ABES ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GHAZIABAD

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

ENVIRONMENT and ECOLOGY

BAS104/204

UNITWISE QUESTION BANK/NOTES

 SYALLABUS
BAS104 / BAS204: ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

Course Objectives:
1. Aims and objectives of environmental education emphasize the relationship between man
and the environment and educate young people about the importance of nature and the
environment.
2. Environmental education aims to impart ecological knowledge and promote
environmentally conscious behavior towards nature.
3. It encourages young minds to take responsibility for protecting the natural
environment protection through information and knowledge and to develop
environmental awareness.
4. Incidentally, promoting awareness and a sense of respect for nature leads to a
comprehensive understanding of the environment and a reasonable attitude towards
protecting it.
5. The focus of environmental education is Awareness, Knowledge, Attitude, Skills, Capacity Building
and Participation.
Topics Contact Hours
Unit-1 8
Environment: Definition, Types of Environment, Components of environment, Segments of
environment, Scope and importance, Need for Public Awareness. Ecosystem: Definition, Types of
ecosystem, Structure of ecosystem, Food Chain, Food Web, Ecological pyramid. Balance Ecosystem.
Effects of Human Activities such as Food, Shelter, Housing, Agriculture, Industry, Mining,
Transportation, Economic and Social security on Environment, Environmental Impact Assessment,
Sustainable Development.
Unit-2 8
Natural Resources: Introduction, Classification. Water Resources; Availability, sources and Quality
Aspects, Water Borne and Water Induced Diseases, Fluoride and Arsenic Problems in Drinking Water.
Mineral Resources; Material Cycles; Carbon, Nitrogen and Sulfur cycles.
Energy Resources; Conventional and Non conventional Sources of Energy.
Forest Resources; Availability, Depletion of Forests, Environment impact of forest depletion on society.
Unit-3 8
Pollution and their Effects; Public Health Aspects of Environmental; Water Pollution, Air Pollution,
Soil Pollution, Noise Pollution, Solid waste management.
Unit-4 8
Current Environmental Issues of Importance; Global Warming, Green House Effects, Climate
Change, Acid Rain, Ozone Layer Formation and Depletion, Population Growth and Automobile
pollution, Burning of paddy straw.
Unit-5 8
Environmental Protection; Environmental Protection Act 1986, Initiatives by Non Governmental
Organizations (NGO’s), Human Population and the Environment: Population growth, Environmental
Education, Women Education.
 Course Outcomes:
Upon completion of the course, the student will be able to:
Course Outcomes Bloom’s Level

CO1: Gain in-depth knowledge on natural processes that sustain life, and govern economy. K2
CO2: Estimate and Predict the consequences of human actions on the web of life, global economy and
quality of human life.

K3
CO3: Develop critical thinking for shaping strategies (scientific, social, economic and legal) for
environmental protection and conservation of biodiversity, social equity and sustainable development. K4
CO4: Acquire values and attitudes towards understanding complex environmentaleconomic social
challenges, and participate actively in solving current environmental problems and preventing the future
ones.

K3
CO5: Adopt sustainability as a practice in life, society and industry. K3
Reference Books:
1. Textbook of Environment and Ecology by Dave, Katewa & Singh, 2nd Edition, Cengage
Learning India Pvt Ltd Delhi.
2. Environmental Studies by S Deswal, Dhanpat Rai & Co.
3. Environmental Studies by VK Ahluwalia, 2nd Edition,TERI Press, New Delhi.
4. Environmental Studies by R Rajgopalan, Oxford University Press.
5. Environment & Ecology by Singh & Malviya, Acme Learning
 UNIT -01
EVIRONMENT

The French word ‘ENVIRONNER’ means to encircle or surround.

Environment is the sum total of water, air and land, the inter-relationship that exists
among them and with the human beings, other living organisms and materials.
As per Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, environment includes all the physical
and biological surroundings of an organism along with their interactions.
Types of Environment
1. Natural / Global Environment without interference of human beings /widely
distributed. It operates through self – regulating mechanism that is known as
homeostasis.
It consists of land-based ecosystems such as grasslands and forests, aquatic
ecosystems such as rivers and wetlands, and coastal and marine ecosystems such as
mangroves and sea-grassy meadows.
2. Anthropogenic / Manmade: The term “anthropogenic environment” suggests, in
its etymology, an environment that is created by humans.
When in a specific area, the temperature, humidity, etc are controlled by human
beings, is known as man-made environment/anthropogenic environment.

Components & Segments of Environment: The components are:

Biotic Component: are living things within an ecosystem; such as plants, animals,
and micro-organisms.
Abiotic Component: are non-living components; such as water, soil and atmosphere.

Segments of Environment- It includes:

1. Atmosphere :blanket of gases surrounding the earth
2. Hydrosphere: composed of various water bodies on the earth. It includes the
oceans, lakes, rivers, etc.
3. Lithosphere : contains various types of soils and rocks on earth
4. Biosphere: composed of all living organisms and their interactions
with rest of the environment, viz. atmosphere, lithosphere, and
hydrosphere

Atmosphere

Atmosphere is the protective thick gaseous mantle, surrounding the earth which
sustains life on earth and saves it from unfriendly environment of outer space.

Characteristic Features
1. Atmos meaning, an envelope of gases include nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon
dioxide, traces of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur and hydrocarbon, and
very little amount of water vapour.
2. It is mobile, elastic, compressible and expandable as made up of gases.
3. The atmosphere protects the earth’s biosphere by absorbing a major portion of the
electromagnetic radiation and most of the cosmic rays. The atmosphere also absorbs
infra-red radiation and thereby maintains the temperature of the earth at life
 sustaining levels.

Structure of the Atmosphere (Miller’s Profile)

On the basis of temperature profile and other related phenomena atmosphere is divided into layers –
Troposphere:
1. It is the lower portion of atmosphere and the upper boundary or transition zone known as the tropopause.
2. It extends from 10 -17 km above the equator at the tropopause.
3. The temperature varies from 15 to -54.5˚C.
4. It contains about 3 4 th (75%) of the total atmospheric mass.
5. Thermal convection, cloud formation, storm and majority of our weather occurs.
6. One of the most recent changes in troposphere is the phenomenon of acid rain.
7. Most outstanding characteristic of the troposphere is the fairly uniform decrease in temperature with
increase in altitude (about 6.5 0 C / km ), this phenomenon is commonly called as the “environmental
lapse rate.

Stratosphere:
1. Above the troposause is the stratosphere.
2. This layer contains about 19.9% of the total atmospheric mass.
3. The average temperature ranges from -54.5 to -2˚C. In the first 9 km of this layer temperature remains
constant with height. A zone with constant temperature in the atmosphere is called an “isothermal
layer’.
4. From an altitude of 20 to 50 kms temperature increases with an increase in attitude, reached up to
0 0 C due to absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone. So, Ozone is formed here i.e. why this layer
is also known as ozone layer or ozonosphere (10pm).
5. At the top of the layer there is a transition ozone known as stratopause.

