulas: CH2. naxSirbadsa da wyalbads So-
ris umartivesi Tanafardobaa 1:2. fardobis saCveneb-
lad arsebobs ori gza. eTilenis erTi molekulis
ganxilvisas davadgenT, rom erT atom naxSirbadze
modis 2 atomi. eTilenis erTi molis ganxilvisas da-
vadgenT, rom naxSirbadis atomebis erT molze mo-
dis wyalbadis atomebis ori moli. e.i. formulaSi
miTiTebuli indeqsebi gamoxataven atomebis raode-
nobriv Tanafardobas, aseve elementebis molur Tana-
fardobas.
molekuluri formula, naerTis erT molekula-
Si Semadgenel elementebsa da maT raodenobebs gvi-
Cvenebs. bevr SemTxvevaSi naerTis empiriuli da mo-
lekuluri formulebi erTmaneTs emTxveva. meTanis
molekuluri da umartivesi formulaa CH4 radgan is
Seicavs mxolod erT naxSirbadis atoms. ZmarmJava
organuli mJavaa, romelic sufris Zmris mTavari kom-
ponentia. misi molekuluri formulaa C2H4O2. gluko-
za umartivesi Saqaria, romelsac ujredi iyenebs ro-
gorc energiis wyaros. misi molekuluri formulaa glukoza
C6H12O6. isini mkveTrad gansxvavdebian erTmaneTis-
gan molekulis aRnagobiTa da qimiuri da fizikuri
TvisebebiT, Tumca orives umartivesi (empiriuli)
formulaa CH2O.
empiriuli formula gviCvenebs naerTis procen-
tul Sedgenilobas. molekuluri formulis dasad-
genad saWiroa naerTis moluri masis codna. qimikose-
bi iyeneben masspeqtrometrs. empiriuli formulidan
molekuluri formulis dasadgenad, mihyevi CamoT-
vlil naijebs:
● gamoTvale empiriuli formulis moluri masa.
● naerTis moluri masa gayavi empiriuli formulis
ZmarJava
molur masaze. miRebuli ricxvi unda iyos mTeli,
an Zalian axlos mTel ricxvTan. Tu aTwiladi
miiRe, is unda daamrgvalo mTel ricxvamde.
● empiriuli formulis indeqsebi gaamravle gay-
ofis Sedegad miRebul ricxvze.
● Sedegad miiReb molekulur formulas.

19
 empiriuli formulisa da moluri masis gamoyenebiT molekuluri formulis dadgena

naerTis empiriuli (umartivesi) formulaa CH3. misi moluri masaa 30 g/moli.

daadgine naerTis molekuluri formula.

nabiji 1: Cawere monacemebi da Seadgine amoxsnis gegma.

cnobilia:
● umartivesi (empiriuli) formulaa = CH3
● moluri masa = 30 g/moli
ucnobia:
● molekuluri formula = ?
nabiji 2: gamoTvla:
1. umartivesi forulis masa (empiriuli formulis masa) = 5 g/moli
moluri masa 30
2. = =2
umartivesi formulis masa 15
3. empiriul formulaSi indeqsebis 2-ze gamravlebiT miiReb: C2H6.
nabiji 3: ifiqre Sen mier miRebuli pasuxis Sesaxeb.
M(C2H6)= 2×12+ 6×1=30 g/moli

molekuluri formulis masa emTxveva naerTis molur masas.

1. ra gansxvavebaa empiriul (umartives) da molekulur formulebs Soris?

2. naerTis raodenobrivi (procentuli) Sedgenilobis garda, risi codnaa saWiro
molekuluri formulis Sesadgenad?

3. ras gviCvenebs da ras ver gviCvenebs empiriuli (umartivesi ) formula?

amocanis amoxsna:
daadgine alkanis molekuluri formula, Tu naerTis moluri masaa 72 g/moli
amoxsna:
nabiji 1: CainiSne amocanis pirobaSi mocemuli monacemebi da Seadgine amoxsnis gegma.
1. radgan pirobaSi saubaria alkanze, CainiSne misi zogadi forula: CnH2n+2.
2. M(CnH2n+2)=70 g/moli

20
 nabiji 2: naxSirbadisa da wyalbadis indeqsebis
dasadgenad saWiroa alkanis zogadi formulis mixed-
viT moluri masis dadgena:
M(CnH2n+2)=12×n+1×(2n+2)=12n+2n+2=(14n+2) g/moli
miRebuli moluri masa = amocanis pirobaSi moce-
muli moluri masa
14n +2=72
14n= 72-2
14n = 70
n=5
pasuxi: C5H12

davaleba

1. Seadgine alkanis, alkenisa da arenis formula, Tu isini Seicaven naxSirbadis 7

atoms;

2. Seadgine arenisa da cikloalkanis molekuluri formulebi, Tu isini wyalbadis

16 atoms Seicavs.

3. Seadgine alkenis molekuluri formula, Tu is orjer mZimea azotze;

4. Seadgine alkinis molekuluri formula, Tu misi simkvrive wyalbadis mimarT
aris 36.

daamzade molekulis modeli

daamzade SO2 -isa da C2H6 -is burTulRerovani modeli Sen mier SerCeuli
masalis gamoyenebiT.

21
 2.2 najeri naxSirwyalbadebi

Txevadi airi

ra saerToa aerostatsa da cikloalkanebs Soris?

najeri naxSirwyalbadebia alkanebi da cikloal-

kanebi. naerTTa orive klasis warmomadgenlebi navTo-
bis ZiriTad komponentebs warmoadgenen. maT misaRe-
bad teqnikaSi, swored navTobis fraqciul gamoxdas
mimarTaven. bunebrivi airic alkanebisgan Sedgeba.
bunebrivi airis gaTxevadebiT Txevadi airi miiReba,
romelic avtomobilebSi sawvavad gamoiyeneba da bo-
lo wlebSi energiis arastandartul wyarosac miakuT-
vneben. suraTze gamosaxuli ulamazesi aerostatebis
buStebi nailonisgan mzaddeba. nailonis safuZvels
ki, navTobisgan miRebuli cikloheqsani warmoadgens.
nailonisgan buStebis garda tansacmelic mzaddeba.

22
 2.2.1 alkanebi
rogoria alkanis zogadi formula?  Sen SeZleb:
● Seadgino alkanis homologebis
umartivesi alkani meTania. meTani bunebaSi gavr- molekuluri formulebi;
celebuli airia. igi miiReba mcenareuli narCenebis
● Seadgino da daasaxelo izomer-
uhaero pirobebSi xrwnis procesSi, romelic wyalsa-
ebi;
cavebsa da WaobebSi mimdinareobs, amitom mas Waobis
airsac uwodeben. meTani Sedis planetebis satur- ● imsjelo izomerebs Soris ms-
nis, iupiteris da misi Tanamgzavris titanis atmos- gavseba-gansxvavebaze;
feros SemadgenlobaSi. meTanis miReba SesaZlebelia
cxovelebis fekaluri masidanac, sadac is meTanu-
ri duRilis baqteriebis gavleniT warmoiqmneba. am
gziT nebismier patara fermas SeuZlia e.w. biogaziT
moamaragos sakuTari warmoeba. meTanisa da haeris
narevi 1:10 TanafardobiT Zlier feTqebadia. am mxriv
sagulisxmoa maRaroebSi meTanis dagroveba. sasur-
velia Sromis usafrTxoebis mizniT, sistematurad
xdebodes meTanis raodenobis Semowmeba.
leqsikoni
amis magaliTia saqarTveloSi tyibulis SaxtaSi
momxdari afeTqeba, romelmac adamianebis sicocxle ● parafini _ myari alkanebis na-
Seiwira. revi. pasiuri nivTiereba.
● Tavisufali radikali — mo-
alkanebis homologiuri rigi lekulis an atomis saxeoba,
alkenis zogadi formulaa CnH2n+2 romelsac SeuZlia damouki-
deblad arseboba (anu flobs
ras gamosaxavs n? 2n+2? SedarebiT stabilurobas) da
Seadare sami alkanis formula, romlebSic naxSir- aqvs erTi an ori gauwyvile-
badatomis raodenoba Sesabamisad aris: 1 : 2; da 3. beli eleqtroni.

Tu sworad Casvi ricxvebi zogad formulaSi mii-

Rebdi:
CH4; C2H6 da C3H8.
yoveli momdevno alkani winasgan gansxvavdeba, nax-
Sirbadis erTi da wyalbadis ori atomiT.
naerTebs, romlebic erTmaneTisgan gansxvavdebian
erTi an ramdenime CH2 jgufiT homologebi ewodeba.
CH2 jgufs ki _ homologiuri sxvaoba.
`homo“ _ erTnairs, `logos~ ki _ warmoSobas niS-
navs.

23
 homologebi erTnairi warmoSobis naerTebia.
pirveli alkania meTani, amitom alkanebis homolo-
giur rigs meTanis homologiuri rigi ewodeba. am ri-
gis pirveli oTxi wevris saxelwodeba trivialuria
anu SemTxveviTi, danarCeni homologebis saxelwodeba
warmoqmnilia berZnuli ricxviTi saxelebidan, dabo-
loeba ani-s damatebiT.

alkanis saxelwodeba alkanis molekuluri

formula
meTani CH4
eTani C2H6
propani C3H8
struqturuli formulebi
butani C4H10
pentani C5H12
heqsani C6H14
heptani C7H16
eTani

H suraTze meTanis, eTanisa da propanis struqturu-

li formulebia gamosaxuli. struqturuli formula,
H C H
molekulaSi arsebul yvela qimiur bmas gamosaxavs.
H Tu TiToeul naxSirbadTan dakavSirebul wyalba-
meTani dis yvela atoms Cawer indeqsis gamoyenebiT, miiReb
naxevradstruqturul formulas, romelic mxolod
naxSirbadis atomebs Soris arsebul qimiur bmebs
gamosaxavs. meTanis struqturuli formulis Semok-
lebiT molekuluri formula miiReba.
eTanis naxevradstruqturuli formulaa:
propani
CH3—CH3
propanis naxevradstruqturuli formulaa:
CH3—CH2—CH3
erTi qimiuri bma saziaro eleqtronebis erT
wyvils Seesabameba. Tu struqturul formulaSi bmis
gamomsaxveli xazis nacvlad or wertils gamoiyeneb,
miiReb eleqtronul (luisis) formulas.

meTanis eleqtronuli
formula

24
 Seadgine eTanis eleqtronuli formula.

naxSirbadis atomi sxva naxSirbadis atomebs ukav-

Sirdeba imis mixedviT, Tu ramden naxSirbadatoms
daikavSirebs. arsebobs pirveladi, meoreuli, mesa-
meuli da meoTxeuli naxSirbadis atomebi.

pirveladi naxSirbadatomi

CH3 CH3
CH3 CH2 CH C CH3
meoTxeuli
CH3
naxSirbadatomi
meoreuli mesameuli
naxSirbadatomi naxSirbadatomi

imsjele II
CH3
1. mocemul naxevradstruqturul for- I III IV II I I
mulaSi ipove Secdoma. (sur. a) H3C—CH2—C—CH2-CH2—CH3

2. orive struqturul formulaSi daadgine ram- I CH2

deni pirveladi da meoreuli naxSirbadis atomia. II CH3
a
Cawere naerTebis molekuluri formulebi da ims-
jele maT Soris gansxvavebaze (sur. b)

orive naerTis molekuluri formulaa C4H10, mag-

ram gansxvavdebian pirveladi da meoreuli naxSir-
badatomebis raodenobiT. aseT naerTebs izomerebi
ewodeba. `izo“-erTnairi, `meros“ - sxeuli.

izomerebis Sinaarsis ukeT gasagebad warmoidgine

Seni klasi, sadac merxebis raodenoba moswavleebis
raodenobas Seesabameba. roca maswavlebeli eqsper-
iments atarebs, merxebi isea ganlagebuli, rom eqs-
perimentis msvlelobas yvela kargad daakvirdes. Tu b

25
 proeqtze mcire jgufebSi muSaob, merxebis raodeno-
ba klasSi ar icvleba, Tumca icvleba maTi ganlageba.
butans mxolod ori izomeri aqvs. pirvel naerTs
normaluri butani ewodeba (n-butani), meores ki izo-
butani hqvia. naxSirbadatomebis raodenobis zrdas-
Tan erTad, izomerebis ricxvic gaizrdeba da dasa-
xelebac garTuldeba.
alkanebis (zogadad organuli naerTebis) dasaxe-
lebis dros msoflios yvela qveyanaSi sargebloben
IUPAC (Interna�onal Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)-is
nomenklaturiT.
naerTis saxelwodebis Sedgenisas saWiroa radi-
kalebis dasaxeleba. radikali qimiurad aqtiuri na-
wilakia. meTanis radikali erTi wyalbadis atomis
CamoSorebiT miiReba. mas meTilis radikali ewodeba.

alkanis molekuluri radikalis formula

formula da saxelwodeba da saxelwodeba
CH4 meTani -CH3 meTili
C2H6 eTani - C2H5 eTili (-CH2-CH3)
C3H8 propani - C3H7 propili (-CH2- CH2-- CH3)

ganvixiloT pentanis izomerebi

n-pentani

ra hqvia qvemoT mocemul or naerTs?

CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
CH3 C CH3
CH3
CH3

26
 ra etapis gavlaa saWiro naerTis dasaxelebisTvis?
1. moZebne naxSirbadatomebis yvelaze grZeli jaWvi. mas mTavari jaWvi ewodeba.
radgan pirveli naerTi sam naxSirbadatoms Seicavs, grZeli jaWvis saxelia —
propani.

2. danomre naxSirbadovani jaWvi. danomrva daiwye iqidan, saidanac axlos aris

Canacvlebuli radikali. nimuSSi radikali dakavSirebulia meore naxSir-
badatomTan. marjvnidan daiwyeb danomrvas Tu marcxnidan, situacia ar icvleba.

3. ganStoebebs Camnacvleblebi ewodeba. am SemTxvevaSi Camnacvlebels alkilis

jgufi anu radikali ewodeba. naerTi Seicavs meTilis or radikals.

4. saxelwodebis Sedgenisas gaiTvaliswine, erTi da igive radikali ramdenjerme

xom ar gxvdeba. Tu oria, win saWiroa prefiqsi di-, Tu samia - tri, Tu oTxia _
tetra da a.S.

5. Tu sxvadasxva radikalia Canacvlebuli, maSin maTi dalagebisas gaiTvaliswine

anbanSi radikalebis saxelebSi pirveli asoebis ganlageba. yuradReba ar miaqcio
meoTxe punqts, radgan suraTze warmodgenil formulaSi radikalebi ar meor-
deba.

6. saxelwodebaSi mZimeebi gamoiyeneba ricxvebis erT- CH3

maneTisgan gamosayofad. tireebi iwereba ricxvsa da
radikalis saxels Soris, bolo radikalsa da grZeli H3C C CH3
jaWvis saxels Soris adgili ar gamotovo.

IUPAC-is nomenklaturis mixedviT suraTze mocemuli CH3

naerTis saxelia: 2,2-dimeTilpropani
2,2-dimeTilpropani

davaleba

1. mocemul naerTSi daadgine pirveladi, meo- CH3 CH3

reuli, mesameuli da meoTxeuli naxSirbadis
atomebis raodenoba. CH3 CH2 CH C CH3
2. Seadgine heqsanis izomerebi da daasaxele saer- CH3
TaSoriso nomenklaturiT.

3. axseni, ratom ar aqvs izomerebi propans.

27
 2.1.2. alkanebis fizikuri da qimiuri Tvisebebi
 Sen SeZleb:
● imsjelo alkanebis duRili-
sa da lRobis temperaturis
cvlilebaze maTi aRnagobidan
gamomdinare;
● naxevradstruqturuli for-
mulis gamoyenebiT Seadaro
naerTebis duRilis tempera-
tura;
● imsjelo benzinis xarisxze
oqtanuri ricxvis mixedviT;
● alkanebis gamoyenebaze imsje-
leb qimiuri Tvisebebis safuZ-
velze.
leqsikoni
● qimiuri Tvisebebi: Tvisebebi,
romlebic aRwers nivTiere-
bis sxva nivTierebasTan urT-
ierTqmedebas;
● fizikuri Tvisebebi: nivTier-
ebebis Tvisebebi, romelic ar
exeba qimiur cvlilebas;
● katalizatori _ nivTiereba,
romelic cvlis qimiuri rea-
qciis siCqares;
● dehidrireba _ wyalbadis Ca-
moSorebis reaqcia.
28
alkanebis fizikuri Tvisebebi
yvela nivTiereba xasiaTdeba fizikuri Tvise-
bebiT. fizikuri Tvisebebi gamoiyeneba nivTier-
ebebis dasaxasiaTeblad. am Tvisebebis danaxva an
gazomva SesaZlebelia qimiuri gardaqmnis gareSe.
fizikuri Tvisebebia: masa, wona, moculoba, sim-
kvrive, duRilisa da lRobis temperatura, Tbo
da eleqtrogamtaroba. nivTierebebi fizikuri
TvisebebiT gansxvavdebian erTmaneTisgan. fiziku-
ri Tvisebebi nivTierebis aRnagobas ukavSirdeba,
aRnagobas ki maTSi arsebuli qimiuri bmebi gana-
pirobeben.
naxSirbadatomebis raodenobis zrdasTan er-
Tad, alkanebis duRilisa da lRobis temperatu-
ra izrdeba, radgan ufro meti energia ixarjeba
damatebiTi bmebis gawyvetaze. duRilis tempar-
aturiT gansxvavdebian araganStoebuli da gan-
Stoebuli alkanebic.
alkanebis dnobisa da duRilis temperatura
150
temperatura °C
duRilis °C
100
50
-0
-50
-100
-150
dnobis °C
-200
-250
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(grafiki 1) naxSirbadis atomebis raodenoba
imsjele
gaaanalize grafikze warmodgenili in-
formacia da axseni araganStoebuli da
ganStoebuli alkanebis duRilis tem-
peraturas Soris gansxvavebis mizezi.
(ix. grafiki 2)
 alkanebis duRilis temperatura
400
300 СH3 (CH2)n CH3
duRillis °C

200 n-alkani
100
СH3
0 СH (СH2)nCH3
-100 izoalkani СH3
=>
-200
0 5 10 15 20
(grafiki 2)
naxSirbadis atomebis raodenoba

alkanebis hologiuri rigis pirveli oTxi wevri

airia, momdevno Tormeti siTxe, da meCvidmete wev-
ridan yvela myari. airad da myar alkanebs suni ar
aqvT, xolo Txevadi naxSirwyalbadebisTvis damaxa-
siaTebelia benzinis suni. sufTa saxiT isini ufero
da wyalSi uxsnadebi arian, magram kargad ixsnebian
organul gamxsnelebSi.

1. alkanebis qimiuri Tvisebebi

bunebrivi airisa da navTobis, rogorc saTbobis
gamoyeneba, alkanebis wvis reaqciis Sedegad siTbos
gamoyofis process efuZneba.

yvela alkani iwvis naxSirbad (IV)-is oqsidisa da

wylis warmoqmniT. meTani Warb JangbadSi iwvis ufero
+ +
aliT, Jangbadis naklebobisas ki, mnaTi aliT. meTanis
homologebSi naxSirbadis masuri wilis zrdasTan er-
Tad, alis sikaSkaSe izrdeba. grZeljaWviani wevrebi CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
iwvian Wvartliani aliT.
sanTlebs parafinisgan amzadeben. misi wvis drosac
naxSirwyalbadebis wvis reaqciebi mimdinareobs.
Jangbadis naklebobis SemTxvevaSi alkanebis aras-
ruli wvis Sedegad miiReba ufero, usuno airi `mxu-
Tavi airi“, romlis qimiuri saxelwodebaa naxSirbadis

29
 monooqsidi. bunebrivi airis srul da arasrul wvaze
SegiZlia imsjelo alze dakvirvebiT.

airis wvis alis daxasiaTeb

yviTeli feri
dasaSvebia mxo-
lod praimeris
konusis wverze

a b g
a. bunebrivi airis wva; b. Txevadis gazis wva; g. dareke 112-ze.

imsjele
suraTis mixedviT, daakvirdi propanis wvis tolobebSi
rogor icvleba daxarjuli Jangbadis raodenoba, sruli
da arasruli wvis SemTxvevaSi.

sruli wva
C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

arasruli wva
7
C3H8 + O → 3 CO + 4 H2O
2 2
C3H8 + 2 O2 → 3 C + 4 H2O

es sainteresoa
Jurnal New Scientist-is mixedviT, naxSirJangi mcire
dozebiT amsubuqebs asTmisa da filtvis qronikuli
daavadebis mimdinareobas. sirTules warmoadgens is
faqti, rom arsebobs mciredi sxvaoba naxSirJangis
momwamvlelsa da samkurnalo dozebs Soris, ris gamoc
Znelia pacientisTvis swori dozis SerCeva. groninge-
nis universitetis samedicino centris mkvlevareb-
ma 18 pacients, filtvis qronikuli obstruqciuli
daavadebiT, oTxi dRe zedized ori saaTis manZilze
misces naxSirJangis dabali doza. Semdeg gansazRvres

30
 im imunuri ujredebis done, romelic dakavSirebulia leqsikoni
pacientis filtvebis lorwovani garsis anTebiT pro-
cesTan. gairkva, rom igi Semcirda saSualod samjer. ● rezistentuli _ mdgradi
amiT dadasturda naxSirJangis anTebis sawinaaRmdego
moqmedeba. pacientTa mdgomareoba gaumjobesda, gax-
da qimiuri gamRizianeblis mimarT filtvebi ufro
rezistentuli.
mecnierebi gegmaven ufro didi kvlevis Catarebas,
xolo farmacevtuli kompaniebi eZeben gzebs iseTi
medikamentebis Sesaqmnelad, romelic naxSirJangis
nela gamoyofas uzrunvelyofs.

2. Canacvlebis reaqcia
alkanebi Canacvlebis reaqciaSi Sedis halogen-
ebTan, fTorTan reaqcia sibneleSic afeTqebiT midis.
qlorirebis reaqcia energiulad midis sinaTleze an
maRal temperaturaze sibneleSi. bromTan urTierT-
qmedeba ufro Znelad xorcieldeba.

meTanis qlorirebis reaqcia.

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl ● qlormeTani ozonis Sris erT-

qlormeTani erTi ZiriTadi damazianebelia.
qlormeTans dampal xeze mcx-
CH3Cl + Cl3 CH2Cl2 + HCl ovrebi sokoebi gamoimuSaveben.
diqlormeTani

CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl

triqlormeTani

CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl

tetraqlormeTani

3. ukve ici rom navTobis gadamuSavebis pirveli

etapi fraqciuli gamoxdaa. am dros warmoqmnili
benzini ver akmayofilebs msoflio mosaxleobis
moTxovnas, amitom saWiroa misi miReba qimiuri
gziT. amisTvis mimarTaven grZeljaWviani naxSir-
wyalbadebis krekings.

krekingi _ maRal temperaturaze najeri naxSirwy-

albadis molekula iSleba ufro patara molekule-
bad.
C8H18→C4H10+C4H8

31
 naxSirwyalbadebis romel klasebs miekuT-
vneba reaqciis produqtebi?

ufro maRal temperaturaze 1500°C-ze meTani iS-

leba naxSirbadad (romelic muris saxiT gamoiyofa)
da wyalbadad. CH4→C +2H2.

4. izomerizacia
najeri naxSirwyalbadi katalizatorisa da maRali
temperaturis gavleniT ganicdis izomerizacias.

AlCl3 400°C
CH3—CH2—CH2—CH2—CH3 CH3—CH—CH2—CH3
n-pentani
CH3
2-meTilbutani

ras gviCvenebs ricxvebi benzingasamarT sad-

gurze 91. 95, 98?

benzinis xarisxi misi oqtanuri ricxviT ganisaz-

Rvreba. izooqtanis oqtanuri ricxvia 100. normal-
uri heptanis _ 0. oqtanuri ricxvi 95 niSnavs, rom es
benzini ise iwvis, rogorc 95% izooqtanis Semcveli
narevi. benzinis detonaciuri medegoba ganisazRvreba
oqtanuri ricxviT.
n-heptanis oqtanuri ricxvia 0.
izooqtanis (2,2,4 — trimeTilpentani) oqtanuri
ricxvia 100.
am parafinebisgan amzadeben narevs, da mis wvas ada-
reben benzinis wvas. Tu narevi iwvis ise, rogorc na-
revi, romelSic V (izooqtanis) : V (n-heptanis) = 95:5,
benzinis oqtanuri ricxvi iqneba 95. rac ufro met
ganStoebul alkans Seicavs benzini, naklebad aal-
deba. araganStoebuli alkanebi advilad aaldeba da
Zravis biZgebs anu detonacias iwveven, rac manqanisT-
vis saxifaToa. oqtanuri ricxvis gazrdis mizniT
iyenebdnen tetraeTil tyvias da benzols. maTi gam-
oyeneba akrZalulia da tyviis Semcveli benzinis rea-
lizaciisTvis saxelmwifos mxridan garkveuli regu-
laciebi moqmedebs. bolo wlebSi sawvavze momuSave
manqanebs hibriduli da eleqtroenergiaze momuSave
avtomobilebi anacvlebs.

