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Traffic Injury Prevention

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Role of Gender in Road Accidents

a
Adli H. Al-Balbissi
a
Civil Engineering Department , Jordan University , Amman, Jordan
Published online: 15 Sep 2010.

To cite this article: Adli H. Al-Balbissi (2003) Role of Gender in Road Accidents, Traffic Injury Prevention, 4:1, 64-73, DOI:
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 Traffic Injury Prevention, 4:64–73, 2003
Copyright ° C 2003 Taylor & Francis
1538-9588/03 $12.00 + .00
DOI: 10.1080/15389580390120934

Role of Gender in Road Accidents

ADLI H. AL-BALBISSI
Civil Engineering Department, Jordan University, Amman, Jordan

Influence of driver sex on road accidents is assessed in this article. Accident records for 3 years and for three different income
Downloaded by [University of Hong Kong Libraries] at 14:15 12 November 2014

regions were analyzed. Annual distance traveled, social and economic participation, and effect of public vehicle accidents
were considered. Effects of environmental factors and driver age were also included. Driver faults analysis identified possible
reasons for accident differences. Analysis of accident severity was used to assess degree of harm. Statistical analysis at the
5% significance level was used to evaluate all differences. The results show that male accident rates are significantly higher.
This trend is consistent through all the analyses. Accident differences are significant only in normal driving conditions.
Drivers over age 50 had the lowest accident rates. Accident rate differences were caused by lack of attention and impatience
among male drivers. Appropriate means of communication should alert concerned populations to these findings.

Keywords Driver Characteristics Effect; Driver Sex Effect; Effect of Driver Sex on Jordan Road Accidents; Factors
Influencing Road Accident Severity; Male Accident Trends; Road Accidents Analysis