Mesosphere:
1. The upper boundary known as the mesopause.
2. The height reaches upto 80 to 85 km. It is the coldest layer consisting if chemical species such as
N2, O2, O2+ and NO+.
3. The average temperature ranges from -2 to −92 °C. Decrease in temperature is due to low
absorption of UV rays by O3 molecule.
4. Most meteorites burn and disintegrate here, as they experiencing friction.

Thermosphere:
1. The last layer of the atmosphere is thermosphere.
2. It extends up to 500- 700 km above the earth surface.
3. The temperature is maximum, about 1200°C and the atmospheric gases such as O2 and nitric
oxide (NO+) split into atoms and then undergoes ionization. This extreme rise in
temperature is due to absorption of intense solar radiation by oxygen (O2 ) molecules. So,
upper part of thermosphere is ionosphere.

4. Main feature in this region is the presence of ionized O2 molecules (whose effect is to reflect the
proportion radio waves (short waves).
5. This layer is important for the operation of satellites.

Exosphere: The uppermost layer of the atmosphere extends up to a height of about 1600 km
gives way to interplanetary space
 Hydrosphere-
The hydrosphere is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of the earth.
Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in clouds, then falls to Earth in the
form of rain or snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes and oceans. Then it evaporates into the
atmosphere to start the cycle all over again. This is called the water cycle or hydrological cycle.

Fig. Water Cycle

Lithosphere:

The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of Earth. The lithosphere includes the brittle upper portion of
the mantle and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth’s structure. It is bounded by the atmosphere
above and the asthenosphere (another part of the upper mantle) below. There are two types of
lithosphere: oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere.
Oceanic lithosphere is associated with oceanic crust, and is slightly denser than continental lithosphere.
The most well-known feature associated with Earth’s lithosphere is tectonic activity.
Tectonic activity describes the interaction of the huge slabs of lithosphere called tectonic
plates.
Biosphere:

The biosphere is a narrow zone on the surface of the earth where soil, water, and air combine to
sustain life. The term biosphere was first coined by the Austrian geologists “Edward sues” in 1875.It
includes lower atmosphere, all the hydrosphere and upper lithosphere. It indicates domain of living
organisms and their interaction with the environment.
 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

An environment study is a multidisciplinary subject where different aspects are dealt with in a holistic
approach. The science of Environment studies comprises various branches of studies like chemistry,
physics, life science, medical science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering, geography,
geology, atmospheric science, etc. We need inputs from diverse disciplines such as biology, botany,
zoology, soil science, technology oceanography, atmospheric science, economics, sociology,
anthropology and ethics.

• Life science subject helps in understanding the biotic components and their interactions. Genetic and
biotechnology are the emerging useful tools for finding solutions to environmental problems.
• The basic concepts of physics, chemistry, atmospheric science, geology, oceanography helps in
understanding the physical and chemical structure of abiotic components of environment with the
energy transformation.
• Mathematics, statistics and computer science serve as an effective tool in ecosystem modeling.
• Socio-economic aspects and developmental activities can be studied under the subjects as
economics, management and sociology.
• The technical solution to environmental pollution control and waste treatment can be deal with the
subjects such as civil engineering, hydraulics and chemical engineering.
Thus, Environmental studies involve educating the people for preserving the quality of
environment.

Objectives and Guiding Principles of Environmental Studies

According to UNESCO (1971), the objectives of environmental studies are-

(a) Creating the awareness about environmental problems among people.

(b) Imparting basic knowledge about the environment and its allied problems.
(c) Developing an attitude of concern for the environment.
(d) Motivating public to participate in environment protection and environmental improvements.
(e) Acquiring skills to help the concerned individuals in identifying and
solving environmental problems.
(f) Striving to attain harmony with Nature.
 PESTEL Analysis- Environment: It includes six segments of the general environment which are
Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal
Scope of Environmental Studies

(i) Conservation of natural resources

(ii) Ecological aspects
(iii) Controlling the pollution and mitigating the effects of natural disaster.
(iv) Social issues connected to development and environment
(v) Impacts of human population/activities on the environment

Importance of Environment: It can be understood as:

Atmosphere- Contains lifesaving gases- Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen.
Hydrosphere- Provides water for Domestic, Industrial and Agricultural uses.
Lithosphere- Helps in establishment of organisms. Provides mechanical support to grow.
Biosphere- Our entire life support system is dependent on the well-being of all of the species living
on earth. This association is visible in food chains, food web and ecological pyramids.

Ecology and Ecosystem

‘Ecology’ was first proposed by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel. Ecology is the study

of the relationships between living organisms including humans, and their physical

environment. There are two types of Ecology: Autecology & Synecology.

Autecology is the study of the interaction between individual species with their

environment while Synecology is the study of interactions among two or more species or a

population with their environment.

Ecosystem term is coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935.

- An ecosystem is the smallest unit of Biosphere. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms

(plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment
(things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. It is composed of two major
components:-
1. Abiotic Component [refers to non-living components]
2. Biotic Component [refers to living components]
1. Abiotic Components –
- It includes all the non-living components.
- Composed of Chemical and climatic factors.
- The inorganic substances influence the quality of nutrient cycles.
- The organic substance remain present in biomass.
- Examples : Air, Water, soil, Humidity, Temperature, Rainfall, Minerals present in the soil [Edaphic
factor]
 2. Biotic Components –
It includes all the living components.
Composed of producers, consumers & decomposers.
1. Producers

1. These are known as Autotrophs or self – nourishing organisms. Which derive energy from sun to
convert inorganic substances into organic substances.

2. Thus, they do not depend on other organisms for their food.

3. Green plants and blue-green algae are major producers in an ecosystem that perform
photosynthesis to form their food.

4. Producers are the suppliers of energy in an ecosystem. They act as food for primary
consumers.
- Autotrophs are divided into:
a) Photo autotrophs –
- These are producers who fix energy from the sun and store it in complex organic compounds.
- Example : green plants, Algae.
- They also contain green pigment chlorophyll.
b) Chemoautotrophs –
- They are bacteria that oxidized or reduced inorganic substance and produce complex organic
compounds.
- Example : Sulphur bacteria, blue – green algae.

2. Consumers
1. These are the heterotrophic organisms that cannot synthesize their food.

2. They depend on other organisms to fulfilling their food needs.

3. These are categorized into primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers etc
or herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores based on their position in the food chain.