32
 ratom Rirs hibriduli an eleqtroenergiaze momuSave manqanis ganbaJeba
ufro iafi, vidre benzinze an dizelze momuSave avtomobilis?

alkanebis gamoyeneba

saTbobad
meTani

benzini,
parafini
dizeli
medicinaSi
sawvavad
alkanebi

halogen-
nawarmebi vazelini
anesTeziisT- medicinaSi
vis

davaleba

1. daadgine alkanis molekuluri formula, Tu misi fardobiTi simkvrive wyalbadis

mimarT aris 36.

● Seadgine misi yvelaze mokle jaWviani izomeris formula da daasaxele

● ipove ramdeni litri CO2 gamoiyofa am alkanis wvisas (n.p) Tu daiwva misi 0,2
moli.
Seadare sqemaze naerTebis duRilisa da lRobis savaraudo temperatura.
axseni pasuxi.

CH3 CH3 CH3

H3C—CH—CH—CH3 H3C—HC—CH—CH—CH3 H3C—C—CH2-C—CH3

H3C CH3 H3C CH3 H3C CH3

2,3—dimeTilbutani 2,3,4—trimeTilpentani 2,2,4,4—tetraimeTilpentani

33
 1. meTanis qlorirebis msgavsad Seadgine meTanis
bromirebis reaqcia, daasaxele TiToeul safexur-
ze miRebuli produqti, moiZie informacia maTi
gamoyenebis sferoebis Sesaxeb.

2. CO-s ,,uCinar mkvlels“ uwodeben. moiZie informa-

cia misi organizmSi moqmedebis Sesaxeb. Cawere or
wuTiani videomimarTva, romliTac xels Seuwyob
moswavleebis cnobierebis amaRlebas, am uCinari
mkvlelis sawinaaRmdego prevenciul RonisZie-
bebTan dakavSirebiT. videomimarTvaSi warmoaCine:
● CO-Ti intoqsikaciis gamomwvevi mizezebi;
● mxuTavi airiT mowamvlis winaaRmdeg preven-
ciuli RonisZiebebi;

● rogor aRmouCen pirvelad daxmarebas CO-Ti

mowamlul adamians.

34
 2.2.3. cikloalkanebi
cikloalkanebi (cikloparafinebi) iseTi naerTe-  Sen SeZleb:
bia, romlebic Seicaven naxSirbadis da wyalbadis
atomebs, maT molekulaSi gvxvdeba mxolod erTmagi ● axsna cikloalkanebisa da al-
bmebi. naxSirbadi, Tavisi oTxi eleqtroniT, warmoqm- kanebis duRilisa da lRobis
nis oTx erTmag bmas, e.i. misi oTxive valentoba aris temperaturas Soris gansxva-
gajerebuli. amitom cikloalkanebs najer naxSirwy- vebis mizezi;
albadebs miakuTvneben. cikloalkanebSi pirveli da ● Seadgino cikloalkanebis mo-
bolo naxSirbadi ukavSirdeba erTmaneTs da miiReba lekuluri, struqturuli da
romelime geometriuli figuris mqone struqtura. naxevradstruqturuli for-
mulebi;
ra Tanafardobaa cikloalkanebis moleku-
● imsjelo mis gamoyenebaze qimi-
lebSi naxSirbadisa da wyalbadis atomebs
uri Tvisebebidan gamomdinare.
Soris?

homologiuri rigi da izomerebi leqsikoni

C3H6 ciklopropani C7H14 cikloheptani ● jaWvis izomeri — naerTe-
bi, romlebic gansxvavdeba
C6H12 cikloheqsani C5H10 ciklopentani
jaWvis aRnagobiT;
C4H8 ciklobuteni C8H16 ciklooqtani
● klasTaSorisi izomerebi _
naerTebi, romlebsac aqvT
● rogorc sqemidan Cans, cikoalkanebis homologi- erTnairi molekuluri for-
uri rigi iwyeba samnaxSirbadiani naerTiT. ratom mula da miekuTvnebian sxva-
ar warmoqmnis ciklur naerTs ori naxSirbadi? dasxva klass.
● ras ewodeba izomerebi?
alkens da cikoalkans erTnairi molekuluri for-
mula aqvT CnH2n, amitom isini klasTaSorisi izomere-
bia. magaliTad: propeni da ciklopropani klasTaSo-
risi izomerebia.

klasTaSorisi
izomerebi
H2 C = CH – CH3
propeni ciklopropani

jaWvis
izomerebi

ciklobutani CH3
meTilciklo
propani

35
 cikloalkanebs nafTenebsac (cikloparafinebs)
uwodeben, radgan pirvelad navTobSi aRmoaCines. gan-
sakuTrebiT didi raodenobiT aris baqos navTobSi.

cikloalkanebis fizikuri Tvisebebi:

Cveulebriv pirobebSi ciklopropani da ciklobu-
tani airebia, C5 – C16 siTxeebia, C17-dan myari nivTiere-
bebi. isini wyalSi ar ixsnebian.

cikloalkanis molekuluri dnobis duRilis simkvrive

saxelwodeba formula temperatura °C temperatura °C g/sm3
ciklopropani C3H6 -127.6 -32.7

ciklobutani C4H8 -80 13

ciklopentani C5H10 -94 49.5 0.751

cikloheqsani C6H12 6.5 80.8 0.779

cikloheptani C7H14 -12 117 0.811

ciklooqtani C8H16 13.5 148 0.834

alkenebis qimiuri Tvisebebi:

1. cikloalkanebis wvis dros gamoiyofa didi raode-
nobiT siTbo da aseve sinaTle.

2C3H6+9O2→6CO2+6H2O+Q (sruli wvis toloba)

amitom cikloparafinuli navTobi gamoiyeneba saw-
vavad.
2. ciklopropans da ciklobutans axasiaTebs hidri-
reba — wyalbadis mierTeba.

C3H6+H2 → CH3— CH2-CH3

ciklopropani propani

3. cikloalkanebs axasiaTebs dehidrireba _ wyalba-

dis CamoSoreba.

+3H2

cikloheqsani benzoli

36
 gamoyeneba:

cikloalkani

arenebis
sawvavad
misaRebad

amocanebi

1. diagramaze mocemuli informaciis mixedviT upasuxe SekiTxvebs:

150

100
duRilis temperatura
temperatura °C

50

-50
dnobis temperatura
-100

-150
ciklopropani ciklobutani ciklopentani cikloheqsani cikloheftani

a) romelia damokidebuli cvladi /cvladebi?

b) romelia damoukidebeli cvladi?
g) daasaTaure grafiki;
d) gaaanalize grafiki da axseni duRilisa da dnobis temperaturis cvlilebis
kanonzomierebis mizezi.
2. cikloalkanis fardobiTi simkvrive wyalbadis mimarT 35-ia. daadgine cikloal-
kanis molekuluri formula. dawere misi wvis reaqcia, SearCie koeficientebi da
gamoTvale ra moculobis haeria sWiro 2.24 l cikloalkanis dasawvavad (n.p.).
Segaxseneb, rom Jangbadis moculobiTi wili haerSi aris≈20%.

37
 2.3. ujeri naxSirwyalbadebi
metalebis Wrisa da SeduRebisTvis gamoiyeneba
acetilenis wvis reaqcia. am dros alis temperatura
3000°C-s aRwevs. es ki sakmarisia metelebis gaWrisa da
axlidan SeduRebisTvis.

C2H4
C2H4

H H
С С
H H
● eTileni aregulirebs xilis damwifebas, foTlisa
da gvirgvinis furclebis daberebis process.
● akontrolebs mcenareuli ujredebis dayofas da
zrdas;
● zogierT mcenareSi gansazRvravs sqess;
● aregulirebs fesvebis zrdas
● pasuxobs gamRizianeblis zemoqmedebas;

+ eTileni polieTileni da plastmasa

38
 2.3.1. alkenebi
alkenebis homologiuri rigi  Sen SeZleb:
alkenebis zogadi formulaa CnH2n mis molekulaSi ● Seadgino alkenis homologebis
erTi ormagi bmaa. alkenebis Zveli saxelwodebaa ole- formulebi;
finebi (laT.`zeTis warmomqmneli~), rac ganpirobebu- ● Seadgino da daasaxelo izomer-
lia imiT, rom maTi urTierTqmedebiT qlorTan da ebi;
bromTan, warmoiqmneba zeTis magvari nivTierebebi.
● imsjelo alkenebis duRili-
pirveli alkenia eTeni (eTileni), amitom alkene- sa da lRobis temperaturis
bis homologiur rigs eTilenis homologiuri rigi cvlilebaze maTi aRnagobidan
ewodeba. am rigis pirveli sami wevris saxelwodeba gamomdinare;
trivialuria anu SemTxveviTi. danarCeni homolo-
gebis saxelwodeba warmoqmnilia berZnul ricxviT ● naxevradstruqturuli formu-
saxelebze daboloeba `eni-s~ damatebiT. lis gamoyenebiT Seadaro naer-
Tebis duRilis temperatura;
alkenis alkenis molekuluri ● Seadgino alkenisTvis damax-
saxelwodeba formula asiaTebeli qimiuri reaqciis
tolobebi;
eTeni (eTileni) C2H4
propeni (propileni) C3H6
buteni C4H8 leqsikoni
penteni C5H10 ● dehidrireba — wyalbadis Camo-
Sorebis reaqcia;
heqseni C6H12
hepteni C7H14 ● hidrireba _ wyalbadis mier-
Tebis reaqcia;
oqteni C8H16
● hidratacia — wylis mierTebis
alkenTa molekulidan wyalbadatomis Camocilebis reaqcia;
Sedegad miiReba ujeri radikali. magaliTad eTe-
nis radikalia CH2=CH — vinili. propenis radikali-
CH2=CH-CH2 _ alili.

izomeria da nomenklatura
alkenebSi struqturuli izomerebis ricxvi ufro
metia vidre Sesabamis alkanebSi, rac ganpirobebulia
imiT, rom aq garda naxSirbadovani jaWvis izomeriisa,
gvxvdeba ormagi bmis mdebareobis izomeria.
saerTaSoriso (IUPAC) nomenklaturiT izomerebis
dasaxelebisas unda daicva Semdegi wesebi:

39

leqsikoni
lokanti _ naxSirbadatomis ri-
giTi nomeri, iwereba arabuli
cifrebiT.
● SearCie ormagi bmis Semcveli yvelaze grZeli
jaWvi;
● jaWvi danomre im bolodan, romelTanac ufro
axlosaa ormagi bma;
● mTavar jaWvSi Canacvlebul radikalebs asaxeleb
lokantebis im naxSirbadatomTa miTiTebiT, sadac
Canacvlebulia Sesabamisi radikalebi;
● mTavar jaWvSi naxSirwyalbads asaxeleb im lo-
kantis miTiTebiT, romlidanac iwyeba ormagi bma.
lokanti iwereba „en“ sufiqsis win.