Differences in driving behavior between male and female
drivers have been the focus of several previous investigations.
Most of the findings have supported the notion of different driv-
ing characteristics. In a study by Storie (1977), significant dif-
ferences in driving characteristics were found between the two
sexes with regard to speed, skill, and attitude. Females were
more likely to drive at lower speeds and overtake more carefully.
Males, on the other hand, were generally more skillful, able to
perform difficult maneuvers, and more likely to risk driving un-
der the influence of alcohol. No significant difference, however,
had previously been found between male and female drivers as
related to being at fault in accidents.
Earlier accident statistics presented by Grime (1987) showed
that in general female accident rates were lower than those for
males. Female casualty rates were lower for pedal cyclists and
for two-wheeled motor vehicle riders. Local accident statistics
(Public Security Directorate, 1997–1999) indicated that 77.2%
of all traffic accident casualties and 72.3% of run-over casualties
were males. These statistics bring attention to the serious role of
gender in road accident frequencies, consequences, and probable
causes.
Several other studies have focused on the issue of gender and
its relation to accidents. In a study by Anderson et al. (1999),
differences in behaviors and attitudes were found to be largely a
function of age and gender. The study focused on pickup truck
Received 14 November 2001; accepted 27 September 2002.
Address correspondence to Adli H. Al-Balbissi, Civil Engineering De-
partment, Jordan University, Queen Rania Street, Amman 11942, Jordan. E-
mail: balbissi@ju.edu.jo
64
owners. The study revealed that pickup owners were primar-
ily male, were characterized by lower restraint use, displayed
more risky driving behaviors, and received more traffic cita-
tions. Jonah (1997) showed that the relationship between sen-
sation seeking and risky behavior had a positive correlation and
depended on three factors among which was gender. On the
other hand, Hung et al. (1991) in his study in New Zealand
demonstrated that information seeking across the life span was
independent of gender for both study subjects: drivers involved
in an automobile accident or study participants. Ore (1998) also
observed gender effect on accident probability. However, in his
study female accident rates were higher than those of male. The
study showed that female workers in transportation had 59%
higher mortality rates than their male counterparts from mo-
tor vehicle accidents. The study also revealed that about 67%
of female construction workers killed by motor vehicles were
pedestrians compared with an average of 19.2% of females in
all industries.
Baker et al. (2000) using the Oklahoma Department of Pub-
lic Safety crash file and the hospital in-patient data discharge
file from the Oklahoma State Department of Health showed that
nonusers of seat belts tended to be young and male. He also found
that gender is a significant predictor of seat belt use. Osberg and
Stiles (2000) in their study on skaters’ safety behavior showed
that males were more likely to skate on streets wearing less pro-
tective equipment than females. They believed that male skaters
should be targeted more by health officials and experts in pre-
vention efforts due to their higher injury risks. On the other
hand, Boyce and Geller (2001) found that driver risk taking did
not vary significantly as a function of gender. Contrary to that,
 ROLE OF GENDER IN ROAD ACCIDENTS
Chang et al. (1996) in their study on alcohol-related traffic casu-
alties and their relationships with sociodemographic characteris-
tics found that single males showed a higher rate of conviction for
driving under the influence of alcohol. Passman et al. (2001) in
their study comparing seat belt use before and after motor vehicle
trauma demonstrated that the frequency of seat belt use before
and after crash involvement varied considerably as a function of
gender. Male subjects showed one of the largest increases in the
frequency of seat belt use after collision involvement (37%).
Baker and Clarke (2001) in their analysis of factors con-
tributing to hospital charges from injuries incurred in automo-
bile crashes (particularly, charge variations related to drivers in-
volved in crashes) showed that increasing hospital charges were
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associated with males in addition to age, urban settings, and lack
of seat belt use. Contrary to that are the findings of Kufera et al.
(2001) in their Maryland study in which they analyzed hospital
costs and accident data. Their cost comparisons between groups
defined according to age, gender, safety equipment, and impact
direction indicated that costs did not differ by gender. Their
multifactor ANOVA at the 10% significance level revealed sig-
nificant effects for drivers who were older, unbelted, impaired,
injured in a lateral crash, and had a deployed airbag.
In a study related to accident risk perception, Dejoy (1992)
focused on younger drivers (age 18–24) to examine gender dif-
ferences in this perception. He found that young males tended to
be more optimistic, particularly when judging their driving skill.
Males‚ optimism was equal with respect to the average motorist.
However, females tended to be less optimistic when compared
with the average motorist. Males and females had similar per-
ceptions concerning the frequency and accident likelihood of
the risky behaviors. Males perceived such behaviors to be less
serious and less likely to result in accidents. Furthermore, re-
gression analysis showed that less variance in optimism could
be explained for females than males.
Variations between the two sexes has also been demonstrated
in incidence rates of pediatric head, spinal cord, and peripheral
nerve injuries. Durkin et al.’s (1998) study revealed that males
were more affected by these injuries than females at every age,
and that this increased with age. Stamatiadis and Deacon (1995)
observed a difference in accident propensity due to gender ef-
fect. They showed that female drivers on average and at younger
ages were significantly safer than their male counterparts. How-
ever, the observed trend was reversed for older drivers (older
male drivers were significantly safer than older female drivers).
Their analysis also revealed that middle-aged drivers were sig-
nificantly safer than young drivers who were, in turn, safer than
older drivers.
Several other studies demonstrated significant differences
in accident trends and behaviors between the two sexes (e.g.,
Jones, 1997; Kulanthayan et al., 2000; Lowenstein et al., 1997).
Kulanthayan et al. (2000) investigated motorcyclists’ compli-