4. Consumers help in the circulation of energy in an ecosystem.

3. Decomposers

- These are the small microscopic organisms/ micro – consumers or micro – heterotrophic (
saprotrophic organisms) that perform the function of decomposition.
- these organisms mainly feed on dead decaying matter and converts complex organic substances into
simpler substances.
- The organisms are also called as reducers, scavangers, and detrivoves.
- Example – Fungi, bacteria, parasites, Earthworms, soil- insects, ants, termites.
 Types of Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem: The Earth’s Giant Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem 30% of area should be covered with forest. At present it is only 8-10%. Abiotic
Components- Light conditions may vary due to complex stratification in plants. Minerals are abundant.
Organic matter adds to the soil from debris and litter accumulation.Biotic Components- Producers-
Much species diversity mainly trees or shrubs. Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis,Thuja, Juniperous
Consumers- Primary- Ants, Flies, Bugs, Spiders (on leaves): Elephant, Deer, Squirrel (leaves,
Fruits) Secondary- Snakes, Birds, Lizards, Wolf
Tertiary- Lion, Tiger
Decomposer- Fungi- Aspergillus, Ganoderma, Fusrium Bacteria- Bacillus, Clostridium
Actinomycetes- Streptomyces

Desert Ecosystem
17% of total land area is desert. Extremely low rainfall, dry condition so vegetationis
scarce. Abiotic Components- Temperature very high, low rainfall. Nutrient recycling is poor
due toscanty biota. Biotic Components-

Producers- Grassy shrubs and few thorny trees. Cactus, Lichen, Mosses.
Consumers- Insects, Reptiles, Birds, Camel. Decomposer- very few Fungi, Bacteria.
Lentic (Pond/Lake Ecosystem

Abiotic Components- Chemicals especially in dissolved state. Climate is suitable.

Biotic Components- Producers- Phytoplanktons- Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Volvox, AnabaenaMacrophytes-

Hydrilla, Utricularis, Azolla, Lemna.

Consumers- Primary- Zooplanktons, Annelids, Molluscs. Secondary- Insects, FishesTertiary-

Large Fishes Decomposers- Fungi, Bacteria, Actinomycetes

Estuary Ecosystem-

Abiotic Components- Combination of fresh and marine ecosystem (brackish water ecosystem).Most
productive ecosystem.
Biotic Components- Producers- Sea grasses, Sea Weeds, Phytoplanktons, Algae
Consumers- Oysters, Crabs, Fishes. Decomposer- Fungi, Bacteria, Actinomycetes

Structure of an Ecosystem

Food Chains: A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism
eats another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow of
nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food chain.

The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living organisms. Trophic level
refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the bottom, followed by primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is known as a trophic level.
 The important types of Food chains-
1. Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that starts with green
plants, passes through herbivores and then to carnivores. In a grazing food chain, energy in the
lowest trophic level is acquired from photosynthesis.
Terrestrial: Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk

Aquatic : Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Fish → Crane → Hawk

2. Detritus food chain: The detritus food chain includes different species of organisms and plants
like algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects, worms and so on. The detritus food chain
begins with dead organic material. The food energy passes into decomposers and detritivores,
which are further eaten by smaller organisms like carnivores. Carnivores, like maggots, become a
meal for bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and so on. Primary consumers like fungi, bacteria,
protozoans, and so on are detritivores which feed on detritus.
Detritus → Microorganisms → Crabs and Shrimps → Small Fishes → Large Fishes

Types of grazing food chain

• Predator food chain

• Parasitic food chain
Predator food chain
In the predator food chain, one animal captures and devours another animal. In this food chain one
animal kills and eat the other animal. The animal which kills other animals for food is called a predator.
This act of hunting is called predation. Animals that are caught and eaten by a predator are called prey.
Predators that only eat the meat of prey are carnivores.
Parasitic food chain
The plants and animals of the grazing food chain are affected by parasites. Parasites derive their
energy from their hosts. Thus, the parasitic chain is formed with in the grazing food chain.
Tree → Birds → Insects/Mites → Microorganisms

Food Web:

A network of food chains which are interconnected at various trophic levels, so as to

forms number of feeding connections amongst different organisms of a biotic community
is called food web. Food webs are very important in maintaining the stability of an
ecosystem. When one type of herbivores animal becomes extinct, the carnivore predating
on this type may eat another type of herbivore.
The combination of all food chain in a given community or ecosystem is called food web.
The interlocking of many food chains is called food web. Food web is non linear flow of
energy.
Food web is a set of interconnected food chains by which energy and materials circulate
within an ecosystem. The food web is divided into two broad categories viz., the grazing web,
which typically begins with green plants, algae, or photosynthesizing plankton and the
detritus web, which begins with organic debris. These webs are made up of individual food
chains. In a grazing web, materials typically pass from plants to plant eaters (herbivores) to
flesh eaters (carnivores). In a detritus web, materials pass from plant and animal matter to
bacteria and fungi (decomposers), then to detritus feeders (deprivers) and then to their
predators (carnivores).
 Difference between food chain and food web:
Food – Chain
- The transfer of food energy from
the source in plants through a
series of organisms with
repeated costing and being eater
up is known as food chain.
- The transfer or of energy from
trophic level to the other is
known as food chain.
- For Ex.-
i) Vegetation – Rabbit – fox – wolf
– tiger
ii) Phytoplanktons – Zooplanktons
– smallfish shark – large fish
Food – Web
- A network of food chains
which are inter connected
at various tophic level so as
to form as number of feed
- A food web opens several
alternate pathways for the
flow of energy.
- For ex.
i) A field mouse may be
eaten by a wild eat, a snake
or a owl.
ii) A wolf or jackal can eat
both rabbit or and deer.

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

• Energy flow in ecosystem is the transfer of energy in a food chain from one living organism to
another within an ecosystem.
• Every step of a food chain is known as a trophic level.
• The flow of energy to the trophic levels is governed by two laws of thermodynamics.
• First Law Of Thermodynamics –
Energy cannot be made or destroyed.
It can only change from one form to another or be transferred from one part of the system to
another.
• Second Law Of Thermodynamics –
some of the energy used in the transformation is lost as heat energy and released into the
environment.
Basically, the energy flow in the ecosystem is important to maintain an ecological balance. The
producers synthesize food by the process of photosynthesis. A part of the energy is stored within the
plants. The remaining energy is utilized by the plants in their growth and development. This stored
energy is transferred to the primary consumers when they feed on the producers. This energy is further
passed on to the secondary consumers when they feed on the primary consumers, and so on.
The 10 percent law of energy flow states that when the energy is passed on from one trophic level to
another, only 10 percent of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level.
Ecological Pyramids: It is a graphical representation showing the relationship between
different organisms in an ecosystem. It shows the flow of energy at different trophic levels in
an ecosystem. An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between
the different living organisms at different trophic levels.
Charles Elton developed the concept of the pyramid of numbers.Mainly the ecological
pyramid is of three types:
1. pyramid of the number,
2. pyramid of biomass,
3. pyramid of energy
Pyramid of energy is always upright as the energy flow in food is always unidirectional. In
the ecological pyramid of energy, 10% law is followed in which only 10% of energy from the
organic matter is passed on the upper level of the ecosystem. The 10% law is given by
Raymond Lineman.