H3C CH2
H2C CH2 H3C CH CH2 C
CH3
IUPAC: eTeni IUPAC: propeni IUPAC: meTilpropeni
trivialuri: eTileni trivialuri: propileni trivialuri: izobutileni

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
H2C CH — CH2—CH3 H3C — CH2—CH CH — CH2—CH2—CH3
1_buteni 3_hepteni
arasworia 3_buteni arasworia 4_hepteni

alkenebisTvis, garda struqturuli izomeriisa,

damaxasiaTebelia agreTve sivrciTi izomeriis erT-
-erTi forma, geometriuli anu cis-trans izomeria.
sivrciTi izomeria ganpirobebulia molekulaSi or-
magi bmis arsebobiT. bmis warmomqmneli naxSirwyal-
badebi kargaven Tavisufali brunvis unars, bmis gaw-
yvetis gareSe. amitom Canacvlebuli jgufebi SeiZleba
ganlagdes ormagi bmis sibrtyis erT mxares (laT.
`cis~) miiReba cis-izomeri, an sxvadasxva mxares (laT,
`trans~) _ trans izomeri.
magaliTad 2-butenis geometriuli izomerebia

geometriuli izomerebi
cis-2-buteni trans-2-buteni
H H H CH3
C C C C
H3C CH3 H3C H
meTilis radikali meTilis radikali
ormagi bmis erT mxaresaa ormagi bmis sxvadasxva mxaresaa

40
 alkenebis fizikuri Tvisebebi
alkenebis homologiuri rigis pirveli sami wevri
ufero, usuno airia. meoTxe wevridan meTeqvsmete
wevris CaTvliT Txevadi nivTierebaa, Semdgomi wev-
rebi ki myari nivTierebebia. myar alkenebs suni ar
qvs, Txevadebs ki navTis suni aqvs. isini wyalSi ux-
snadi nivTierebebia, magram kargad ixsnebian organul
gamxsnelebSi. naxSirbadatomebis raodenobis zrdas-
Tan erTad, alkenebis duRilisa da lRobis tempera-
tura izrdeba, radgan ufro meti energia ixarjeba
damatebiTi bmebis gawyvetaze. duRilis temperatu-
riT gansxvavdebian araganStoebuli da ganStoebuli
alkenebic.
maTi duRilis temperatura damokidebulia mole-
kulis struqturaze. rac ufro grZeli jaWvi aqvs
alkens, miT ufro maRalia misi duRilis temperatu-
ra. rac ufro ganStoebulia jaWvi, miT ufro dabalia
maTi duRilis temperatura. trans-butenis duRilis
temperatura ufro metia vidre cis-butenis.

1. Seadgine qveda suraTze gamosaxuli alkenebis naxevrad struqturuli formule-

bi da daasaxele saerTaSoriso nomenklaturiT;
2. ivaraude romeli alkenis duRilis temperaturaa naklebi? axseni Seni gadawyve-
tileba.

H H H H H H H H
H C C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H
H H H
H C C C H
H

41
 alkenebis qimiuri Tvisebebi
alkenebis molekulaSi arsebuli ormagi bma, gana-
pirobebs maT maRal reaqciisunarianobas.

1. wva
yvela alkenis sruli wvis Sedegad miiReba naxSir-
bad (IV)-is oqsidi da wyali. eTeni iwvis mnaTi aliT;
C2H4+O2→CO2+H2O

SearCie koeficientebi. Tu reaqcia sworad

gaaTanabre, koeficientebis jami iqneba 8.

eTilenis arasruli wvis tolobaa:

C2H4+2O2→2CO +2H2O
2. alkenebis molekulaSi ormagi bmis arsebobis ga-
mo maT axasiaTebT mierTebis reaqciebi.

gaixsene ra gansxvavebaa mierTebisa da Ca-

nacvlebis reaqciebs Soris?

alkenebs axasiaTebT hidrireba, hidratacia, halo-

genireba da hidrohalogenireba.
a) hidrireba — wyalbadis mierTeba mimdinareobs
katalizatoris monawileobiT.
H2C=CH-CH3 + H - H→CH3 – CH2 – CH3
miRebuli naerTi mxolod erTmag bmebs Seicavs.
alkenis hidrirebiT miiReba alkani.
b) hidratacia _ wylis mierTeba
H2C=CH2 + HOH→ CH3 –CH2 –OH
reaqciis Sedegad miRebuli produqti Seicavs _
OH jgufs. is spirtebis klass miekuTvneba.
g) halogenireba — halogenebis mierTeba
alkenebi urTierTqmedeben halogenebTan. iodTan
reaqcia Cveulebriv pirobebSi ar mimdinareobs.

42
 gaaanalize suraTze mocemuli informacia

eTani
bromian
wyalSi

eTeni
bromian
wyalSi

rogor fiqrob, ra unda iyos feris cvli-

lebis mizezi?

bromi erTaderTi Txevadi arametalia, misi wyal-

xsnari yavisferi siTxea. alkenebi auferuleben bro-
mian wyals. bromiani wylis gauferulebis unari
alkenebs ganasxvavebs alkanebisgan. amitom bromiani
wylis gauferuleba alkenebis aRmomCeni reaqciaa.
eTenis bromian wyalTan urTierTqmedebis Sesa-
bamisi tolobaa:

H H H H

C C + Br2 H C C H
H H Br Br
eTileni bromi 1,2-dibromeTani

d) alkenebi urTierTqmedeben halogenwyalbadebTan.

halogenwyalbadebis HF; HCl; HBr da HI.
H2C=CH2+HBr→CH3–CH2–Br
miRebuli naerTis saxelwodebaa bromeTani.

43
 daamzade molekulis modeli
H H
suraTze eTilenis burTul-Rerovani mod-
elia gamosaxuli. plastelinis saSualebiT
daamzade, 2-cisbutenisa da 2-transbute-
C C nis modelebi.

3. gaaanalize TiToeuli sqema da suraTis mixedviT

daadgine TiToeul narevSi komponentebis Tana-
H C2H4 H
fardoba. rogor fiqrob, kidev ramdeni moleku-
la halogenalkanis warmoqmnaa SesaZlebeli?

C2H2+Cl2 C2H4Cl2 C2H4+Br2 C2H4Br2

C2H4+I2 C2H4I2

44
 es sainteresoa
eTileni janmrTelobisTvis saSiSia, radgan aalebadi da feTqebadia. dabali koncen-
traciiT, eTilens SeuZlia imoqmedos adamianze, ramac SeiZleba gamoiwvios gulis-
reva, Tavbrusxveva, Tavis tkivili, koordinaciis darRveva. ufro maRali koncen-
traciis dros, is moqmedebs rogorc saanesTezio saSualeba, iwvevs cnobierebis
dakargvas.

davaleba

1. daadgine alkenis molekuluri formula Tu misi 2,8 grami reaqciaSi Sevida 16 g

bromTan.

2. ilustraciaze gamosaxuli struqturuli formulis mixedviT, Seadgine naxevrad

struqturuli formula da daasaxele saerTaSoriso nomenklaturiT.

H C H
H H
H
C C C C H
H H H

45
 2.3.2. alkinebi
 Sen SeZleb: alkinebis pirveli warmomadgenelia
H C
eTini C2H2. mas acetilensac uwodeben.
● Seadgino alkinebis molekulu-
ri, struqturuli da naxevrad-
alkinebis homologiuri rigi
struqturuli formulebi;
● daasaxelo alkinebi saerTaSo- ra Tanafardobaa alkinebis molekulebSi
riso nomenklaturis mixedviT; naxSirbadisa da wyalbadis atomebs Soris?
● axsna alkinis izomerebis du-
Rilsa temperaturas Soris gan- alkinebis homologiuri rigi ornaxSir-
sxvavebis mizezi; badiani naerTiT iwyeba. ratom ar warmo-
qmnis alkins erTi naxSirbadatomi?

leqsikoni homologiuri rigis pirveli sami wevris formuli-

● jaWvis izomeri — izomerebi, sa da zogadi formulis gamoyenebiT Seavse cxrilis
romlebic gansxvavdebian jaW- carieli ujrebi.
vis aRnagobiT;
● sammagi bmis mdebareobis izo- Segaxseneb?
meri — izomerebi, romlebic cxrili gadaitane rveulSi
erTmaneTisgan gansxvavdeba
sammagi bmis mdebareobiT.
alkinis alkinis molekuluri
saxelwodeba formula
eTini (acetileni) C2H2
propini C3H4
butini C4H6
pentini
heqsini
heptini
oqtini

izomeria da nomenklatura

suraTze gamosaxulia butinis izomerebi.

gaixsene alkenebisTvis damaxasiaTebeli
izomerebi da ivaraude, ra unda erqvas
aseT izomerebs?

46
 H H H H

H C C C C H H C C C C H

H H H H
1-butini 2-butini

suraTze gamosaxulia naxSirbadovani ConCxi. naer-

Tis molekuluri formulis Sesadgenad unda gaiaro
ramdenime etapi:

2 4 6 2 4 6

1 3 5 1 3 5
1-heqsini 2-heqsini

1. daTvale wveroebis raodenoba _ radgan suraTze

warmodgenil naxSirbadovan ConCxSi eqvsi wveroa,
e.i. naerTi Seicavs naxSirbadis 6 atoms.

2. daadgine wyalbadatomebis raodenoba TiToeul

naxSirbadTan. pirveli da meore naxSirbadi erT-
maneTs sammagi bmiT ukavSirdebian, amitom pirvel
naxSirbadTan iqneba erTi wyalbadatomi. meore
naxSirbadatomi sul oTx qimiur bmas warmoqmnis.
amitom, masTan wyalbadi ar aris dakavSirebuli.
mesame naxSirbadi or naxSirbadatoms ukavSirde-
ba, kidev SeuZlia daikavSiros ori wyalbadatomi.
CH3
aseTivea wyalbadatomebis ricxvi meoTxe da mex- HC
uTe naxSirbadatomTan. meeqvse naxSirbadi mis wina
naxSirbadatoms erTi bmiT ukavSirdeba, amitom is 1-pentini
sam wyalbadatoms daikavSirebs.

3. Cawere molekuluri formula — C6H10.

CH3
alkinebs axasiaTebT jaWvis izomeria. maTi dasa- HC C
xelebisas gaiTvaliswine rom upiratesoba eniWeba
sammagi bmis mdebareobas.
3-meTil-1-butini
CH3

47
 imsjele
alkinebs geometriuli izomeria ar axasiaTebT. axseni mizezi.

alkinebis fizikuri Tvisebebi

alkinebis pirveli sami wevri airia, momdevno TerT-
meti wevri siTxea, C17-dan myari naerTebia.

alkini moluri masa dnobis duRilis simkvrive

g/moli temperatura °C temperatura °C g/sm3

eTini 28 -80.8 -84 0.52

propini 42 -101.51 -23.2 0.59
1-butini 56 -125.7 8.1 0.59
2-butini 56 -32.3 27 0.691
1-pentini 70 -90 39.3 0.695
2-pentini 70 -101 55.5 0.714
1-heqsini 84 -132 71 0.715
2-heqsini 84 -88 84 0.730
3-heqsini 84 -101 81.8 0.734

imsjele
cxrilSi mocemuli informaciis mixedviT gaakeTe daskvna, ra gavlenas ax-
dens sammagi bmis mdebareoba izomerebis fizikur Tvisebebze?

alkinebis qimiuri Tvisebebi

1. wva
acetileni masSi naxSirbadis didi masuri wilis ga-
mo haerze ver aswrebs srul wvas da iwvis Wvartliani
aliT. misi sruli wvisTvis iyeneben Jangbads. Jangbad-
Si wvisas acetileni iwvis ufero aliT. acetilenis
wvisas Jangbadis areSi gamoiyofa didi raodenobiT
siTbo. alis temperatura 3000°C aRwevs.

48
 gaaTanabre acetilenis wvis reaqcia:

C2H2+O2→CO2+H2O
Tu reaqcia sworad gaaTanabre _ koeficientebis
jami unda iyos 13.
romeli metalis gaWraa SesaZlebeli acetilenis
gamoyenebiT? es damokidebulia acetilenisa da Jang-
badis moculobebs Soris Tanafardobaze.

V (acetileni) : V (Jangbadi) = 0.9:1 iWreba foladi da aluminis Senadnobebi;

V (acetileni) : V (Jangbadi) = 1.5:1 iWreba spilnZi;
V acetileni) : V (Jangbadi) = 1:1 iWreba foladi, romelSic naxSirbadis raodenoba
mcirea.

2. alkinebs sammagi bmis arsebobis gamo axasiaTebT

hidrirebis, hidrataciis, halogenirebisa da hi-
drohalogenirebis reaqciebi.
a) hidrireba — hidrirebis pirvel safexurze
miiReba alkeni, meore safexurze alkani.

HC≡CH+H2 H2C = CH2

acetileni eTileni

H2C=CH2+H2 H3C – CH3

eTileni eTani

b) halogenireba: halogenirebis pirvel safex-

urze miiReba halogenalkeni, meore safexur-
ze dihalogen alkani.

H C C H + Br Br H C C H
Br Br
alkinebi alkenebis msgavsad auferuleben bromian
wyals. es maTi aRmomCeni reaqciaa.
g) hidrohalogenirebis pirvel safexurze mii-
Reba dihalogenalkeni, meore safexurze mii-
Reba tetrahalogenalkani.