ance with safety helmet usage in Malaysia. They found that
six variables, among which was gender, were significant in in-
dicating improper safety helmet use. Lowenstein et al. (1997)
reached an analogous conclusion in their Colorado study to mea-
65
sure public support for a mandatory motorcycle helmet use law
and an operator safety training program. They found that female
gender was a significant independent predictor of a pro-helmet
law stance in a multiple logistic regression analysis. Differences
in gender responses and attitudes were also demonstrated in
Jones’s (1997) Oregon study in which he examined the effec-
tiveness of advisory letters in reducing accidents. He found that
accident-free survival for females receiving an advisory letter
was slightly less (but not significantly) than females receiving
no letter. On the other hand, these letters were more effective
in reducing collisions for males. Gender-dependent differences
were also demonstrated in Evans’s (2001) study, in which he
examined fatality likelihood of males and females who were
exposed to similar potentially lethal physical impacts when all
other factors were equal. He found that female risk exceeded
male risk by 28 ± 3% from about age 20 to 35. Males’ fatality
risks were also lower than females from the teenage years to the
fifties. This effect of gender on fatality risk did not change for
all categories investigated (14 occupant categories).
Review of accident literature has also revealed several stud-
ies that indicated no differences between the two sexes. Among
these are Lowenstein and Koziol-McLain (2001), Nadler et al.
(2001), and Peterson et al. (1995). Lowenstein and Koziol-
McLain (2001) attempted to determine the prevalence of recent
drug use among drivers injured in traffic accidents, and to in-
vestigate the role of drug use in accident responsibility. In their
multivariate analysis, they concluded that gender did not pre-
dict crash responsibility. Nadler et al. (2001) in their study to
characterize the pattern of consequences of driveway accidents
indicated that there was no difference in gender between the
investigated groups. Peterson et al.’s (1995) study was focused
on developmental and gender-related expectations and beliefs
related to prevention of bicycle accident injury. They concluded
that age and gender were unrelated to subjects’ beliefs and ex-
pectations regarding whether a collision would take place, could
be actively avoided, would fail to take place, or whether safety
could be assured by using safety equipment such as helmets.
In view of the above discussion of literature, I believed it nec-
essary to further investigate this issue and to observe its effects
in a different culture. The objective of this study, therefore, is
to check the extent to which gender affects accident rates and
to identify possible explanations for the differences. This will
produce valuable benefits for planners of accident reduction pro-
grams.
METHODOLOGY
To achieve convenient assessment of accident differences and
to provide adequate explanations, the present analyses attempt
to answer the following questions:
1. Is the difference in accident rates between the two sexes
important?
2. Does the difference have any association with variations in
gender social or economic characteristics?
 66 A. H. AL-BALBISSI
3. How do variations in driving characteristics between males
and females affect accident rates?
4. How will other factors, such as environment, affect the
results?
5. What issue is most responsible for accident rate differences?
6. What are the implications of these differences?
Appropriate data that permit investigation of the above in-
quiries were collected. The data acquired are all from Jordan,
and include the following items:
• Number and characteristics of accidents obtained from the
records of the Public Security Directorate. Accident charac-
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teristics include: year, region, vehicle license type, driver sex
and age, accident environmental conditions, accident result,
and type of driver fault.
• Number of drivers estimated from number of households
based on number of dwelling units classified by year and re-
gion. Proportions of the two drivers’ sexes and number of
drivers per household are based on the field survey conducted
on a sample of 200 households in the study regions.
• Social, economic, and political characteristics obtained from
national statistics acquired from the Department of Statistics
and the Ministry of Planning in Jordan. This data item is used
in its global national form to reflect the general trends of par-
ticipation of the two sexes prevailing in Jordanian society.
• Educational characteristics obtained from the records of Min-
istry of Higher Education in Jordan. This data item also is
used in its global national form to reflect sex participation.
• Travel characteristics, including travel distance, obtained from
the field study conducted in the selected regions.
To assess the importance of the differences in accident rates,
accident records of three consecutive years (1997, 1998, 1999)
for three different income regions were investigated using rec-
ords of Public Security Directorate (1997–1999). The three re-
gions were selected to represent high-, medium-, and low-income
categories. Adequate and necessary efforts were considered to
provide accurate assessment of the participation level of each
sex in the various sectors of the society. Travel characteristics
of representative samples of each sex were examined through
direct field survey in the study regions as mentioned above. The
Table I Annual accident rates
Male
No. of Accident rate
Year accidents (Accidents per 1,000 drivers)
1997 2,000 17.67
1998 2,223 16.11
1999 2,581 14.91
Average — 16.23
Total 6,804 — 318
p-value
Significancea
a Test between male and female rate within the same group (comparing across), significant at p < .05.
sample survey provided satisfactory descriptions of male and
female driving characteristics, especially with regard to total
annual traveled distance. The influences of external factors (in-
cluding weather conditions, road surface conditions, and visi-
bility) on accident rates were investigated. Effect of driver age
was also assessed. Identification of driver faults that are most
responsible for increased male accident rates was implemented
through the analyses of 16 common driver faults. Accident con-
sequences as influenced by driver gender were also examined.
Effect of vehicle type was not considered in the data and analy-
ses since there are no variations between vehicle types driven by
males or females in Jordan. The majority of drivers use vehicles
available to the household.
ANALYSES AND RESULTS
Annual and Regional Accident Rates