The pyramid of numbers can be both upstanding and inverted. The upright pyramid has the
largest number of producers at the base level and the quantity/number of other organisms’ step
by step diminishes at a higher level. The pyramid of numbers in the parasitic food chain
is constantly transformed and we get an inverted pyramid.
Pyramid of Biomass
The pyramid that demonstrates the total weight of every food layer in a specific food chain in
an ecosystem is the biomass pyramid. This pyramid can be both upright/upstanding and
inverted.In the forest ecosystem, the biomass of the producer is most elevated and the biomass
of tertiary consumers is low. The pyramid of biomass might be reversed in the aquatic
ecosystem.
 Balanced or Ideal Ecosystem

In a balanced ecosystem, the community of living (biotic) organisms interacts with non-
living (abiotic) features in the environment.
Abiotic features of ecosystems include precipitation, temperature, landscape, sunlight, soil,
water chemistry, and moisture.
The types of biotic factors in a balanced ecosystem include primary producers such as plants,
primary consumers such as herbivores, secondary consumers such as carnivores, consumers
such as omnivores that consume both plants and animals, and detritivores that eat decaying
organic matter.
Biotic factors rely upon abiotic factors to survive.
Plants require a certain temperature, moisture, and soil chemistry to thrive. Animals rely on
those plants for their food.
Anything affecting any factor of an ecosystem can throw it off balance and force organisms
to adapt or die off.

Importance of Ecological Balance

Ecological balance ensures the stability of the organisms and environment.

It creates a conducive environment for organism multiplication and thriving.

It enhances a stable environment that is free from ecological imbalances such as flood, hunger
caused by drought, windstorms that may wipe out everything, and over hunting of the
predators.

Effects of Human Activities on Environment

Effects of Human Activities such as Food, Shelter, Housing, Agriculture, Industry, Mining,
Transportation, Economic and Social security.
SNo. IMPACT DETAILS
1. -Decrease in finite resources.
Overpopulation and overconsumption
-Increase in waste
-Decrease Earth sustainable productivity
2. -Health problems
Pollution -Death (humans/wildlife/plants)
-Dead zones in oceans
-Acid rain: ruin infrastructure and
monuments, decrease crop yields, increase
health problems, changes pH of water
-Ocean acidification: creates carbonic
acid. Prevents formation of shells
3. Global warming and climate change -Increase greenhouse effect, warms oceans,
Melts glaciers and ice sheets. Glacial retreat.
Decreased snow cover, Increased frequency
of extreme events. Sea level rise.
4. Agriculture and gene modification -Point source pollution. Excessive use of
water. stream modification, use of
pesticides , clearance of forests, grazing,
release of greenhouse gases
-Unexpected outcomes of gene modification,
Choke crops
5. Deforestation and land degradation
-Loss in biodiversity
-Wildlife damage human settlement
- increased greenhouse effect
-Decreased air filtering

Effects of Mining

Environmental effects of mining can occur at local, regional, and global scales throughdirect and
indirect mining practices.
• Mining can cause erosion, sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, or the contamination of
soil, groundwater, and surface water by chemicals emitted from mining processes.
These processes also affect the atmosphere through carbon emissions which
contributes to climate change.

• Some mining methods (lithium mining, phosphate mining, coal mining, mountaintop
removal mining, and sand mining) may have such significant environmental and public
health effects that mining companies in some countries are required to follow strict
environmental and rehabilitation codes to ensure that the mined area returns to its
original state.
Effects of Transportation

• The growth of speedy transportation is man’s greatest achievement in minimizing

distances but at the same time it has also become a cause of environmental
degradation. Its directs impacts are:
Energy Consumption in Transport and Environmental Pollution
Air Pollution
Noise Pollution
Land Consumption and Landscape Damage
Ecological Degradation

Effects of Housing
The quality of housing has major implications for people’s health. Poor housing is associated with
a wide range of health conditions such as respiratory diseases including asthma, cardiovascular
diseases, injuries, mental health and infectious diseases including tuberculosis, influenza and
diarrhoea.
Housing is becoming increasingly important to public health due to demographic and climate changes,
according to the latest WHO Housing and health guidelines.
Improved housing conditions can save lives, reduce disease, increase quality of life, reduce poverty,
help mitigate climate change and contribute to the achievement of a number of Sustainable
Development Goals, in particular those addressing Health (SDG 3) and Sustainable Cities (SDG 11).
Housing is therefore a major entry point for inter-sectoral public health programmes and primary
prevention.

Effect of Industries
Industrialization contributes major part for the economic development and prosperity of a country. On
one hand it provides employment opportunities and wealth generation while on other hand it leads to
following environmental deterioration:
1. It leads to the depletion of natural resources.
2. It leads to air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.
3. Global warming, climatic changes are the major consequences of industrialization.
4. It causes acid rain.
5. It leads to the degradation of land quality.
6. It leads to the generation of hazardous waste whose safe disposal becomes a big problem.
7. These industries are responsible for the following adverse diseases and ill effect like silicosis
and pneumoconiosis, tuberculosis, skin diseases and deafness.

Effect of Agriculture: Positive impacts are as

❖ Provides food security

❖ Enhances rainfall and greenery
❖ Employment opportunities
❖ Supports ecology
Negative impacts are
as
1. Pollution
2. Deforestation
3. Contamination of food
4. Destruction of natural flora and fauna.
5. Decrease in groundwater
6. Destruction of natural species
7. Eutrophication
8. Biomagnification
 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

EIA is designed to identify the potential risks of a project (e.g., infrastructure development such as a
dam) to environment and human well-being and identify measures to eliminate and/or mitigate these
risks. The steps are as
1. Screening: Determines whether the environmental and social impacts of a
proposed development project would be significant enough to develop an EIA.
2. Scoping: Establish the boundaries of the EIA, set the basis of the analyses that will be
conducted at each stage, describe the project alternatives and consult the affected
public.
3. Impact assessment & Mitigation: Evaluate the socioeconomic and environmental
impacts of the planned project and its alternatives, and then identify the mitigation
measures to reduce those impacts
4. Impact Management: Prepare the plans required for addressing mitigation measures
and other project risks, such as technological failures and natural disasters.
5. The EIA Report: Pull together all the research and work done during the previous
steps into a comprehensive, structured document, ensuring that the EIA report
contains all the key components.
6. Review :Designated authorities review the EIA report to determine if the planned
project will get a license or if it requires amendments.
7. Management & Monitoring: Ensure that the mitigation measures, priorities listed in
the Environmental Management Plan, and contingency plans are properly
implemented and effectively address the project’s impacts.

Advantages of EIA

• Reduced cost and time of project implementation and design

• Avoided treatment costs and impacts of laws and regulations
• Lays base for environmentally sound projects
• Greater awareness of environmental legislation
• Protection of Environment & Optimum utilization of resources
• It acts as a detailed study of the potential impacts of· proposed projects
• It helps in predicting environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning anddesign
• EIA-based approvals for most projects also involve the process of conducting public
hearings, so that who are likely to be affected can be taken on board before approvingthe
project
• EIA links environment with development
• The goal is to ensure environmentally safe and sustainable development.
Limitations of EIA
• Time-consuming
• Littlepublic participation in actual implementation
• Sometimes too focused on the scientific analysis
• Compliance monitoring after EIA is seldom carried out
• Impact assessment processes are in place and applied in many countries, yet
biodiversity is often inadequately addressed
 Sustainable Development

Sustainable development can be defined as an approach to the economic development

of a country without compromising with the quality of the environment for future
generations.

