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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 200–209

www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

2021 7th International Conference on Advances in Energy Resources and Environment

Engineering (ICAESEE 2021), November 19–21, 2021, Guangzhou, China

Measurement method of inertia constant of power system based on

large-scale wind power grid connection
Feng Suna , Junjie Suna , Xiaoheng Zhanga , Hongyu Yangb ,∗, Xiaoyi Qianb , Peng Yeb
a Electric Power Research Institute of State Grid Liaoning Electric Power Co., Ltd, 39-7 Siping Street, Heping District, Shenyang, 110006, China
b Shenyang Institute of Engineering, No. 18, Puchang Road, Shenbei New District, Shenyang, 110136, China

Received 8 February 2022; accepted 8 March 2022

Available online 26 March 2022

Abstract
After the large-scale wind power airport is connected to the power grid, the wind farm cannot actively provide inertia support
to the system, resulting in a significant decline in the inertia of the power system and weakening the frequency regulation
ability of the power system. In order to explore the measurement and evaluation of inertia constant after large-scale wind farm
is connected to the power grid. This paper first introduces the composition of inertia of power system at the present stage,
then expounds the response process of inertia to disturbance after large disturbance of power system, and then deduces the
power system model with large-scale wind power access through the analysis of traditional inertia measurement. Finally, the
simulation model is used to compare the traditional measurement estimation with this paper. The maximum error is 9.18%, the
minimum error can reach 2.4%, and the minimum error of the traditional estimation method can also reach 18%. Compared
with traditional methods, it can be concluded that the error between the theoretical value of inertial time constant and the
estimation of inertial time constant of the method described in this paper is significantly reduced.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 7th International Conference on Advances in Energy Resources and Environment
Engineering, ICAESEE, 2021.

Keywords: Power system inertia; Step response; Inertia characteristic; Online evaluation

1. Introduction
Nowadays, in order meet the policy requirements of sustainable development and carbon emission. Wind power,
photovoltaic and other new energy power generation are developing rapidly, and the installed capacity of new energy
in some regions has reached more than half of the total installed capacity. It can be seen that new energy power
generation has shown a large-scale and high growth trend [1–3]. However, with the massive penetration of new
energy, the continuous operation of DC transmission projects and the increasing power electronic load, the number
and capacity of converters fed into many domestic power grids are rising rapidly, and are gradually evolving into
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yanghyu1995@163.com (H. Yang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.03.058
2352-4847/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 7th International Conference on Advances in Energy Resources and
Environment Engineering, ICAESEE, 2021.
F. Sun, J. Sun, X. Zhang et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 200–209

a power system with high proportion of converters [4–6]. Converter grid connection is an effective way to realize
high proportion of new energy consumption and large-scale long-distance power transmission. However, since wind
power, photovoltaic, DC and other non synchronous power sources are connected through the power electronic
converter and power grid interface, their transmission power is decoupled from the power grid frequency under
conventional control, and cannot actively provide inertia support to the system. The full chain and large-scale grid
connection of “source grid load” converter will replace a considerable proportion of conventional synchronous power
sources. This will greatly reduce the level of system moment of inertia and seriously weaken the inertia support
and frequency adjustment ability of the system under active power disturbance [7,8].
A large number of wind power connected to the grid leads to the reduction and fluctuation of the system inertia
constant H , which is closely related to the power system frequency. Therefore, in order to obtain the inertia constant
of power system, it can be estimated by the measured frequency change of power grid. Inouet et al. [9] measured
the inertia time constant of the Japanese power grid earlier, and shamirzaee m et al. [10] improved it. The frequency
curve after disturbance was approximated by the fifth-order polynomial using the least square method to measure
the system frequency change rate (ROCOF), so as to obtain the system H value. However, due to the fact that the
inertia response of the load was not considered, the error of the measured result was large; Wallp et al. [11,12] used
the data window to process the PMU data, which can determine the disturbance start time and the system inertia
time constant at the same time, but it can only be used for the measurement of a single generator, which has some
limitations on the measurement of the inertia time constant of the whole system. The above studies only measure the
inertia time constant of synchronous generator, and the wind farm under dynamic load and virtual inertia control in
the system also has certain inertia response capability [13,14]. In Ref. [15], the influence of DC transmission on the
inertia of power system is added. Ref. [16] analyzes the impact of voltage fluctuation on load change, and obtains
the frequency change more accurately on this basis, so as to make the estimation of grid inertia more accurate.
Ref. [17] estimates the inertia through the simulation of units in the power grid and the response of demand side.
Ref. [18] considers the impact of wind power on grid inertia estimation, and uses AIC system identification model
for inertia evaluation. However, the estimation error is large due to the influence of the order of the identification
model. At present, there is little research on the measurement method of inertia time constant of grid connected
power system with wind power.
In order to accurately measure the inertia time constant of grid connected power system with wind power, this
paper first introduces the composition of inertia in the current power system. Analyze the response mechanism
and characteristics of different forms of inertia, clarify the basic concepts of inertia and inertia, put forward the
frequency response inertia system of high proportion power electronic power system, then analyze the impact of
new energy access on system inertia and system frequency, and deduce the inertia level of high proportion new
energy system in the future, Provide guidance and suggestions for analyzing inertia level through system frequency.