Accident rates were calculated for each sex. Rates are ex-
pressed in number of annual accidents per 1,000 drivers of the
same sex. Calculations were performed for 3 years (1997, 1998,
1999). Male-to-female ratios were also calculated. Results are
shown in Table I. Accident ratios indicate considerably higher
male rates; on average, more than three times higher (3.42 times).
Statistical testing between the two sexes indicates significant dif-
ference at the 5% level.
Similar calculations were performed for the three regions.
The purpose of regional accident rates is twofold: (1) to ex-
amine the influence of social and economic category on acci-
dent rates (in general and with respect to gender), and (2) to
check if the high trend of male accidents has any association
with time. Results are shown in Table II. The results indicate
obvious association with income category for the two sexes.
The low-income region had appreciably lower accident rates
than the high-income region. Difference between male and fe-
male rates is most visible in the low-income region (male rates
were 6.83 times female rates). However, the percentage drop
in female accidents in the low-income region compared with
the high-income region was more substantial than in male ac-
cidents (female rates dropped 70.6% while male rates dropped
19.9%). Lower accident rates in the low-income region can be
Female
Accident rate
No. of Accident rate male-to-female
accidents (Accidents per 1,000 drivers) ratio
109 6.13 2.88
75 3.40 4.74
134 4.68 3.19
— 4.74 3.42
— —
.000
Significant
 ROLE OF GENDER IN ROAD ACCIDENTS
Table II Regional accident rates
Male
No. of Accident rate
Region accidents (Accidents per 1,000 drivers)
High-income 2,341 18.07
Medium-income 2,307 15.83
Low-income 2,156 14.47
Average — 16.12
Total 6,804 — 318
p-value
Significancea
a Test between male and female rate within the same group (comparing across), significant at p < .05.
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attributed to one or more of several possible reasons. Among
those are lower travel speeds or smaller car ownership, unre-
ported accidents especially by female drivers, smaller traveled
distances, or higher degree of carefulness of female drivers in
the low-income region. Observations of the data collection team
ascertained to a high degree extra carefulness of female drivers,
especially in the low-income region. One form of female care-
fulness may be demonstrated by driving at lower speeds. Car
ownership and travel distance were less likely to be the primary
reasons of lower rates. Accident rates were calculated per driver
of each sex, which offsets for the effect of car ownership. Travel
distances of female drivers were indeed less, yet they did not
change the observed trends in accident rates as will be shown in
the next section. Unreported accidents were very unlikely since
this would have resulted in losing insurance compensation paid
to all the parties involved in an accident.
Regional rates verified again the conclusion of higher male
rates. This was observed in all regions with an average of more
than four times higher (4.60 times). Statistical testing between
the two sexes indicates significant difference at the 5% level.
This implies that the higher trend of male accidents is not asso-
ciated with a specific period of time. This conclusion, however,
is analogous to several previous studies. Higher rate of male
involvement with accidents has also been demonstrated in sev-
eral previous studies, including Anderson et al. (1999), Passman
et al. (2001), Durkin et al. (1998), Grime (1987), Jonah (1997),
and Stamatiadis and Deacon (1995).
Social and Economic Participation
Perhaps it is not unreasonable to suspect that the expected
higher male participation in various social and economic ac-
tivities is responsible for having higher accident rates, since
such participation would imply higher degrees of movement and
travel. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the influence of
this factor before making any judgment with respect to gender
role in road accidents. In this regard, the following issues are
addressed:
• The role of female participation in various sectors of the
society
67
Female
Accident rate
No. of Accident rate male-to-female
accidents (Accidents per 1,000 drivers) ratio
196 7.22 2.50
85 3.55 4.46
37 2.12 6.83
— 4.30 4.60
— —
.000
Significant
• Influence of social and economic participation on average an-
nual traveled distance by each sex, and consequently on acci-
dent rates
• Effects of public transportation accidents (especially taxi ac-
cidents) on male accident rates, considering that most public
transportation drivers are males
Female participation in various social and economic sectors
of the society can be observed through several indicators. Profes-
sional participation was observed through the share of each sex
in various societies and syndicates. Necessary data for the same
period of analysis were acquired from the Department of Statis-
tics (1999a, 1999b, 2001), Ministry of Higher Education (1999–
2000), and Ministry of Planning (1993–1997). Male-to-female
participation ratios were calculated. Similar calculations were
performed for education and employment participation based
on Ministry of Higher Education (1999–2000) records. Female
moderate political participation was also observed. Results are
summarized in Table III.
In the huge sector of education, female participation was al-
most identical to that of males. Knowing that about 29% of
the country’s population is students at one stage or another, one
could conceive the significant role that the educational sector has
in shaping movement pattern and size, in which female partici-
pation is equivalent to male. Equivalent participation of the two
genders was also observed in charitable societies. On the other
hand, large differences were observed in employment and pro-
fessional syndicates participation except for pharmacists. An-
other exception was observed in nurses where female participa-
tion was much higher.
Female participation in political positions is minimal, but this
should not bear great influence on movement size. The overall
average participation ratio indicates that male participation was
almost three times female participation (2.98 times). The aver-
age participation ratio drops to 2.4 if political participation is
excluded from the overall average. The latter average more re-
alistically depicts mobility pattern and size. However, one may
argue that movement patterns are not depicted only by social
and economic participation, but by many other factors. This is
true, but other factors’ effects will not eliminate the role of so-
cial and economic participation in shaping mobility. Another
point of interest that should be considered in the discussion is
 68 A. H. AL-BALBISSI