Sustainable Development Goals

• To promote the kind of development that minimizes environmental problems.

• To meet the needs of the existing generation without compromising with

the quality of the environment for future generations.

Pillars of Sustainable Development

1) Environmental Pillar: The environmental pillar emphasizes the need to protect and preserve
the natural environment, including ecosystems, biodiversity, air, water, and land resources.
Sustainable development seeks to promote responsible resource use, reduce pollution and
 waste, conserve natural habitats, and mitigate the impact of human activities on the
environment. By safeguarding the environment, we can ensure the long-term availability of
resources and maintain the Earth's ability to support life.
2) Economic Pillar: The economic pillar focuses on fostering economic growth and development
that is both inclusive and environmentally sustainable. It recognizes the importance of economic
prosperity in improving living standards and reducing poverty. However, it emphasizes that
economic growth should not come at the expense of environmental degradation or social
inequality. Sustainable development encourages the adoption of green technologies, resource
efficiency, fair trade practices, and investment in renewable energy to create a more resilient and
stable economy.
3) Social Pillar: The social pillar addresses the need for social equity, justice, and inclusivity in
development. It emphasizes that all members of society should have access to basic services
such as education, healthcare, clean water, and sanitation. Sustainable development seeks to
reduce disparities in income, gender, and access to resources, empowering marginalized
communities and promoting social cohesion and harmony.
4) Institutional Pillar: It is related to good governance e.g., policies etc.

Obstacles in the Path of Sustainable Development:

1) Short-Term Economic Interests: One of the significant obstacles to sustainable development
is the focus on short-term economic gains over long-term benefits. Some industries and
practices prioritize immediate profits, disregarding the potential negative impacts on the
environment and society.
2) Population Growth and Consumption Patterns: Rapid population growth and unsustainable
consumption patterns put immense pressure on natural resources. Meeting the demands of a
growing population while minimizing the ecological footprint is a critical challenge.
3) Lack of Political Will: Sustainable development often requires bold policy decisions and
regulations. The
lack of political will and commitment to implement necessary changes can hinder progress towards
sustainability.

Achieving Sustainable Development

• It can be achieved by restricting human activities.

• Technological development should be input effective and not input utilising.

• The rate of consumption should not surpass the rate of salvation.

• For renewable resources, the rate of consumption should not surpass the rate
of production of renewable substitutes.

• All types of pollution should be minimized.

• It can be achieved by sensible use of natural resources.

• Few examples of sustainable development

• Wind Energy , Solar Energy, Crop Rotation, Sustainable Construction, Efficient

water fixtures , green space, sustainable forestry.

Social Security

“Social security is the protection which society provides for its members through a
series of public measure, against the economic and social distress that otherwise would
be caused by the substantial stoppage of earning resulting from :- sickness , maternity
,injury , unemployment, old age and death.

Need for Social Security

➢ Protects not just the subscriber but also his/her entire family by giving benefit
packages in financial security and health care.

➢ Acts as a facilitator - helps people to plan their own future through insurance
and assistance.

➢ For a worker/employee- a source of Social Security protection for himself and

his family.

➢ An employer- responsible for providing adequate social security coverage to all

your workers

Methods
➢ Social insurance scheme protects an individual from falling to the depths of
poverty and nursery

➢ Social assistance is one of the device according to which benefits are given as a
legal right to workers who are eligible for such assistance.

Schemes in India

1. Preventive Schemes
❖ Preventive Schemes are aimed at risk prevention.

❖ In the strategy of social management of risks, preventive approach tries to

prevent poverty

❖ helps people under below poverty line to come above poverty line.

❖ Preventive health care, vaccinations against diseases forms part of the

preventive strategies. Majority of the schemes are of social assistance in nature.
 2. Promotional Schemes

Promotional social security schemes are mainly means of tested Social Assistance
typeto guarantee minimum standards of living to vulnerable groups of population

The Governments at the State and Centre draft schemes financed from the
general revenues of the Government.
These are the strategies of risk mitigation.

These guarantee: Food and Nutritional Security ,Employment security ,Health Security
,Education Security Women Security .

The Examples of schemes in the Promotional aspect are

Jawahar Rojgar Yojana
Rural Landless Laborers Employment Guarantee Schemes Programmes of
Integrated Rural Development Project Drought prone area Programmes

Sakshara

Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)

Public Distribution System

Reservations for the disabled in services

Special educational institutions for the disabled persons etc.

Protective Social Security Programmes

The protective social security programmes help the poor in removing/reducing contingent
poverty. In India, the protective social security programmes have been designed to address the
contingent poverty or the contingencies defined by the ILO.

These programmes take care of , Old-age income needs (Old age pension) Survival benefits
(Provident Funds) Medical need of insured families (Medical Insurance) Widow and
children/dependant economic needs (Widow/Children/orphan, and dependent pension)
Maternity benefits Compensation for loss of employment and Work injury benefits.

The benefits are extended only to working population majority of whom are in the
organized sector through legislations like:

Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923

Employees State Insurance Act, 1948

Employees Provident Fund and

Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952

Maternity Benefits Act, 1961

Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972

 Economic security

It is the ability of individuals, households or communities to cover their essential needs

sustainably and with dignity. This can vary according to an individual's physical needs, the
environment and prevailing cultural standards. Food, basic shelter, clothing and hygiene qualify
as essential needs, as does the related expenditure; the essential assets needed to earn a living,
and the costs associated with health care and education also qualify. It aims at:
Food consumption, Food production, Income, Living conditions & Capacity. It addresses through:

❑ Relief activities: These are implemented quickly and efficiently with a view to saving
lives and protecting livelihoods at immediate risk. Examples include distributing food
and essential household items.

❑ Livelihood-support activities: These are designed to bolster livelihoods sustainably.

Examples include microeconomic initiatives, cash transfers and distributing farming
tools or seed – along with training.

❑ Capacity-building activities: These aim to build up the capacities of important local

institutions so that people affected by crisis or conflict can benefit from improved
services. Such activities are often combined with livelihood-support programmes for
maximum impact. For instance, Economic Security works with veterinarians to
organize campaigns to vaccinate people's livestock in conflict- affected areas.
Food security

Food security has the following dimensions

(a) availability of food means food production within the country, food imports and the
previous year’s stock stored in government granaries.

(b) accessibility means food is within reach of every person.

(c) affordability implies that an individual has enough money to buy sufficient, safe and
nutritious food to meet one’s dietary needs.

Food security is ensured in a country only if

(1) enough food is available for all the persons

(2) all persons have the capacity to buy food of acceptable quality

(3) there is no barrier on access to food.

Need for food security

During natural calamity such as drought, production of food grains get decreased, creating a
shortage of food in the affected areas.The prices get increased due to shortage of food. People
cannot afford to buy food and if such a calamity happens in a very wide spread area or is
stretched over a longer time period, it might cause a situation of starvation.
Massive starvation might take a turn into a famine. A Famine is characterised by widespread
deaths due to starvation and epidemics caused by forced use of contaminated water or decaying
food and loss of body resistance due to weakening from starvation.