49
 8

H H H Br ნახშირბადი წყალბადი

H C C H C C H C C H
+H Br +H Br
acetileni H Br H Br
2. რა მოცულობის პროპინია საჭირო 8.96 ლ (ნ.პ) ნ

3. აცეტილენის წვის თერმოქიმიური განტოლებაა

d) hidratacia
2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2HO2O + 2610 კჯ
HC≡CH + H2O → H3C – C
H
გამოთვალე სითბოს რაოდენობა, რომელიც გამოი
acetileni Zmris
4. აცეტილენი იწვისaldehidi
ჭვარტლიანი ალით. ამის მიზ
წილს. მიზეზის დასასაბუთებლად დაადგინე ნა
3. alkinebs axasiaTebT Canacvlebis reaqcia.
მეთანში ნახშირბადის is urT-
მასურ წილს და ივარაუდე,
ierTqmedebs vercxlis oqsidTan.
აქ ჩაისვას ფანქრის პიქტოგრამა

შეადგინე ჰეპტინის სამი იზომერის ფორმულა და

HgSO , H SO
CH CH+Ag2O 4 2 4
Ag—C ≡C—Ag+H2O

davaleba

wyalbadi
1
1. Seadgine alkinis molekuluri formula. naxSirbadi
masSi naxSirbadis da wyalbadis masuri Tana- 8
fardoba mocemulia sqemaze. naerTis far-
dobiTi simkvrive azotis mimarT 1.93-ia.
2. ra moculobis propinia saWiro 8.96 l (n.p) naxSirorJangis misaRebad?
3. acetilenis wvis Termoqimiuri tolobaa
2C2H2+5O2→4CO2+2H2O+2610 kj
gamoTvale siTbos raodenoba, romelic gamoiyofa 2.6 g acetilenis wvisas.
4. acetileni iwvis Wvartliani aliT. amis mizezad asaxeleben naerTSi naxSirbadis
did masur wils. mizezis dasasabuTeblad daadgine naerTSi naxSirbadis masuri
wili. Sedegi Seadare meTanSi naxSirbadis masur wils da ivaraude, romeli airi
ufro Wvartliani aliT daiwveba.
5. davaleba

Seadgine heptinis sami izomeris formula da daasaxele IUPAC-is nomen-

klaturiT.

50
 2.3.3. polimerebi da maTi mniSvneloba
ra analogiis gakeTeba SeiZleba suraTebis
mixedviT?
 Sen SeZleb:
● ganasxvavo erTmaneTisgan mono-
meri da monomeruli erTeuli;
● Seadgino eTilenisa da propi-
lenis polimerizaciis reaqci-
is tolobebi;
● imsjelo nivTierebis Tvisebe-
bis gansazRvraSi polimeriza-
ciis xarisxis mniSvnelobaze;
● Cawero acetilenis trimeriza-
ciis toloba;
● Seafaso eTilenis, acetilenisa
da polimerebis roli yovel-
dRiur cxovrebaSi.

leqsikoni
● polimeri — polimerizaciis
produqti;
● monomeri — aRebuli ujeri
naerTi;
● polimerizaciis xarisxi — ri-
cxvi, romelic polimeris mo-
rveulic da polieTilenic Sedgeba ganmeorebadi lekulaSi monomeruli erTeu-
monakveTebisgan (rgolebisgan). TiToeul rgols, lebis raodenobas gamosaxavs;
monomeri ewodeba, mTlian molekulas ki polimeri. ● monomeruli erTeuli — atom-
Ta jgufi, romelic mraval-
polimerebs miekuTvneba sicocxlisTvis Zalian
jer meordeba polimeris mo-
mniSvnelovani nivTierebebi: cilebi, dnm, rnm, saxa-
lekulaSi;
mebeli, celuloza, glikogeni.

maRal temperaturasa da wnevaze eTilenis moleku-

lebs, erTmaneTTan SeerTebis unari gaaCniaT. aseT
pirobebSi naxSirbadis atomebs Soris irRveva erTi
bma, warmoqmnili atomTa dajgufeba gauwyvilebeli
eleqtronebiT erTmaneTs uerTdeba da miiReba didi
zomis polieTilenis molekula. sawyisi nivTierebis

51
 molekulebis ufro did molekulebad SeerTebis
process, polimerizaciis reaqcia ewodeba.

H H
H H
n C C C C
H H
H H
polimerizaciis reaqcia n

polieTilenis miRebis sqema

H2 C = CH2 monomeri — eTileni

(- H2 C - CH2 - ) monomeruli erTeuli
n-polimerizaciis xarisxi
( - H2 C - CH2 - )n polimeri — polieTileni

imsjele
ra gansxvavebaa monomersa da monomerul
erTeuls Soris?

rogor fiqrob, gansxvavdeba Tu ara po-

limeris da monomeris qimiuri da fi-
zikuri Tvisebebi erTmaneTisgan? ratom?

polimerizaciis reaqciis Sedegad miRebuli polim-

eris saxelwodeba miiReba, monomeris saxelwodebis-
Tvis TavsarT `poli“-s damatebiT. magaliTad: eTile-
nis polimerizaciiT miiReba polieTileni, propilenis
polimerizaciiT — polipropileni.

nCH3— HC=CH2→ — HC — CH2—

CH3 n

propileni polipropileni
CH3—CH=CH2 (PP)

52
 polipropileni farTod gamoiyeneba civi da cxeli
wylis milebis dasamzadeblad. milebi erTmaneTisgan
gansxvavdeba SedgenilobiT.

polimerebi maRalmolekuluri naerTebia (maRal-

molekuluria naerTi, romlis fardobiTi molekulu-
ri masa 10 000-s aRemateba). polimerebisTvis iTvlian
saSualo fardobiT molekulur masas.
Mr (polimeris)
n=
Mr (monomeruli erTeulis)
polipropileni
polimerizaciis xarisxze damokidebulia polim-
eris Tvisebebi. magaliTad: Tu n=20, polieTileni
Txevadia, Tu n=1500, myari plastikuri nivTierebaa,
Tu n-5-6 aTasamdea, myaria da misgan aparaturis deta-
lebs amzadeben.
polieTileni pirveli sinTezuri polimeria, ro-
melsac analogi ar moeZebneba. is SemTxveviT aRmoa-
Cines, dRes ki qimiuri warmoebis mixedviT, erT-erT minaboWko
wamyvan adgilzea. polieTilenma bevri bunebrivi polipropileni polipropileni
produqti ganadgurebas gadaarCina. ramdenime aTeu-
li wlis win, mas 60 milion tonaze mets awarmoebd-
nen, radgan arsebul polimerebs Soris is yvelaze
mdgradi iyo, magram swored es mdgradoba iqca imis
mizezad, rom kacobrioba masze nel-nela uars ambobs
da misi warmoebac dRiTi dRe mcirdeba.

minaboWko
CH
polipropileni polipropileni
450 500°C HC CH
3CH CH
HC CH
CH es sainteresoa
benzoli
medicina aris mudmivad ganvi-
alkinebis molekulaSi sammagi bmaa. acetilenis Tarebadi industria, sadac sxva-
trimerizaciiT miiReba benzoli, romelic agebulebi- dasxva masalebi da teqnologiebi
Ta da TvisebebiT gansxvavdeba ukve Seswavlili niv- gamoiyeneba. polimerebma Tavi-
Tierebebisgan. benzols momdevno gakveTilze gaec- anTi adgili ipoves medicinaSi.
nobi. samedicino Spricebi, sisxlis ga-
dasxmis sistemebi da sxva, mzad-
acetilenis dimerizaciiT miiReba vinilacetile-
deba maRali temperaturisadmi
ni. gaixsene vinilis radikalis formula da Seadgine
mdgradi polimerebisgan.
vinilacetilenis struqturuli formula.

53
 vinilacetilenis gardaqmnis Sedegad miiRes pir-
veli sinTezuri kauCuki. mas Zalian didi gamoyeneba
aqvs rezinisa da saburavebis dasamzadeblad, aseve
navTobis gadasaqaCi milebis dasamzadeblad.

eTilenis da acetilenis gamoyeneba

lak- plastikuri
saRebavebi parkebi da
qsovilebi boTlebi
eTilenis
gamoyeneba

zeTi da
bunebrivi airi

eTileni

sabavSvo safenebi
da saTamaSoebi
farmakologia
xe-tyis damuSaveba
Sampuni

eTilenis
saburavebi da gamoyeneba
kosmetika avtonawilebi
eleqtronika

imsjele
1. rogor fiqrob, polieTilenis analogad
SeiZleba gamodges wigni? isic xom fur-
clebisgan Sedgeba, rogorc rveuli. Seni
pasuxi daasabuTe.

2. eTileni da propeni bromian wyals aufer-

uleben. rogor fiqrob, unda auferuleb-

54
 des Tu ara bromian wyals polieTileni da
polipropileni?

ras udris polieTilenSi polimerizaciis

xarisxi, Tu misi moluri masaa 5600 g/moli.

liTonis Wra saojaxo

da SeduReba qimia webo `pva~ ufero
acetilenis laqi
gamoyeneba

polivinilacetati

acetileni
C4H8O2

C2H4Cl2
i
el

eTilacetati
sn
mx
ga

diqloreTani
kosmetikuri gamxsnelebi

acetilenis
spirti

kauCukis gamoyeneba
eTilis warmoeba
qlorvinilis
spirti
sadenebi

55
 proeqti
polieTileni _ ukvdavi nagavi
 Sen SeZleb:
● polieTilenis Tvisebebze msj-
elobas mdgradi ganviTarebis
mimarTulebiT;
● teqstis gaanalizebas;
● erTi da imave faqtisa da mov-
lenis sxvadasxva rakursiT
gaanalizebas;
● Tavisuflad gamoxato Seni
damokidebuleba teqstSi moce-
muli problemis mimarT;
leqsikoni
● kritikuli azrovneba _ cnobis-
moyvareoba, gamokiTxvis stra-
tegiebis gamoyeneba, SekiTxvebis
Camoyalibeba da maTze pasuxis
Zieba.
● reciklireba _ narCenebis ga-
damuSaveba;
● biodegradirebadi — biodegra-
direbadi plastmasa aris plas-
tikis masa, romelic garemoSi
bunebrivad ixrwneba.
56
literaturul wyaroebSi vkiTxulobT: „ekolo-
gebis mokvleviT, adamiani garemos yvelaze metad
polieTilenis nawarmiT abinZurebs“. polieTilenis
parki Tavisi qimiuri Sedgenilobis gamo 400-1000 wel-
ze metxans rCeba, radgan ar aris biodegradirebadi
da rTulad iSleba. rTulia misi reciklireba. ce-
lofnis parkebis daaxloebiT 96% ar eqvemdebareba
meorad gamoyenebas. daSlis dros, (Tu ki ase xdeba)
abinZurebs niadags da miwisqveSa wylebs toqsikuri
nivTierebebiT da aRwevs kvebiT jaWvSi. misi warmoeba
mniSvnelovan TanxebTan da resursebTan aris dakav-
Sirebuli, Tumca gamowveuli ziani gacilebiT didia.
warmoebis procesSi gamonabolqvi abinZurebs haers.
celofnis parkebi realur safrTxes uqmnis co-
cxal bunebas, advilad gadaitaneba qaris mier tye-
ebSi, zRvebSi, okeaneeebSi, mdinareebsa da tbebSi.
daaxloebiT 1 miliardi zRvis frinveli da ZuZum-
wovari iRupeba weliwadSi polieTilenis parkebis
gadaylapvis gamo.“
qimia da garemo
ganixile zemoT moyvanili amonaridi da
kritikuli TvaliT Sexede. kritikaSi ig-
ulisxme polieTilenis rogorc dadebi-
Ti, ise uaryofiTi Tvisebebis Sefaseba.
pirveli fraza gvauwyebs, rom polieTileni yve-
laze didi damabinZurebeli masalaa. Semdgomi fraziT
ki irkveva, rom polieTileni sakmaod mdgradia, misi
qimiuri aRnagobidan gamomdinare, ar iSleba advilad,
ar Sedis reaqciaSi uamrav nivTierebasTan. aqedan ga-
momdinare, igi inertuli masalaa. inertuli masala
ki Tvisobrivad ver iqneba yvelaze didi damabinZure-
beli. samyaroSi uamravi toqsikuri naerTia, romelic
wyalSi xsnad formebs warmoqmnis da uxilavi gzebiT
(mdinareebi, gruntis wylebi da a.S) SeuZlia drois
ufro mcire intervalSi didi arealis mocva, cxa-
dia gruntSi mimofantuli polieTilenis masalebi
Zalian abinZurebs garemos, magram gansazRvreba rom
igi yvelaze didi damabinZurebelia, Zalian gadame-
tebulia.