Table III Social and economic participation by gender Table IV Adjusted annual accident rates for traveled distance

Percent of indicator Accident rate (Accidents per 1,000

Male-to-female
drivers per kilometer) × 10−4
Indicator Male Female ratio Male-to-female
Year Male Female ratio
Societies and syndicates
Charitable societies 51.2 48.8 1.05 1997 10.39 5.11 2.03
Engineers 91.6 8.4 10.90 1998 9.48 2.83 3.35
Physicians 86.4 13.6 6.35 1999 8.77 3.90 2.25
Senior advocates 84.5 15.5 5.45 Average 9.55 3.95 2.42
Dentists 68.9 31.1 2.22
p-value .000
Pharmacists 57.4 42.6 1.35
Significancea Significant
Nurses 27.3 72.7 0.38
a Test between male and female rate within the same group (com-
Journalists 83.3 16.7 4.99
Education paring across), significant at p < .05.
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Basic (1st 10 years) 56.0 44.0 1.27

Secondary (last 2 years) 53.1 46.9 1.13
participation. However, there is not enough evidence to con-
College 52.1 47.9 1.09
Employment status firm this conclusion. Statistical testing between the two sexes
Employees 76.2 23.8 3.20 indicates significant difference at the 5% level.
Employers 95.6 4.4 21.73 Although accident rate involving distance traveled is gener-
Self-employed 94.5 5.5 17.18 ally a better measure of exposure, it is not practically possible
Unpaid workers 80.8 19.2 4.21
to extend it to other parts of the analysis. Distance traveled can-
Political participation
Parliament candidates 97.0 3.0 32.33 not be attained for many situations. For example, in analyzing
Parliament members 100.0 0.0 — driver faults, it is not possible to determine the distance traveled
Senators 92.5 7.5 12.33 by drivers of a particular fault. In circumstances like these, ac-
Overall average participation 74.9 25.1 2.98 cident rates based on number drivers of each sex will be useful
Average participation 70.6 29.4 2.40
to the present situation.
excluding politicians
Driver’s license possession 86.1 13.9 6.19 To account for the effect of public transportation drivers, an-
Total population 52.3 47.7 1.10 other set of accident rates was calculated in which all accidents
involving public transportation vehicles were excluded (which
the higher male rate of licensed drivers (more than six times as happened to be all male accidents). Male-to-female ratios were
shown in Table III). It is inaccurate to consider this as an indi- also calculated. Results are presented in Table V. The results ver-
cator of higher male exposure to accidents since accident rates ify similar trend of higher accident male rates but with milder
were calculated per driver of each sex. Female proportion of degree (1.69 times higher on average). Statistical testing between
total population (47.7%) was almost equivalent to male propor- the two sexes indicates significant difference at the 5% level.
tion. This proportion matches with education participation, but
does not match with the female share in economic sectors. This Effect of Environmental Factors
inherently implies a reduced economic role for females.
Previous data describing the respective roles of males and fe-
Previous analyses have strongly indicated a trend of higher
males are presented as background information to reflect level of
male accident rates despite the consideration of traveled dis-
females participation in Jordanian society, and to provide basis
tances and the elimination of public transportation accidents. At
for comparisons with other societies if needed, rather than being
this stage, it was necessary to investigate if this trend is affected
directly related to crash involvement rates. The actual effect on
by external environmental factors such as weather conditions,
accident rates of gender participation in the various activities of
road surface conditions, and visibility conditions. For this pur-
the society can be assessed through its implications on distance
pose, accident rates and ratios for each sex were compared under
traveled by each sex. Distance traveled is a crucial factor influ-
various conditions.
encing exposure to risk. Exposure control is being seen as an
Male and female accident rates were compared in four differ-
important aspect of road safety strategy to risk control. For this
ent weather conditions: clear, foggy, rainy, and snowy. Four road
purpose, a limited field survey on representative groups (200 ob-
surface cases were considered: dry, wet, icy, and sandy. Visibil-
servations) was performed. The survey included assessment of
ity conditions were categorized under four lighting conditions:
travel patterns, distances, purposes, and frequencies. The analy-
daytime lighting, nighttime with adequate lighting, nighttime
ses indicated an average annual traveled distance of 17,000 km
with inadequate lighting, and dark conditions. A summary of
for male drivers and 12,000 km for female drivers. Annual ac-
accident rates is shown in Table VI.
cident rates were then calculated per 1,000 drivers per km for
Results indicate the following observations:
each sex. Male-to-female ratios were also calculated. Results
are shown in Table IV. The results verify higher male accident • The trend of higher male accident rates is observed in all
rates (2.42 times on average). This ratio is almost identical to normal conditions; that is, in clear, dry, daytime, and adequate
the average ratio of overall male-to-female economic and social night lighting conditions.
 ROLE OF GENDER IN ROAD ACCIDENTS 69

Table V Adjusted annual accident rates for traveled distance and public transportation accidents

Male Female
Accident rate
No. of Accident rate No. of Accident rate male-to-female
Year accidents (Accidents per 1,000 drivers) accidents (Accidents per 1,000 drivers) ratio

1997 1,405 7.30 109 5.11 1.43

1998 1,555 6.63 75 2.83 2.37
1999 1,772 6.02 134 3.90 1.54
Average — 6.65 — 3.94 1.69
Total 4,732 — 318 — —
p-value .000
Significancea Significant
a Test between male and female rate within the same group (comparing across), significant at p < .05.
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• A reversed trend, that is, higher female accident rates, is ob-
served in difficult driving conditions (rainy and inadequate
night lighting conditions) indicating that more careful driving
by males can reduce accident rates. Higher female accident
rates, however, are not a strange conclusion. In his study, Ore
(1998) has shown analogous results.
• In extremely difficult driving conditions (foggy, snowy, icy,
sandy, and dark conditions) female accident rates drop to zero.
This could be an indication of extremely cautious driving by
females or that females may not choose to drive at all in ad-
verse conditions. There is not enough evidence to support
one explanation more than the other. Either case represents
a consequence of different behavior. This difference in be-
havior had resulted in lower female accident rates in normal
environmental conditions and higher female rates in adverse
conditions as was illustrated in the previous observation (with
the exception for environmental conditions with zero accident
rates). Another possible explanation for the high female rates
in adverse conditions may be related to generally lower driv-
ing skill among female drivers. Nevertheless, this has to be
proven. Further studies investigating these alternative expla-
nations are recommended.
• In moderate driving conditions (wet conditions), male and
female accident rate differences are small.
• Statistical testing of the results at the 5% significance level
reveals that rate differences are significant only under normal
conditions of driving (i.e., clear, dry, daytime, and adequate
night lighting conditions). Significant differences between the
two sexes has also been observed in Jones’s (1997) study.
Contrary to that are the Hung et al. (1991), Nadler et al.
(2001), Peterson et al. (1995), and Lowenstein and Koziol-
McLain (2001) studies where insignificant differences have
been observed.
It would have been very useful to apply multivariant methods
to control for factors and to allow the magnitude of the effects
of the variables to be estimated. However, this application was
not feasible. Investigation of data indicated that sorting provided
information to fit multivariant analysis would reduce the num-
ber of observations in many cells to limits that would not be