Food-insecurity in India

In India, a large section of people suffers from food and nutrition insecurity. People having
little or no land, traditional artisans, petty self-employed workers and destitute including
beggars are the worst affected groups.
In the urban areas, the food-insecure families are those who are generally employed in ill-paid
occupations and the casual labour market. These workers are largely engaged in seasonal
activities and are paid very low wages. The social composition along with the inability to buy
food also plays a role in food insecurity.

People affected by natural disasters, which migrate to other areas in search of work, are among
the most food-insecure people. A large proportion of pregnant and nursing mothers and
children under the age of 5 years constitute an important segment of the food insecure
population.

Another aspect of food insecurity is hunger, which is not just an expression of poverty, it brings
about poverty. Hunger has chronic and seasonal dimensions. Chronic hunger is a consequence
of diets persistently inadequate in terms of quantity and/or quality. Seasonal hunger is related to
cycles of food growing and harvesting. In the field of agriculture, India adopted a new strategy,
which resulted in the ‘Green Revolution’.

Food Security in India

Since the Green Revolution, the country has avoided famine even during adverse weather
conditions. India has become self-sufficient in food grains during the last 30 years because of a
variety of crops grown all over the country. The availability of food grains has been ensured
with a carefully designed food security system by the government.

This system has two components:

(a) buffer stock,

(b) public distribution system.

Buffer stock

Buffer Stock is the stock of food grains, namely wheat and rice, procured by the government
through the Food Corporation of India (FCI). The stock of wheat and rice are purchased by the
FCI from the farmers where there is surplus production. The farmers are paid a pre announced
price for their crops, called Minimum Support Price (MSP).

Every year, the MSP is declared by the government before the sowing season to provide
incentives to farmers for raising the production of these crops.
Buffer Stock is created to distribute foodgrains in the deficit areas and among the poorer
section of the society at a price lower than the market price also known as Issue Price.

Public Distribution System

FCI distributes the food procured from the farmer through government-regulated ration shops.
It is called the Public Distribution System (PDS). Ration shops also, known as Fair Price Shops,
keep stock of food grains, sugar, and kerosene for cooking. Rationing in India was introduced
during the 1940s against the backdrop of the Bengal famine. In the mid- 1970s, three important
food intervention programmes were introduced:

1. Public Distribution System (PDS) for food grains

2. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) a

3. Food-for-Work (FFW).

At present, there are several Poverty Alleviation Programmes (PAPs), mostly in rural areas,
which have an explicit food component also. Employment programmes greatly contribute to
food security by increasing the income of the poor.

Current Status of Public the Distribution System

Public Distribution System (PDS) is the most important step taken by the Government of India
towards ensuring food security.

In 1992, Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS) was introduced in the country.

From June 1997, Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) was introduced to adopt the
principle of targeting the ‘poor in all areas’.

In 2000, two special schemes were launched Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) and Annapurna
Scheme (APS).

Over the year, the PDS proved to be the most effective instrument of government policy in
stabilising prices and making food available to consumers at affordable prices.

Role of cooperatives in food security

In India, the cooperatives are also playing an important role in food security especially in the
southern and western parts of the country. The cooperative societies set up shops to sell low
priced goods to poor people. Some of the examples of cooperative societies are Mother Dairy in
Delhi, Amul from Gujarat, Academy of Development Science (ADS) in Maharashtra.
Balanced Diet
A balanced diet is one that contains all of the essential elements that the human body needs.
Carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, minerals, proteins, fiber and water are all essential components
in a well-balanced diet. A nutritious, well-balanced diet lowers the risk of disease and enhances
general health.

Malnutrition

Malnutrition can mean undernutrition or overnutrition. It can also mean an imbalance of

macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, fats) or micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).
Undernutrition is characterized by a lack of nutrients and insufficient energy supply, whereas
overnutrition is characterized by excessive nutrient and energy intake.

Shelter Security

Shelter is basic need of life not only for humans but also for animals. Shelter provides
security from harsh environment conditions and also from dangerous animals.
Shelter: Primary Need of Life

Shelter is one of the key elements of survival along with food and water. Birds, animals,
insects, humans, and all other organisms need shelter to survive. Shelter provides protection
from weather and any other kind of danger. Shelter can be terrestrial, grassland, temperate,
tropical, aquatic etc. Shelter can be classified into:

1. Permanent Shelter: These are the places where human or animal lives for very
longer duration e.g. houses, caves, nest of birds etc. Permanent place are made up of
cement and bricks and they are strong in structure.

2. Temporary Shelter: These are the place where animals and humans live only for short
duration and for any specific purpose. e.g. bus shelters, house boats, migratory birds'
nest at different place, tent houses, caravan, shelter home etc.

Despite the absence of a specific legislation on the human right to adequate housing in India,
the courts have interpreted Article 21 in the Constitution of India to include the right to
housing as an integral part of the right to life.

Need of Shelter Security:

1. Shelter security is an issue of great concern, since the number of homeless

people worldwide has grown considerably in recent years.
2. With increasing population, there is also increasing pressure on finite land resources
for housing.

3. Fast depletion of natural resources, shrinking land, rising pollution levels and
associated health problems have forced us to re-look at the structure and design of
buildings by introducing environmental approach to buildings.

Bio-magnification

➢ Bio-magnification stands for Biological Magnification, which refers to the growth

of harmful compounds in food chains.

➢ Heavy metals such as mercury and arsenic, pesticides such as DDT and polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs) are among the contaminants that are taken up by organisms as a
result of thefood they eat.

➢ These toxic compounds then accumulate within the cells of the organism. The build-
up of toxic substances in the tissue of a certain organism is known as bio-
accumulation.

➢ As these compounds are slowly eliminated or metabolized/broken down,

their concentration in organisms increases as they go up the food chain.

➢ This usually happens throughout a food chain and affects all creatures, but
animals higher up the food chain are more affected.
Example of Bio-magnification

1. Entry of Toxins In Phytoplanktons

Small plants that float in the sea and absorb pollutants are known as phytoplankton. Toxins
are absorbed and remain in their body's tissues without being eliminated or broken down.
Toxins accumulate in high quantities of up to 200 parts per trillion over time, representing a
fourfold increase in toxin accumulation.

2. Entry of Toxins In Zooplanktons

Small marine invertebrates that float in the seas are referred to as zooplankton They eat the
phytoplankton and absorb the poison as a result. Toxins are trapped in the tissue of the
organismand are not eliminated or broken down. The toxin concentration rises to two parts per
billion over time, which is a ten-fold increase over the prior concentration.

3. Consumption of Zooplanktons by Small Fish

When little fish consume zooplanktons, they absorb the poisons. They are then absorbed
into their fatty tissues. As a result, buildup develops, resulting in concentrations of around
20 partsper billion, a ten-fold increase.