Semdegi frazac — „rTulia misi reciklireba, ce-

lofnis parkebis daaxloebiT 96% ar eqvemdebareba
meored gamoyenebas. daSlis dros (Tuki aseTi xdeba)
abinZurebs niadags da miwisqveSa wylebs toqsikuri
nivTierebebiT da aRwevs kvebiT jaWvSi“ — safuZvlian
analizs saWiroebs.

pirvel rigSi, unda avRniSnoT rom celofani da

polieTileni sxvadasxvaa. orive polimeria, magram
celofanSi monomerul rgolebs naxSirwyali war-
moadgens, igi miiReba celulozasgan da Sesabamisad
advilad emorCileba degradacias. amitom parkebi
celofnisgan ukve didi xania aRar iwarmoeba. po-
lieTilenis parkebs dRes arasworad veZaxiT „celof-
nis parks“. rac Seexeba faqts, rom misi didi nawili
gadamuSavebas ar eqvemdebareba sworia.

ar eqvemdebareba ara imitom rom teqnologiurad

es SeuZlebelia, aramed ar xdeba misi Segroveba.

gavagrZeloT zemoT moyvanili amonaridis anali-

zi, polieTileni daSlis Sedegad gamoaTavisuflebs
mis Semadgenel monomerul rgolebs, anu eTilens.
eTileni airia, ar ixsneba wyalSi da Sesabamisad
maSinve tovebs niadags. amdenad, igi (daSlili po-
lieTileni) ver iqneba damabinZurebeli, miT ufro,
ver moxdeba kvebiT jaWvSi. aqve unda aRiniSnos rom
eTilens mcenareebi Tavad gamoyofen mwifobis dros
nayofis dasamwifeblad. gavagrZeloT ganxilva, „misi
warmoeba mniSvnelovan TanxebTan da resursebTanaa
dakavSirebuli, Tumca gamowveuli ziani gacilebiT
didia.“

57
 proeqti
polieTileni erT-erTi SedarebiT iafi masalaa
qimiur teqnologiaSi, swored es ganapirobebs mis
farTo da zedmetad xelgaSlil gamoyenebas.

„warmoebis procesSi gamonabolqvi abinZurebs ha-

ers“ _ nebismieri saxis warmoeba moiTxovs energeti-
kul danaxarjebs. biodegradirebadi masalebis war-
moebis drosac warmoiqmneba naxSirbadis dioqsidi.
cementisa da minis warmoebaSi ufro didi raodeno-
biT generirdeba „saTburis efeqtis“gamowvevi gazebi.
cxadia, amis gamo teqnologiebis ganviTarebaze uars
ver vityviT. polieTilenisgan uamravi produqcia
mzaddeba, romelSic mas konkurenti xSirad ar hyavs.

davaleba

1. CamoTvale polieTilenisgan damzadebuli nivTebi, moifiqre maTi alternatiuli

masala, gaakeTe mokle analizi.

polieTilenis nakeToba,
alternatiuli masala komentari
produqcia

milebis SeduReba martivia,

wyalgayvanilobis mili liToni
ar ganicdis korozias, iafia

● awone supermarketebis qselSi arsebuli polieTilenisa da qaRaldis parkebi.

gamoTvale, erTi tona polieTileniT ramdeni xis gadarCena SeiZleba.

● daubrune sicocxle meorad nivTebs. Seqmeni aqsesuarebi, dekoraciebi po-

lieTilenis nivTebisgan.

58
● gamoxate Seni damokidebuleba teqstSi mocemuli problemis mimarT.
● Seqmeni cifruli resursi: socialuri reklama -polieTilenis mavneblobis
Sesaxeb. sazogadoebis ekologiuri cnobierebis amaRlebis mizniT.

resursi:

h�ps://goo-gl.ru/Ihx66

h�ps://goo-gl.ru/8iVrm

es sainteresoa
molekuluri biologiis mimarTulebiT momuSave iaponelma mecnierebma aRmoa-
Cines baqteria, romelsac SeuZlia polieTilentereftalatis (PET) igive lavsanis
damSleli baqteria `Ideonella sakaiensis~. PET msoflio narCenebis saerTo raodenobis 1/6
-s Seadgens. am baqteriis ZiriTadi sakvebia lavsani. PET-is daSlisas warmoiqmneba
nivTierebebi, romelic sakvebis dasamzadeblad gamoiyeneba. amave dros gamoTavi-
sufldeba naxSirorJangi da wyali. mecnierebi cdiloben Seqmnan aseTi baqteriebis
Stamebi, rac garemos polieTilenisgan gaasufTavebs. did britaneTSi jon makgianim,
sxva mecnierebTan erTad, SemTxveviT aRmoCina e.w. mutanti fermenti, romelic baq-
teriaze swrafad Slis polieTilentereptalats.

polieTilenis
damSleli
baqteria
Ideonella sakaiensis

59
 2.3.4. biodegradirebadi plastmasa
 Sen SeZleb:
● Seadaro tradiciuli da biode-
gradirebadi plastmasa;
● etiketis mixedviT amoicno bio-
degradirebadi produqti;
● imsjelo biodegradirebadi par-
kebis warmoebis dadebiT da uary-
ofiT mxareebze;
● Seafaso biodegradirebadi plas-
tamasas gavlena garemoze da eko-
sistemaze.
leqsikoni
● biomasa _ organuli nivTier-
ebis masa farTobis erTeulze
gadaangariSebiT;
● ekotoqsikuri _ naerTi, ro-
melic ekosistemaze momwamla-
vad moqmedebs;
polieTilenis konteineris daS-
las 50-80 weli sWirdeba, boTlis
daSlas ki 450 weli. amis gamo 2005
wels iaponiam wamoayena 3R inicia-
tiva, romelic ganixiles msofli-
os sxva 20 qveyanasTan erTad. bolo
wlebSi daamates meoTxe R da inicia-
tivam 4R iniciativis saxeli miiRo.
3R – REDUCE (Semcireba), REUSE –
xelaxali gamoyeneba, RECYCLE – gada-
muSaveba.
4R iniciativaSi meoTxe R migvi-
TiTebs, polieTilenis parkebis Se-
cvlaze. is unda Canacvldes minis
WurWliTa da hidrobiodegradire-
badi parkebiT.
4R – REDUCE (Semcireba), REUSE –
xelaxali gamoyeneba, RECYCLE — gada-
muSaveba, REPLASE Secvla.
60
2014 wlis 27 ivniss saqarTvelom xeli moawera
asocirebis xelSekrulebas, romlis Tanaxmadac 2019
wlis 1 aprilidan, polieTilenis parkebis warmoeba,
importi da realizacia aikrZala da mis nacvlad bio-
degradirebadi polieTilenis parkebi gamoiyeneba.
ra gansakuTrebuli damazianebeli efeqti
aqvs polieTilens, rom is asocirebis xe-
lSekrulebaSi aisaxa?
plastmasa polieTilenis formiT farTod gamoi-
yeneba soflis meurneobaSi niadagis tenianobisa da
haeris temperaturis SesanarCuneblad. dRes Cveule-
brivi polieTilenis Canacvleba xdeba biodegradi-
rebadi plastmasiT. is unda akmayofilebdes or kri-
teriums: 1. xdeba misi sruli biodegradireba; 2. ar
unda warmoqmnas ekotoqsikuri naerTebi. aerobuli
(Jangbadiani) biodegradirebis dros mimdinareobs
reaqcia:
C plastmasa + O2 → CO2 + H2O + C biomasis + C narCenebi
reaqciis tolobis gaTanabreba SeuZlebelia, rad-
gan SeuZlebelia biomasasa da narCenebSi gadasuli
naxSirbadis raodenobis dadgena. masala fasde-
ba biodegradirebis xarisxiT. amisTvis gamoiyeneba
respirometri, romelic zomavs warmoqmnili naxSir-
orJangis gamoyofas. dReisTvis biodegradirebis
90%-iani maCvenebeli umaRles niSnulad iTvleba.
biodegradirebadi plastmasa Sedgeba sxvadasxva
saxis polimerebisgan, romlebic mzaddeba mcenareu-
li masaliT magaliTad, simindis zeTi, forToxlis,
bananisa da kartofilis qerqi. CamoTvlili produq-
tebis safuZvels saxamebeli warmoadgens da garemoSi
bunebrivi gziT iSleba mikroorganizmebis monawile-
obiT naxSirorJangade da wylamde. daSlis procesSi
biodegradirebadi polieTileni maTi sakvebia. biode-
gradirebadi plastmasa garegnulad hgavs Cveulebriv
plastmasas, Tumca misgan gansxvavdeba warmoebis pro-
cesiT. plastmasa gamoiyeneba sakvebis konteinerebis
dasamzadeblad. tradiciuli plastmasa ki qimiuri
naerTebisgan mzaddeba. misi warmoeba iwyeba nivTiere-
bebis gadnobiT, Txevad masas asxamen yalibSi da amza-
deben boTlebsa da konteinerebs.
 Cveulebrivi plastmasa biodegradirebadi plastmasa
Seicavs naxSirbads da misi wvisas, daSlisas warmoebis procesSi naxSirbadi ar gamoiyeneba
naxSirbadi atmosferoSi gamoiyofa.
wvisas atmosferoSi gamoiyofa meTani da sxva biodegradirebadi plastmasa Seicavs saTburis
damabinZureblebi airebs, romelic kompostirebisas garemoSi ga-
moiyofa. wvisas garemos damabinZureblebi ar
gamoiyofa garemoSi

warmoeba SedarebiT iafia warmoeba SedarebiT Zviria

ixrwneba Zalian nela ixrwneba mxolod mas Semdeg, rac garkveuli
wesiT daiwyoba (gaivlis kompostirebis msgavs
process).

ar aqvs mniSvneloba mis ganlagebas. Tu nagavsayrelze ubralod yria, misi daSla

ar daiwyeba.

aRdgenadi
resursi
warmoeba

nakeli

ekologiurad sufTa
narCenebi produqti

biodegradirebadi afskebis (parkebis) cikli

davaleba
ganmarte termini `hidrobiodegradirebadi“.

biodegradirebadi plastmasas dasaSlelad saWiroa maRali temperatura da tenia-

noba. bunebriv pirobebSi maTi daSla mimdinareobs 2 etapad: pirveli etapi — sinaTlis
da O2-is moqmedebiT xdeba polieTilenisa da liTonis marilebis wvril fragmentebad.
Tumca mwarmoeblebi amtkiceben, rom wvrili fraqciebi iSleba mikroorganizmebis gav-
leniT. gamokvlevebiT dasturdeba, rom 1 wlis ganmavlobaSi polieTilenis mxolod
15% daiSala niadagSi.

61
 biodegradirebadi parkis etiketze sami piqtogramaa gamosaxuli:

gadamuSavebadi biodegradirebadi kompostirebadi

● iSleba specialur pirobebSi _ kompostirebiT;

● iSleba bunebriv pirobebSi da bolomde Seuswavlelia usafrTxoebasa da gaqrobaze
_ biodegradirebadi;
● yvela axlad Seqmnili da naklebad Seswavlili plastiki;

biodegradirebadi parkebis biodegradirebadi parkebis

dadebiTi mxareebi uaryofiTi mxareebi

cudad atarebs wylis orTqlsa da Jangbads, misi farTo warmoeba SezRudulia

Sesabamisad masSi produqti ar fuWdeba.

martivia misTvis sasurveli formis micema. polieTilenze Zviria

advilia misi utilizacia hidrobiodegradirebadi parkebiT SesaZlebe-

lia mxolod 1kg-is gadatana.
tradiciul pastmasasTan SedarebiT usa- biodegradirebadi parkebis sawarmoebi
frTxoa uaryofiT gavlenas axdens garemoze, gamoi-
yofa saTburis airebi, romlebic globalu-
ri daTbobis erT-erTi mizezia.

Cveulebriv pirobebSi ar iSleba misi nedleulia merqani da gavlenas axdens

tyis masaze
nawilobriv CarTulia naxSirbadis biogeo- misi nedleulia xorbali, simindi, romlis
qimiur ciklSi. mosayvanadac miwis didi farTobia saWiro.

miuxedavad xelisSemSleli faqtorebisa, biodegradirebadi plastmasis upirateso-

ba aSkaraa. mTavari kiTxva axla is aris _ dadgeba Tu ara dro, rodesac is mTlianad
Caanacvlebs Cveulebriv plastmasas.
kanadelma mecnierebma kartofilis nafrcqvenSi arsebuli saxameblisgan bioplas-
tiki daamzades. mas gaaCnia gawelvisa da gadidebis unari. Seicavs organul naerTebs,
romelic mikrobebisgan icavs masSi SefuTul produqts.

eqsperimenti
SegiZlia daamzado biodegradirebadi antiseptikuri parki bananis qer-
qisgan.