Table VI Annual accident rates under different environmental conditions

Male Female
Accident rate Accident rate Accident rate
No. of (Accidents per No. of (Accidents per male-to-female
Factor Condition accidents 1,000 drivers) accidents 1,000 drivers) ratio p-value Significancea

Weather Clear 4,485 15.13 188 3.98 3.80 .000 Significant

Foggy 154 6.13 0 0.0 — .374 Not significant
Rainy 624 7.00 126 9.23 0.76 .783 Not significant
Snowy 18 1.49 0 0.0 — .374 Not significant
Not specified 1,523 — 4 — — — —
Road surface Dry 5,349 14.15 210 3.42 4.14 .000 Significant
Wet 1,442 33.98 108 31.43 1.08 .953 Not significant
Icy 11 4.82 0 0.0 — .170 Not significant
Sandy 2 1.49 0 0.0 — .374 Not significant
Lighting Daytime 3,913 12.36 201 3.92 3.15 .004 Significant
Night and adequate lighting 586 6.94 52 3.81 1.82 .002 Significant
Night and inadequate lighting 57 4.47 14 6.90 0.65 .744 Not significant
Dark 13 1.56 0 0.0 — .180 Not significant
Not specified 2,235 — 51 — — — —
a Test between male and female rate within the same group (comparing across), significant at p < .05.
 70
statistically acceptable in addition to numerous cells with zero
observations. It is recommended that future studies should con-
sider this point and should be provided with adequate manpower
and financial resources to allow for a very large database to in-
clude several years.
A general conclusion that can be drawn from this analysis
is the emphasis of higher male accident rates reflecting a lesser
degree of caution in males driving under normal conditions.
Effect of Driver Age
Further analysis was carried out to investigate driver age cor-
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relation with accident trend. This correlation had been the focus
of several previous studies as indicated above. These include
Anderson et al. (1999), Baker et al. (2000), Chang et al. (1996),
Durkin et al. (1998), Kulanthayan et al. (2000), Passman et al.
(2001), and Stamatiadis and Deacon (1995). In the present study,
drivers were categorized into five age groups as shown in Table
VII. Accident rates and ratios were prepared for the two sexes
for all age categories. The results confirm higher male accident
rates in all age groups. The ratios, however, vary from the lowest
value of 2.96 associated with the age group 51–65 years to the
highest value of 3.85 associated with the age group 18–25 years.
This indicates larger differences among youths and decreasing
differences among middle-aged and older groups. Highest acci-
dent rates in both sexes were observed in age group 36–50 years,
with a male-to-female ratio of 3.27 indicating decreased caution
in driving in this age group in both sexes. This may be attributed
to overconfidence of this age group in their driving abilities. It
cannot be attributed to reduced skill or attention since the age
group older than 65 years, which is expected to have the most
reduced skill and attention, had the lowest accident rates in both
sexes emphasizing the notion of more careful driving. This con-
clusion, however, contradicts the Stamatiadis et al. study, which
revealed that older drivers are the least safe drivers and middle-
aged drivers are the safest. This contradiction may be attributed
to different social characteristics or driving habits between the
populations of the two studies. Nevertheless, both studies agreed
that younger drivers ranked second in terms of their safe driv-
ing categorization. Chang, Durkin, and Passman also shared the
conclusion of high susceptibility of younger drivers to accidents.
Table VII Annual accident rates by age group
Male
Accident rate
Age group No. of (Accidents per No. of
(years) accidents 1,000 drivers) accidents
18–25 1,217 16.12 106
26–35 3,259 16.34 95
36–50 1,767 16.46 87
51–65 357 14.51 20
>65 204 11.73 10
Total 6,804 — 318
a Test between male and female rate within the same group (comparing across), significant at p < .05.
A. H. AL-BALBISSI
Variations among age groups are statistically evaluated at
the 5% significance level. Evaluations indicate that male and
female accident rate differences are significant only among age
groups less than 50 years. In older age groups, differences are
not significant.
Analysis of Driver Faults
It is necessary to identify why male accident rates are higher.
Analysis of driver faults will lead to identification of errors that
are mainly responsible for rate differences, and for errors that
contribute substantially to accidents. In this context, 16 major
driver faults, as listed in Table VIII, were analyzed. Faults were
categorized into five groups: priority violation, critical regula-
tory sign violation, incorrect movement, hasty behavior, and
lawbreaking action. Within each group, several fault types, as
illustrated in Table VIII, were included. All faults were related
mainly to drivers’ behaviors and attitudes. However, each group
or fault may be correlated more to a specific attitude than oth-
ers. Many researchers have noted considerable differences in
attitudes and behaviors between the two sexes. Storie (1977),
Osberg and Stiles (2000), Dejoy (1992), Chang et al. (1996),
Baker et al. (2000), and Anderson et al. (1999) all observed
variations in behavior due to gender difference.
In this study, the occurrence of faults in the first two groups
(priority violation and critical sign violation) are believed to
be related mainly to reduced degree of attention and less cau-
tious driving. The two groups of incorrect movement and hasty
behavior are believed to be associated with driver impatience.
The lawbreaking action group is believed to be associated with
reckless and irresponsible attitude.
Average accident rates and ratios were prepared for each fault.
Results are presented in Table VIII. High male rates were ob-
served particularly in violating stop sign, using incorrect lane,
violating yield sign, disregarding obligatory signs, and wrong
overtaking. An extremely high rate was found in the violation
of stop signs. Although this fault was also the highest in fe-
male faults, the difference between the two sexes was very large
with the highest male-to-female ratio of 7.26. Using incorrect
lane was the second highest rate among female drivers as well.
The male-to-female ratio was also high (3.91). Priority violation,
Female
Accident rate Accident rate
(Accidents per male-to-female
1,000 drivers) ratio p-value Significancea
4.19 3.85 .003 Significant
4.96 3.29 .020 Significant
5.04 3.27 .021 Significant
4.91 2.96 .886 Not significant
3.77 3.11 .241 Not significant
— — — —
 ROLE OF GENDER IN ROAD ACCIDENTS 71