4. Consumption of Small Fish by Larger Ones

When giant fish graze on smaller fish for nourishment, the poisons that build in their fatty
tissues are consumed. The concentrations increase until they reach 80 to 100 parts per billion.
Thehazardous levels have increased by four to five times.
5. Organisms on Top of the Food Chain

When enormous fish are consumed, the species at the top of the food chain, such as dolphins,
sea birds, and humans, gradually accumulate poisons in their tissues, such as their liver.The
concentrations reach the highest ranges of 10,000 to 15,000 parts per billion in this
area.Since the effects interfere with the normal functioning of essential organs, the animals'
fertility is affected, and they are more susceptible to effects.

Effects of Bio-magnification

1. Impact on Human Health

➢ Mercury, cadmium, lead, cobalt, chromium, and other chemicals make people
more susceptible to cancer, liver and kidney failure, respiratory illnesses, birth
defects in pregnant women, brain damage, and heart disease and even death.

➢ Consumption of mercury and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-tainted seafood,

for example, has been linked to ailments like hepatitis and cancer (PAHs).

2. Effects on Reproduction and Development of Marine Creatures

➢ The accumulation of hazardous substances and elements in the critical organs

of aquatic species has an impact on their reproduction and growth.

➢ Seabird eggs, for example, have thinner shells than typical, which can lead to the
birds breaking their eggs rather than incubating them.
 ➢ Selenium and other heavy metals, such as mercury, have a negative impact on
fish reproduction by destroying their reproductive organs.

3. Destruction of the Coral Reefs

➢ Cyanide, which is used in gold leaching and fishing, destroys coral reefs.

Various seacreatures use the reefs as spawning, feeding, and living grounds and thus

get damaged.
 UNIT-2: Natural Resources
Natural Resources

Anything which may have some functions not only to satisfy human demand at a given end
but also to ensure preservation of biosphere should be considered as resource. - Earth
Summit (1992)

A. Classification of Natural Resources Based On Origin

Biotic Resources: Biotic natural resources come from organic matter or living things.
Examples include fossil fuels, etc. Fossil fuels form part of the biotic natural resources
because they are formed through the decay of living organisms that existed millions of
years ago.

Abiotic Resources: These resources come from non-living things or inorganic matter
including the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. The abiotic natural resources are
air, water, sunlight, and minerals (like iron, gold, silver, copper, titanium, and diamonds).

B. Classification of Natural Resources Based On Development

Potential Resources: These are resources that are known to exist, have not been quantified
and can be used for future use. For instance, wind energy exists in certain areas but has not
been used to generate energy. Example: wind energy, solar energy etc.

Reserved Resources: They are natural resources that have been identified and
quantified but have not been harnessed because they are being reserved for future use.
Example: Rivers.

Stock Resources: These are resources that have been discovered, quantified but have not
been harnessed due to insufficient technologies. Example: Hydrogen.

Actual Resources: These are resources that have been discovered, quantified, harnessed,
and are being used.Examples: Crude oil, forest.

Classification Based On Availability/Exhaustibility

Renewable Resources: These natural resources can be replenished. The rate at which
they can be replenished exceeds rate at which they are being used up. Examples include
solar energy, etc Non-renewable Resources: Resources in this category are limited and
can be exhausted. Their formation takes millions of years. Examples include fossil fuels.
Renewable Resources Non-Renewable Resources
It can be renewed as it is available in infinite Once completely consumed, it cannot be
quantity renewed due to limited stock
Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature
Environment-friendly Less environment friendly
Replenish quickly Replenish very slowly (after billions of
years) or do not replenish naturally at all
Renewable resources include biotic and abiotic Non-renewable resources include fossil
resources like plants, animals, water, sunlight fuels
etc. like coal, oil, and natural gas, and minerals
like iron, copper etc.

WATER RESOURCES

• The United Nations has recognized access to water as a basic human right,
stating that water is a social and cultural good, not merely an economic
commodity.
• Water covers 70% -75% of earth’s surface of which 97.2% is locked in sea or
oceans (1332 million cu.km, considering total availability as 1400 million cu km),
3% is fresh water 2.15% in polar ice caps (29.20 cu.km), < 1% available as
surface and sub surface water (rivers, streams, lakes) with which we have to
manage ourselves.
• Water is renewable resource. It may change it’s form but quantity of water on
earth has remained same for millions of years.
• Groundwater: India's groundwater resources are almost ten times its annual
rainfall. According to the Central Groundwater Board of the Government of
India, the country has an annual exploitable groundwater potential of 26.5 million
hectare-meters. Nearly 85% of currently exploited groundwater is used only for
irrigation. Groundwater accounts for as much as 70-80% of the value of farm
produce attributable to irrigation. Besides, groundwater is now the source of
four-fifths of the domestic water supply in rural areas, and around half that of
urban and industrial areas.
• However, according to the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI),
the water table almost everywhere in India is falling at between one to three meters
every year. Furthermore, the IIMI estimates that India is using its underground
water resources atleast twice as fast they are being replenished. Already, excessive
ground water mining has caused land subsidence in several regions of Central
Uttar Pradesh.
• Surface water: There are 14 major, 44 medium and 55 minor river basins in the
country. The major river basins constitute about 83-84% of the total drainage area.
This, along with the medium river basins, accounts for 91% of the country's total
drainage. India has the largest irrigation infrastructure in the world, but the
irrigation efficiencies are low, at around 35%.
 • Consumption Patterns: Today, due to increasing consumption patterns, water is
becoming scarce and this scarcity is an emerging threat to the global population.
If per capita water availability is any indication, ‘water stress’ is just beginning to
show in India. This index is based on the minimum per capita level of water
required to maintain an adequate quality of life in a moderately developed arid
zone country.

Reasons for decline of ground water

Population continues to rise at an unprecedented and unsustainable rate; many more

areas are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.

i) Population explosion: Increased population leads to enormous demands on the

world’s limited freshwater supply. The total annual freshwater withdrawals today
are estimated at 3800 cubic kilometers, twice as much as just 50 years ago
(World Commission on Dams, 2000).
ii) Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater: occurs at various levels. Use of more
water than really needed by human beings. Many agriculturists use more water than
necessary to grow crops. Industries in order to maximize short-term economic
gains do not bother its liquid waste and releases it into streams, rivers and the sea.
iii) Deforestation: The destruction of forests influences the regulation of natural
water cycle. The removal of dense and uniform cover over the hilly zones leads to
occurrence of floods in drainage basins. Nations situated in tropical climates
including India experience disastrous floods caused by the indiscriminate
deforestation of the slopes above the valleys.
iv) Hydropower generation: Large amount of water is used for generating power
which otherwise used for human needs.
v) Dams - for Agriculture and Power Generation
vi) Rain fall: The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage in
subsurface reservoirs. India’s increasing demand for water for intensive irrigated
agriculture, for generating electricity, and for consumption in urban and industrial
centers, has been met by creating large dams. Dams support 30 to 40% of this area.