62
 masala : ● blenderi.
● banani — 70 g. ● saceri.
● Zmari — 25 ml. ● comis gasabrtyelebeli.
● Tafli — 5 g. ● sacxobi qaRaldi (kalka).
● dariCini — 1.5 g. ● Wiqa — 250 ml
● qondari — 1g (dafxvnili). ● WurWlis sarecxi Rrubeli.
● boTli 1l — 2 cali. ● faifuris jami

eqsperimentis msvleloba:
bananis qerqi daWeri patara naWrebad, daamate 250 ml wyali da daablendere.
miRebuli masa gadaitane cecxlgamZle WiqaSi da dadgi spirtquris alze. ganu-
wyvetliv urie. aduRebuli masa frTxilad gadaitane sacerze wylis mosacileblad.
sacerze darCenili masidan wyali amoaSre WurWlis sarecxi RrubliT. mSrali masa
gadaitane faifuris jamze da daamate Zmari, qondari, dariCini da Tafli. kargad
mourie. miRebuli masa gadaitane sacxob qaRaldze. qaRaldi gadaafare zemodanac da
gaabrtyele sabrtyelebliT. miiReb SesafuT masalas, romelic SegiZlia gamoiyeno.

davaleba

1997 wels Carlz muri, romelic sakuTari

iaxtiT Sin brundeboda, wynari okeanis Crdi-
loeT nawilSi motivtive nagvis uzarmazar
grovas gadaawyda. mogvianebiT mas plastmasis
kontinenti uwodes, radgan iq arsebuli nagvis
90% plastmasaa.
moiZie informacia am ,,kontinentis“ Sesax-
eb. msoflios konturul rukaze moniSne misi
mdebareoba. moamzade prezentacia SenTvis misaReb programaSi. videomimarTvaSi xaz-
gasmiT warmoaCine:
● rogor warmoiqmna ,,plastmasis kontinenti“;
● ratom grovdeba msoflios nagavi erTad;
● ra safrTxes uqmnis `plastmasis kontinenti“ garemosa da msoflios mosaxleobas;
● ra aris `utilizebuli kunZuli“, rogor Secvlis is garemos;
● rogor SeiZleba izrunos adamianma problemis gadasaWrelad;

63

 Sen SeZleb:
● Seadgino aromatuli naxSirwy-
albadebis molekuluri for-
mulebi zogadi formulis ga-
moyenebiT;
● Seadgino benzolis empiriuli
da molekuluri formula;
● imsjelo benzolis Tvisebebze;
leqsikoni
● bmis sigrZe _ manZili atombir-
Tvebis centrebs Soris;
● kancerogeni _ simsivnis gamom-
wvevi;
● leikemia _ sisxlis daavadeba,
roca sisxlis TeTri ujrede-
bi didi raodenobiT aris sis-
xlSi;
● detonaciuri medegoba _ ben-
zinis xarisxis ganmsazRvreli
faqtori;
● detonacia _ benzinis aranor-
maluri wva ZravaSi.
64
2.3.5. arenebi
aromatuli naerTebi, arenebi, ciklur naxSirwy-
albadebs miekuTvneba. maTi zogierTi warmomadgene-
li gamoyves eTerzeTebidan, balzamebidan, bunebrivi
fisebidan da aromatuli naerTebi uwodes. mogvi-
anebiT gairkva, rom am nivTierebebs safuZvlad udevs
benzolis birTvi. miuxedavad imisa, rom bevr maT-
gans sulac ar aqvs aromatuli suni, maT saxelwodeba
`aromatuli~ istoriulad SemorCaT.
aromatuli naxSirwyalbadebis zogadi formulaa
CnH2n-6
Sen SegiZlia daadgino aromatuli naxSirwyal-
badebis homologiuri rigis pirveli wevris, benzo-
lis empiriuli da molekuluri formulebi qvemoT
mocemuli cxrilis saSualebiT, Tu misi DH2=39.
zogadi formula: CxHy C H
masuri wili (%) 92 8
fardobiTi atomuri masa 12 1
Tu sworad amoxseni amocana miiRebdi: empiriuli
formula _ CH; molekuluri formula — C6H6.
daxaze rac SeiZleba meti struqturu-
li formula naxSirwyalbadisa, romlis
molekuluri formulaa C6H6.
gaiTvaliswine :
TiToeul naxSirbadTan unda iyos 4, xolo
wyalbadTan 1 bma
es sainteresoa
benzoli pirvelad, 1825 wels, maikl faradeim
gamoyo. naerTis formula cnobili iyo kidev ufro
adre, Tumca 40 wlis Semdeg, 1865 wels kekulem Se-
qmna benzolis struqturis modeli da mas kekules
benzols uwodeben. gadmocemis Tanaxmad kekules
 daesizmra maimunebis ferxuli. zogierTi wyaros
mixedviT ki mas gveli esizmra. da amiT mecnieri
mixvda, rom SesaZloa molekulas cikluri aRnagoba
hqonoda.

akmayofilebs Tu ara aRniSnuli struqtura ben-

zolis Sesabamis yvela moTxovnas, axla ganvixilavT:
avgust kekule
dabrkoleba 1: benzolis reaqciisunarionobis
nakleboba;
kekules formulis mixedviT, benzoli Seicavs
ormag bmas, amitom sxva alkenebis msgavsad unda Se-
suliyo bromTan reaqciaSi sibneleSi, oTaxis tem-
peraturaze.

bromiani wyali + alkeni → bromoalkanis xsnari

dakvirveba: benzoli ar auferulebs bromian wyals.

daskvna: benzoli Cveulerbivi alkeni ar aris.

dabrkoleba 2: benzolis Termodinamikuri sta-

biluroba
cikloheqsenis hidrirebis reaqciis siTburi efeq-
tia _ 119 kj/moli.

+ H2

ivaraude benzolis hidrirebis reaqciis siTburi

efeqti.

65
 Teoria eqsperimentis winaaRmdeg:

iqedan gamomdinare, rom benzolis molekulaSi 3

ormagi bma gvxvdeba, reaqciis Sedegad unda gamoTa-
visufldes 3-jer meti energia, vidre cikloheqsanis
SemTxvevaSi.
kj kj
3 × (−119 ) = −357
moli moli

benzolis hidrirebis eqsperimentulad dadgenili

siTburi efeqtia -208 kj/moli.

rogor fiqrob, benzoli iseTi stabiluria

rogorc Tavidan varaudobdnen?

dabrkoleba 3: bmis sigrZe benzolSi

nivTiereba bmis sigrZe (nm)

C-C cikloheqsanSi 0.154

C=C cikloheqsenSi 0.134

● Seadare erTmagi da ormagi bmis sigrZe.

● daxaze benzolis struqtura, Tu masSi erTmag da
ormag bmebs gansxvavebuli sigrZe eqnebodaT.

benzolSi erTmagi da ormagi bmebis gansxvavebuli

sigrZe gamoiwvevda formis darRvevas.

benzolSi yvela bma Tanabari sigrZisaa.

bmis sigrZe nm

C-C cikloheqsani 0.154

C=C cikloheqseni 0.134

C-C/C=C benzoli 0.140

● Seadare cikloheqsanis erTmagi da cikloheqsenis

ormagi bmebis sigrZe, benzolSi erTmagi da ormagi

66
 bmebis sigrZes; ras geubneba aRniSnuli dakvirveba
benzolis struturis Sesaxeb?

daskvna: ormag da erTmag bmebs ar aqvT fiqsire-

buli pozicia

pidapiri mtkicebuleba

1981 wels ganaviTares atomuri zedapiris kv-

levis teqnika (atomic surface probing technique) saxelad
skaneruli gamWoli mikroskopia (Scanning Tunneling Mi-
crsocopy). pirvel STM suraTze, romelic gamoqveynda
gamosaxuli iyo benzolis daurRveveli heqsagona-
luri forma.

a b
H
H C H
C C
C C
H C H
H
g d

Seni azriT, romeli maTgania yvelaze opti-

maluri? ratom?

67
 fizikuri Tvisebebi
benzoli Zlier momwamlavi Txevadi nivTierebaa;
wyalSi ar ixsneba, Tumca kargad ixsneba organul
gamxsnelebSi; benzoli saukeTeso organuli gamxs-
nelia, amitom organizmSi moxvedrisas Slis sisxlis
wiTel ujredebs. aseve is warmoadgens kancerogens
da leikemiis gamomwvevia;

qimiuri Tvisebebi
1. wva
benzoli iwvis Wvartliani aliT.
2C6H6 + 15O2 → 12CO2 + 6H2O

2. hidrireba

+ H2

benzoli cikloheqsani

3. benzolis qlorireba

benzoli ultraiisferi sxivebis zemoqmedebiT ier-

Tebs qlors da miiReba heqsaqlorcikloheqsani.

imsjele
ganmarte miRebuli naerTis saxelwodeba.

68
 heqsaqlorcikloheqsani pesticidia, Tumca saqa-
rTveloSi 2001 wlidan misi gamoyeneba akrZalulia.

qimia da garemo

1971 wels JenevaSi miiRes benzolis konvencia, romelic garkveul SezRudvebs

gulisxmobs benzolis gamoyenebis dros.
benzolis ZiriTadi wyaro avtomobilebis gamonabolqvi da Tambaqos kvamlia. ben-
zols umateben sawvavs oqtanuri ricxvis gasazrdelad; 1970 wels tetraeTiltyviis
gamoyeneba am mizniT aikrZala da is Caanacvla benzolma. mas Semdeg rac benzolis
kancerogenuli Tvisebebi aRmoaCines, misi gamoyenebac SeizRuda. amJamad moqmedi
standartis mixedviT sawvavSi benzolis raodenoba unda iyos araumetes 1%-isa. 2011
wlidan aSS-Si kidev ufro Seamcires sawvavSi benzolis dasaSvebi raodenoba da is
0.62%-s Seadgens.

davaleba

1. aRwere 3 porblema, romlebsac mecnierebi gadaawydnen, rodesac isini cdilobdnen

benzolis struqturis axsnas.

2. gamoTvale naxSirbadis masuri wili benzolSi da axseni misi alis Wvartlianobis

mizezi;

3. kvlevebi adasturebs, rom bolo wlebSi saqarTvelos did qalaqebSi leikemiiT

daavadebuli bavSvebis raodenoba gaizarda. SeiZleba Tu ara es ukavSirdebodes
haerSi benzolis arsebobas?

69
 II Temis Semajamebeli
1. Seadgine propanis wvis reaqciis toloba. da ipove ramdeni litri haeria saWiro 2
moli propanis dasawvavad (n.p.);
2. Seadgine misi erT-erTi izomeris formula da daasaxele

3. Seadgine naxevrad struqturuli formulebi, daasaxele saerTaSoriso nomenkla-

turiT da imsjele ratomaa izobutanis duRilis temperatura naklebi, vidre
normaluri butanis.

H H H H H H H
H C C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
H C H
H
4. daasaxele saerTaSoriso nomenklaturiT da aRniSne pirveladi, meoreuli, me-
sameuli da meoTxeuli naxSirbadatomebi. Seadgine am naerTis iseTi izomeris
struqturuli formula, romelic erTi meoTxeuli, erTi meoreuli da oTxi pir-
veladi naxSirbadatomia.

1
5 3
4 2

5. Seadgine meTanis wvis reaqciis toloba da upasuxe ramdenjer aRemateba meTanis

wvaze daxarjuli Jangbadis moculoba, naxSirwyalbadis moculobas?

6. dagegme eqsperimenti, rogor moaSoreb eTans eTilenis minarevs, axseni Seni gada-
wyvetileba.

70
7. 8,6 grami naxSirwyalbadis sruli wvisas warmoiqmna 13.44 l CO2 (n.p) da 12.6 grami
H2O daadgine naxSirwyalbadis formula.

8. daadgine alkanis formula Tu ω% (C) = 75%

9. alkanis orTqlis simkvrive wyalbadis mimarT 36-ia. daadgine molekuluri formula
da gamoTvale masSi naxSirbadis masuri wili.