Table VIII Annual accident rates by driver fault

Male Female

Accident rate Accident rate Accident rate

Avg. no. of (Accidents per Avg. no. of (Accidents per male-to-female
Fault category Driver fault accidents 1,000 drivers) accidents 1,000 drivers) ratio p-value Significancea

Priority violation Pedestrian 29.33 5.61 8.33 1.62 3.46 .138 Not significant
Yield 45.33 8.71 13.33 2.56 3.40 .015 Significant
Rotary 9.0 1.73 1.33 0.25 6.92 .028 Significant
Critical regulatory sign Stop 280.0 53.34 38.67 7.35 7.26 .000 Significant
violation Obligatory 40.0 7.64 18.0 3.46 2.21 .320 Not significant
Wrong way 10.33 2.0 0.0 0.0 — .016 Significant
Incorrect movement Overtaking 36.33 6.96 0.0 0.0 — .026 Significant
Bending 14.0 2.67 7.0 1.34 1.99 .309 Not significant
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Parking 13.0 4.42 6.67 1.32 3.35 .059 Not significant

Reversing 30.33 5.78 12.0 2.27 2.55 .042 Significant
Lane use 87.67 16.73 22.33 4.28 3.91 .002 Significant
Hasty behavior Speeding 8.0 1.53 5.33 0.99 1.55 .414 Not significant
Tailgating 11.33 2.18 3.0 0.58 3.76 .399 Not significant
Lawbreaking action Without license 2.67 0.55 0.0 0.0 — .374 Not significant
Hit-and-run 2.67 0.56 0.0 0.0 — .374 Not significant
Alcohol driving 8.0 1.56 0.0 0.0 — .000 Significant
Total 627.99 — 135.99 — — — —
a Test between male and female rate within the same group (comparing across), significant at p < .05.

especially at rotary intersections, is among other faults that show
large differences between the two sexes.
An interesting observation is the nonexistence of danger-
ous faults among female drivers; that is, no lawbreaking faults,
wrong way, or incorrect overtaking. This implies a more respon-
sible attitude among female drivers. This attitude has also been
demonstrated in the Lowenstein et al. (1997), Osberg and Stiles
(2000), and Kulanthayan et al. (2000) studies.
To assess the significance of rate differences, statistical test-
ing at the 5% level was performed. The analyses indicate signif-
icant differences in the following characteristics:
• observing yield sign,
• observing priority at rotary intersections,
• adhering to stop sign,
• adhering to traffic direction in the road,
• performing proper overtaking,
• using appropriate traffic lane, and
• driving under the influence of alcohol.
A common characteristic that can be noted in all faults of
significant difference is the readiness of male drivers to take risks
in situations where danger is not apparent. Remedy measures
should therefore, be directed toward means that will influence
male driver behavior and convince males to increase caution
in normal conditions. One way of doing that may be through
an effective informational campaign through the media or other
available means.
Analysis of Accident Results
The effect of gender on accidents is evident not only in rate
magnitude, but also in accident consequences. Rates for prop-
erty damage, injuries, and fatal accidents were prepared for both
gender types. Results are presented in Table IX. Analyses indi-
cate that male accidents are more harmful.
Analogous results were shown in the Baker and Clarke (2001)
and Osberg and Stiles (2000) studies, whereas opposite results