WATER QUALITY

Water quality refers to the measure of the suitability of water for any specific use or
process. It is determined by various physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
present in the water such as pH, ions, temperature, etc. The concentration of these
characteristics determines whether the water quality is suitable for drinking, for
invertebrates to conduct life processes, industrial use or even for the natural formations that
occur in the environment. Water quality is also determined by the concentration and the
state of dissolved, organic, and inorganic particles present in the water as well as the
physical characteristics of water.
Water Quality Indicators

While determining what the water quality is, certain measurements need to be made in
order to determine whether the quality is suitable for a particular use. The key
components that act as water quality indicators are:

Dissolved Oxygen- The levels of dissolved oxygen, or DO, in the water indicate
whether it is suitable for drinking or for aquatic animals to live in. High levels of
DO can be harmful for aquatic animals although it is an essential component
needed for living organisms. DO is measured in milligrams per litre with 4.0 to
12.0 mg/L being the baseline required for most organisms.

Temperature- All aquatic animals require a certain range of temperature, from

a minimum of 2° C to 35° C for them to thrive. The temperature of the water
affects the amount of DO present, the kinds of living organisms present,
pollution as well as diseases.
pH- The normal or neutral pH level of water is 7. A reading over 7 indicates the
water is alkaline in nature, while readings below 7 indicate that the water is acidic.
Extreme levels on the pH scale affect all kinds of living organisms.

Specific Conductance- Specific conductance refers to the ability of water to

conduct or pass electric current. Organic and inorganic materials like dissolved
solids, chloride, sodium, calcium, etc., temperature and the geology of the area
affects the conductivity of the water. The higher the concentration of ions in the
water, the higher its ability to conduct electricity.

Nutrients- The plants and animals found in water bodies require nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, manganese, and copper in specific amounts for them to
survive. Nutrients can be found in different forms, whether organic, inorganic or
dissolved. Large amounts of nitrogen in the form of nitrates result in an increase in
algal growth and toxicity for human consumption.

Industrial Chemicals- There are certain kinds of industrial chemicals present in

water that are suitable for various agricultural, manufacturing, pharmaceutical
and chemical processes. However, some of the chemicals required can become
toxic for aquatic ecosystems.

Metals- Various metals present in water are required to sustain biochemical

processes. These metals include manganese, zinc and copper. These metals have to
be present in a specific concentration as high concentrations will become toxic for
living organisms. The toxicity of the metals also depends on the form and the
oxidation state in which they are present. The characteristics of metals in water like
solubility, toxicity, etc. are influenced by pH, dissolved oxygen levels, and
hardness.
DAMS:

It can be unequivocally stated that dams have made significant contributions to

human development and the benefits derived from them have been considerable.
Large dams are designed to control floods and to help the drought prone areas, with
supply of water. But large dams have proved to cause catastrophic environmental
damage. Hence an attempt has been made to construct small dams. Multiple small
dams have less impact on the environment.

Benefits: Dams ensure a year round supply of water for domestic use and provide
extra water for agriculture, industries and hydropower generation.

Problems: They alter river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such
as wetlands and flood plains, and destroy the lives of local people and the habitats
of wild plant and animal species, particularly is the case with mega dams. Dam
construction and submersion leads to significant loss of farmland and forest.
Siltation of reservoirs, water logging in surrounding lands reduces agricultural
productivity, deforestation and loss of biodiversity is also there.

Water borne and Water Induced Diseases

Waterborne diseases are illnesses caused by microscopic organisms, like viruses

and bacteria that are ingested through contaminated water or by coming in contact
with feces. There is an increased risk of infection of water-borne diseases
contracted through direct contact with polluted waters, such as wound infections,
dermatitis, conjunctivitis, and ear, nose and throat infections.

Prevention of Water borne diseases:

• Store water in a clean vessel and use boiled and cooled water for drinking.
• Check for free chlorine available at all the water supply facilities and in the
water supply at the camps and in randomly selected households. If the
“free” residual chlorine level is less than 0.5 mg/liter the water should be
disinfected again.
• Use of halazone tablets (Chlorine tablets) for household use wherever
possible. A single tablet of 0.5gms is sufficient to disinfect 20 liters of
water.
 These water borne diseases may be due to ingestion of a chemical along with
drinking water e.g., arsenicosis, fluorosis etc.

Water induced Diseases : Standing water caused by heavy rainfall or overflow of rivers
can act as breeding sites for mosquitoes, and therefore enhance the potential for exposure
of the disaster- affected population and emergency workers to infections such as dengue,
malaria and other vector borne water induced diseases. Flooding may initially flush out
mosquito breeding, but it comes back when the waters recede.

The risk of outbreaks is greatly increased by complicating factors, such as changes in

human behavior (increased exposure to mosquitoes while sleeping outside, a temporary
pause in disease control activities, overcrowding), or changes in the habitat which promote
mosquito breeding (landslide, deforestation, river damming, and rerouting).

Prevention of Vector borne water induced diseases:

Chemical Control: Use of Indoor Residual Spray (IRS) with insecticides recommended.
Use of chemical larvicides like Abate in potable water
Aerosol space spray during day time.
Malathion fogging during outbreaks
 Use of mosquito repellent creams, liquids, coils, mats etc
Wearing clothes that cover maximum surface area of the body

Fluoride and Arsenic problem in Drinking water

Fluoride contamination has become a considerable threat to our society worldwide.

Fluoride in drinking water is primarily due to rich fluoride soil, volcanic activity, forage,
grasses and grains, and anthropogenic reasons. World Health Organization has regulated
the upper limit for fluoride in drinking water to be 1.5 mg/L while different countries have
set their standards according to their circumstances.

Excess amounts of fluoride ions in drinking water can cause dental fluorosis, skeletal
fluorosis, arthritis, bone damage, osteoporosis, muscular damage, fatigue, joint-related
problems, and chronicle issues. In extreme conditions, it could adversely damage the
heart, arteries, kidney, liver, endocrine glands, neuron system, and several other delicate
parts of a living organism

The Nalgonda Technique : It can remove more than 90% of fluoride in water. The
process uses aluminum sulfate (a coagulant normally used for water treatment) to
flocculate fluoride ions present in the drinking water.

The first community plant for removal of fluoride from drinking water was constructed in
the district of Nalgonda in Andhra Pradesh, in the town of Kathri. The technology was
developed by National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur in
1961 .

Nalgonda Technique involves addition of Aluminium salts, lime and bleaching

powder followed by rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and
disinfection. Aluminium salt may be added as aluminium sulphate (alum) or
aluminium chloride or combination of these two. It is responsible for removal of
fluoride from water.

Arsenic is introduced into soil and groundwater during weathering of rocks and
minerals followed by subsequent leaching and runoff. It can also be introduced
into soil and groundwater from anthropogenic sources.

Long-term intake of arsenic contaminated water leads to arsenic poisoning or

arsenicosis, with cancer of skin, bladder, kidney or lung or diseases of skin
(colour changes, and hard patches on palms and soles), or blood vessels of legs
and feet.

Various treatment methods have been adopted to remove arsenic from drinking water. These
methods include 1) adsorption-coprecipitation using iron and aluminum salts, 2) adsorption on
activated alumina, activated carbon, and activated bauxite, 3) reverse osmosis, 4) ion exchange
and 5) oxidation followed by filtration.