10. mas Txevad airs uwdeben. is saukeTeso arCevania, aqvs maRali oqtanuri ricxvi,
Zravis dazianebis Tavidan asacileblad is iseve iwvis, rogorc benzini an dizeli,
Siga wvis ZravaSic naperwkali ufro swrafad warmoiqmneba, vidre benzinis wvis
dros. Txevad airze momuSave Zrava ufro didxans da gamarTulad muSaobs, vidre
benzinze momuSave Zrava. amis garda, propanis wvis dros gacilebiT mcire raodeno-
biT naxSirorJangi gamoiyofa da haeric naklebad binZurdeba. bevr qveyanaSi kidev
ufro meti avtobusi, taqsi da policiis manqana muSaobs Txevad airze.

propanis wvis Termoqimiuri tolobaa:

C3H8+5O2→3CO2 + 4H2O + 2046 kj/moli

a) avtomobilSi damontaJebulia 20 m3 moculobis Txevadi gazis baloni. davuSvaT,

rom gazi srulad daiwva. gamoTvale gamoyofili siTbos raodenoba (Txevadi airis
simkvrivea 493 kg/m3).

b) gamokiTxe 10 axlobeli da daadgine maTi ra nawili iyenebs sawvavad bunebriv

airs, benzins da Txevad airs. Seadgine diagrama. gaaanalize miRebuli Sedegi.
g) daamzade posteri, romliTac mZRols daarwmuneb propanis upiratesobaSi, ben-
zinTan SedarebiT. gamoiyene

3100
3000
temperatura (K)

2900
2800
2700
2600
2500

0
25 50 75 100
brunvis sixSire _ hc.

wiTeli mrudi Seesabameba propans, mwvane - benzins

71
 11. romeli alkanis dehidrirebiT miiReba qvemoT mocemuli nivTiereba? Seadgine Se-
sabamisi reaqciis gantoleba.

12. Seadare Sedgenilobis mixedviT acetileni da eTeni. dawere ori reaqcia: romliTac
miiReb acetilenidan eTens da eTenidan acetilens.

13. daasrule qimiur reaqciaTa gantolebebi:

● CH4+O2→CO2 + -----
● C2H6+O2→CO+ ----

14. daasrule reaqciebi da daasaxele miRebuli produqtebi

● C2H4 + Br2 →
● C2H4+ HBr →

15. Seadgine naxSirwyalbadis formula, Tu masSi naxSirbadis masuri wilia 85,7% wy-
albadis 14,3% .naxSirwyalbadis molekuluri masaa 28

16. daasaxle saerTaSoriso nomenklaturiT.

17. daasaxele da miuTiTe ras warmoadgenen aRniSnuli nivTierebebi

a) H H H b) H H
H C C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H H H H

72
18. Seavse cxrili
formula elementebis elementebis TiToeuli
moluri masuri elementis masuri
Tanafardoba Tanafardoba wili

eTani

buteni

propini

19. ipove Sesabamisoba:

1. C2H4+H2→C2H6 a) halogenireba

2. C2H4+H2O→C2H5OH b) hidrireba

3. C2H4 + Br2→ C2H4Br2 g) hidratacia

20. ganaxorciele gardaqmna:

eTani eTeni eTini benzoli

1 2 3

21. CamoTvlili wyvilebidan daasaxele izomerebis da homologebis wyvilebi:

● propani da butani
● butani da izobutani

22. daasaxele saerTaSoriso nomenklaturiT:

a) CH3-CH-CH2-C≡CH b) CH≡C-CH-CH2-CH3

CH3 CH3

23. daadgine
● alkanis molekuluri formula Tu misi molekuluri masaa 72
● alkenis molekuluri formula Tu misi molekuluri masaa 56
● alkinis molekuluri formula Tu misi molekuluri masaa 40
miRebuli monacemebis safuZvelze Seavse cxrili

73
 empiriuli sruli naxevrad
formula struqturuli struqturuli
formula formula

24. ipove alkinis molekuluri formula, Tu misi fardobiTi simkvrive wyalbadis

mimarT aris 20. Seadgine misi erTi izomeris da erTi homologis formula.
25. mocemuli gaqvs ori uwarwero qila, rogor gaarCev romelSia alkani da romelSi
alkeni amoirCie pasuxi:
1. indikatoriT; 2. hidrataciiT;
3. kirian wyalSi gatarebiT ; 4. bromian wyalSi gatarebiT;

26. CamoTvlilTagan romeli Seicavs najer naxSirwyalbadebs:

1. haeri 2. asfalti
3. saponi 4. margarini

27. romeli nivTierebis polimerizaciiT miiReba polieTileni

a) C2H6 b) C3H6
g) C2H4 d) C2H2

28. avtomobilis benzini umetesad Seicavs

1. araganStoebuli alkenebi
2. acetilenuri naxSirwyalbadebi
3. ganStoebuli alkenebi
4. ganStoebuli aromatuli naxSirwyalbadebi

29. Seavse gamotovebuli adgilebi:

● alkanebis zogadi formulaa .......................
● alkanebis umartivesi warmomadgenelia ......................
● alkanis formula sadac wyalbadatomebis ricxvia 18 ..............
● tetraqlormeTanis fardobiTi molekuluri masa ................
● bunebrivi airi Seicavs ............................ naxSirwyalbadebs
● meTani bunebrivi airis .................... Semadgeneli ............
● benzoli miiReba acetilenis ........................
● alkinebis umartivesi warmomadgenelia ..................

74
30. ra procesia gamosaxuli suraTze.

3HC≡CH→

31. ra procesia ganxiluli sqemaze?

CH2 CH
H2C CH2 HC CH
Pt an Pd, 300°C
+3H2.
H2C CH2 HC CH
CH2 CH
cikloheqsani benzoli

32. ra procesia ganxiluli sqemaze?

CH CH2
HC CH H2C CH2
t, Pt
+3H2
HC CH H2C CH2
CH CH2

33. ipove benzolSi da acetilenSi naxSirbadis masuri wili da imsjele ratom iwvis
benzoli da acetileni Wvartliani aliT?

34. cxrilSi warmodgenili monacemebis mixedviT amoxseni amocanebi:

nivTiereba molekuluri wvis reaqciis siTburi

formula efeqti kj/moli

wyalbadi H2 284

grafiti C 394

meTani CH4 880

acetileni C2H2 1300

propani C3H8 2246

oqtani C10H22 5471

glukoza C6H12O6 2808

75
 a) ra raodenobis siTbo gamoiyofa 3 moli wyalbadis dawviT?
b) ra raodenobis siTbo gamoiyofa acetilenis wvis dros 2.5 mol JangbadSi?
g) ra raodenobis siTbo gamoiyofa Tu daiwva meTani, acetilenisa da glukozis
TiTo moli?

35. benzoli umniSvnelovanes qimiur nedleuls warmoadgens. amave dros is kanceroge-

nia. T diagramis gamoyenebiT Seafase misi sargebeli da misgan gamowveuli safrTxe.

safrTxe sargebeli

36. naxSirorJangi gamoiyeneba cecxlmaqrebSi. mocemuli gaqvs sami nivTiereba: ace-

tileni, propani da ciklopropani. romel nivTierebas mianiWeb upiratesobas?
dawere maTi wvis reaqciis tolobebi da Seafase atomekonomis TvalsazrisiT.

37. polipropileni gamoiyeneba civi da cxeli wylis milebis dasamzadeblad. milebi

polipropilenis garda Seicavs minaboWkos, webos-Semavsebels da zogjer folgas.
Seafase folgis roli milebSi. ra upiratesoba aqvs polipropilenisgan damza-
debul milebs Tujis milebTan SedarebiT?

mili

webovani
fena
aluminis
folga
webovani
fena

76
38. ipove Sesabamisoba naerTis molekulur formulasa da Sesabamisi klasis zogad for-
mulas Soris:

C5H12 ა) CnH2n

C6H12 ბ) CnH2n-2

C4H6 გ) CnH2n-6

C7H8 დ) CnH2n+2

1 2 3 4

daadgine alkanis molekuluri formula, Tu misi erTi molis sruli wvis Se-
degad warmoiqmili naxSirorJangisa da wylis orTqlis moculobebs Soris Tana-
fardobaa:

39. Seadgine eqvsnaxSirbadiani alkanis, alkenis, alkinis da arenis wvis reaqciis tolo-
bebi da wvis produqtebis moluri Tanafardoba gamosaxe diagramebis saSualebiT.

77
 qimiur elementTa periodulobis cxrili

1
IA
1
2
1 H
wyalbadi IIA
tute
metalebi
gardamavali
metalebi
metaloidebi halogenebi

1.0079
tutemiwa postgardamavali keTilSobili
3 4 arametalebi
Li Be
metalebi metalebi airebi
2
liTiumi beriliumi
6.941 9.012
11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 Na
natriumi
Mg
magniumi
IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB

22.990 24.305
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
4 K
kaliumi
Ca
kalciumi
Sc
skandiumi
Ti
titani
V
vanadiumi
Cr
qromi
Mn
manganumi
Fe
rkina
Co
kobalti
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.88 50.941 51.996 54.938 55.847 58.933
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
5 Rb
rubidiumi
Sr
stronciumi
Y
itriumi
Zr
cirkoniumi
Nb
niobiumi
Mo
molibdeni
Tc
teqneciumi
Ru
ruTeniumi
Rh
rodiumi pa
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 98.907 101.07 102.906
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78
6 Cs
ceziumi
Ba
bariumi
La
lanTani
Hf
hafniumi
Ta
tantali
W
volframi
Re
reniumi
Os
osmiumi
Ir
iridiumi p
132.905 137.327 138.906 178.49 180.948 183.85 186.207 190.23 192.22
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 11
7 Fr
franciumi
Ra
radiumi
Ac
aqtiniumi
Rf
rezerfordiumi
Db
dubniumi
Sg
siborgiumi
Bh
boriumi
Hs
hasiumi
Mt
meitneriumi dar
223.019 226.025 227.028 [261] [262] [266] [264] [269] [268]

58 59 60 61 62 63
lanTanoidebi Ce
ceriumi
Pr
prazeodiumi
Nd
neodiumi
Pm
promeTiumi
Sm
samariumi ev
140.115 140.908 144.24 144.913 150.36
90 91 92 93 94 95

aqtinoidebi Th
Toriumi
Pa
protaqtiniumi
U
urani
Np
neptuniumi
Pu
plutoniumi
A
am
227.028 232.038 238.029 237.048 244.064

78
 danarTi 2

18
VIIIA
2
13 14 15 16 17
lanTanoidebi
IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
heliumi
4.00260
aqtinoidebi 5 6 7 8 9 10
B
bori
C
naxSirbadi
N
azoti
O
Jangbadi
F
ftori
Ne
neoni
10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

IB IIB Al
alumini
Si
siliciumi
P
fosfori
S
gogirdi
Cl
qlori
Ar
argoni
26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
oi
Ni
nikeli
Cu
spilenZi
Zn
TuTia
Ga
galiumi
Ge
germaniumi
As
dariSxani
Se
seleni
Br
bromi
Kr
kriptoni
3 58.693 63.546 65.39 69.732 72.64 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
h
i
Pd
paladiumi
Ag
vercxli
Cd
kadmiumi
In
indiumi
Sn
kala
Sb
stibiumi
Te
teluri
I
iodi
Xe
qsenoni
6 106.42 107.868 112.411 114.818 118.71 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.29
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

mi
Pt
platina
Au
oqro
Hg
vercxliswyali
Tl
Taliumi
Pb
tyvia
Bi
bismuti
Po
poloniumi
At
astati
Rn
radoni
2 195.08 196.967 200.59 204.383 207.2 208.980 [209] 209.987 222.018
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
t
umi
Ds
darmStadiumi
Rg
rentgeniumi
Cn
koperniciumi
Nh
nihoniumi
Fl
fleroviumi
Mc
moskoviumi
Lv
livermoriumi
Ts
tenesini
Og
oganesoni
[269] [272] [277] [286.18] [ 289.19] 289.20 293.204 293.21 294.21

63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
m
mi
Eu
evropiumi
Gd
gadoliniumi
Tb
terbiumi
Dy
disproziumi
Ho
holmiumi
Er
erbiumi
Tm
Tuliumi
Yb
iterbiumi
Lu
luteciumi
6 151.966 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 166.934 173.04 174.967
95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
u
umi
Am Cm
americiumi kiuriumi
Bk
berkliumi
Cf
kaliforniumi
Es
einSteiniumi
Fm
fermiumi
Md
mendeleeviumi
No
nobeliumi
Lr
lourensiumi
4 243.061 247.070 247.070 251.079 [254] 257.095 258.1 259.101 [262]

79
 marilebis, mJavebisa da fuZeebis wyalSi xsnadoba

xsnadi > 1 g./100 ml.

mcired xsnadi (0.1-1) g./100 ml.

80
 danarTi 2

marilebis, mJavebisa da fuZeebis wyalSi xsnadoba

nivTiereba ar arsebobs an wyalSi gaxsnisas

iSleba

praqtikulad uxsnadi < 1 g./100 ml.

81
82