Table IX Annual accident rates by accident results

Male Female

Accident rate Accident rate Accident rate

No. of (Accidents per No. of (Accidents per male-to-female
Accident result accidents 1,000 drivers) accidents 1,000 drivers) ratio p-value Significancea

Property damage 4,736 14.55 242 4.61 3.16 .003 Significant

Injuries 1,716 18.34 63 4.15 4.42 .026 Significant
Fatalities 12 2.46 0 0 — .004 Significant
Not specified 340 — 13 — — — —
Total 6,804 — 318 — — — —
a Test between male and female rate within the same group (comparing across), significant at p < .05.
 72 A. H. AL-BALBISSI

were shown in the Evans (2001) and Ore (1998) studies. This
variation, however, should not be viewed as contradictions be-
tween the studies. The Evans (2001) and Ore (1998) studies
reflect the endurance and vulnerability of females under given
conditions, whereas, the Baker and Clarke (2001) and Osberg
and Stiles (2000) studies (and the present study) reflect male
characteristics in the choice and acceptability of taking risks
that could cause serious harm.
Male-to-female accident rate ratios show a substantial incre-
ment in male injury accidents over the less serious accidents of
property damage (ratio increased from 3.16 in property damage
accidents to 4.42 in injury accidents). Moreover female accident
rates show a trend of reduction as accidents increase in degree
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CONCLUSIONS
Analyses of the data reported in this study revealed a defi-
nite trend of significantly higher accident rates for male drivers
compared with female drivers. A similar trend was obtained after
accident rate adjustment to account for distance traveled by each
sex and for public transportation accidents. Accident rate anal-
yses by region showed similar results. Rates, in general, were
lower in the low-income region compared with the high-income
region. The analyses indicated that accident rate differences due
to gender were significant only in normal driving conditions. In
more complicated driving conditions, such as adverse weather
or pavement surface conditions, rate differences with respect to

of harm; that is, female accident rates decreased from 4.61 in
property damage accidents to 4.15 accident per 103 drivers in in-
jury accidents. In addition, fatal accidents were associated with
only male drivers. Statistical assessment of the differences at the
5% level shows significant difference between male and female
accident rates in all accident results.
gender were not significant. The study showed that drivers be-
tween 36 and 50 years old were the most affected by accidents.
Older age groups (above 50 years) had lower accident rates for
both gender types.
In a search for possible reasons causing the differences in
accident rates between the two sexes, particular driver faults

Table X Comparison between results of this study and those of previous studies

Previous studies findings

Findings of this study Similar to this study Different from this study

Males have higher involvement Anderson et al. (1999) Ore (1998)

with accidents Durkin et al. (1998)
Grime (1987)
Jonah (1997)
Passman et al. (2001)
Stamatiadis and Deacon (1995)
Gender is a significant factor Jones (1997) Hung et al. (1991)
influencing accident occurrence Lowenstein and Koziol-McLain (2001)
Nadler et al. (2001)
Peterson et al. (1995)
There are considerable differences Anderson et al. (1999) Boyce and Geller (2001)
in attitudes and behaviors between Baker and Clarke (2001)
the two genders Chang et al. (1996)
Dejoy (1992)
Osberg and Stiles (2000)
Storie (1977)
Females show more responsible attitudes Kulanthayan et al. (2000)
Lowenstein et al. (1997)
Osberg and Stiles (2000)
Male accidents are more serious and harmful Baker and Clarke (2001) Evans (2001)
Osberg and Stiles (2000) Kufera et al. (2001)
Passman et al. (2001) Ore (1998)
Accident susceptibility is function of age Anderson et al. (1999)
Baker and Clarke (2001)
Chang et al. (1996)
Durkin et al. (1998)
Kulanthayan et al. (2000)
Passman et al. (2001)
Stamatiadis and Deacon (1995)
Younger drivers are highly susceptible Chang et al. (1996)
Durkin et al. (1998)
Passman et al. (2001)
Stamatiadis and Deacon (1995)
Older drivers are safer than Stamatiadis and Deacon (1995)
middle-aged drivers
 ROLE OF GENDER IN ROAD ACCIDENTS
were found to be responsible for the majority of the differences.
These are violation of stop sign, using incorrect lane, violating
yield sign, disregarding obligatory signs, and wrong overtak-
ing. Reduced attention and driver impatience are believed to
be the major contributors to the commitment of these faults.
Furthermore, female drivers did not take risks to commit the
serious lawbreaking faults. The study also revealed that males
accidents were more harmful and dangerous with regard to their
consequences.
The findings of this study are compatible with the current
literature. Several studies reached similar conclusions, whereas
other studies had opposite or different conclusions. Some of the
differences in results may be attributed to cultural and social
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variations. Comparison of the findings of this study with previ-
ous studies is summarized in Table X.
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