2. Characteristic analysis of grid inertia

Inertia is the property that an object keeps its moving state unchanged. Inertia measures the inertia of an object.
Inertia in power system is shown as resistance to power disturbance 8 , which provides the fastest and most direct
response to frequency change. Therefore, maintaining sufficient inertia is of great significance to frequency stability.
For the synchronous machine running on the grid, the inertia response is its inherent attribute. The kinetic energy
stored in the rotor spontaneously responds to the unbalanced power to resist the frequency fluctuation.
The inertia resources of traditional power system are abundant, mainly composed of synchronous generators (a
large number), asynchronous motors and other loads. In the “double high” proportion power system, if the inertia
simulation function is applied to the power electronic converter interface, the effective inertia composition of the
system will evolve into “source network load storage” diversified inertia resources including synchronous generator
(a small amount), asynchronous motor, wind power/ photovoltaic, DC, direct current microgrid with virtual inertia
function, comprehensive load and energy storage. As shown in Fig. 1:
For the running synchronous generator, its inertia is expressed as the ability to hinder the change of rotor speed,
and the moment of inertia is often used to describe its inertia; The asynchronous motor directly connected to the grid
can actively respond to the system frequency disturbance and provide inertia support to the system by releasing the
kinetic energy stored on the rotor [12]; Other loads (other loads of the system except asynchronous motor) respond
through their own characteristics, change their own load power instantaneously according to the change of system
voltage or frequency, and play a supporting role similar to inertia [13]; For the virtual inertia resources (DC, wind
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Fig. 1. Evolution of inertia composition of power system.

power, photovoltaic, DC microgrid, energy storage, etc.) based on converter control, the manifestation of inertia is
related to the type of converter, control mode and operating conditions [8]. According to different control modes,
the converter can be divided into voltage configuration and current tracking type: the current tracking type converter
introduces the rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) into the active power control link to provide power support
for the system by the change of active power [14]; The voltage configuration converter introduces the rotor motion
and electromagnetic transient equation of synchronous generator in its control link, simulates the characteristics of
synchronous generator, and provides energy to the system by fan rotor or DC side capacitor of converter.

3. Response process of system inertia to large disturbance in power system

After a large disturbance occurs in the power system, the dynamic process of active frequency is mainly divided
into three stages: automatic distribution of disturbance power according to synchronous power coefficient, inertia
response and frequency adjustment. The typical frequency response time axis is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Frequency response of power system after large disturbance.

3.1. Response process of inertia of traditional synchronous generator to large disturbance in power system

For the running synchronous generator, the inertia is expressed as the resistance to the change of speed. The
inertia value of the generator unit is the moment of inertia, and the expression is [8]:
∫
J = r 2 dm (1)

In the formula: r is the rotation radius; m is the mass of rigid body; J the unit of moment of inertia is kg m2 .
For a generator, its moment of inertia is constant.
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In case of power imbalance disturbance in the system, pay more attention to the change of energy when the
unit speed changes. The moment of inertia is usually expressed in the form of energy. For a single synchronous
generator, the kinetic energy stored by rotor rotation is:
1
E k = J ω2 (2)
2
In the formula: ω is the mechanical angular velocity, and the kinetic energy of the generator depends on the
moment of inertia and speed. For the rated unit, the kinetic energy only depends on its moment of inertia. The
inertia of the unit is usually measured by the kinetic energy of the generator at rated operation, and the inertia
constant H and inertia time constant T j about energy can also be used to measure the inertia of the unit.
The inertia constant H is defined as the unit kinetic energy divided by the rated capacity at the rated speed, and
the unit is s. The formula can be expressed as:
EK J ωn2
H= = (3)
SB 2S B
Its physical meaning is that the generator set only uses the stored kinetic energy to provide energy for the load
equal to the rated capacity of the generator. For the operating generator set, its inertia constant is only related to the
kinetic energy and rated capacity at the rated speed of the generator, and has nothing to do with the actual active
output.
Inertia time constant T j refers to the time required to apply rated torque to drive the generator from static to
rated speed, unit: s, and the relationship with inertia constant is:
T j = 2H (4)
To sum up, for synchronous generators, inertia is the value of inertia, which can be measured from different
degrees such as moment of inertia, kinetic energy and inertia constant. Inertia is the embodiment of the result of
inertia action and the physical characteristic of inertia.
When the synchronous generator shares the disturbance component, the electromagnetic power of the I generator
suddenly changes, while the mechanical power remains unchanged, and the rotor motion state will change according
to the rotor motion equation under the action of unbalanced torque:
d∆ f i (0+ )
2Hi = −∆Pdi (0+ ) (5)
dt
The difference of inertia between units and the shared disturbance power make the unit change at different speeds,
and then the synchronous torque makes the speed tend to be the same, and each generator shares the disturbance
power again according to the inertia of the unit.
N
∑
∆Pdi (t) = (Hi / Hi ) · ∆PL (6)
i=1
In terms of response time limit, the auto disturbance dynamic power distribution causes the sudden change of
electromagnetic power, and the system makes a positive inertia response from the lowest point of frequency to
the moment of balance (tnadir ) between electromagnetic power and mechanical power. Without considering the load
effect, it can be divided into two stages: t0 ∼ tgov (disturbance power is distributed to the action time of the governor)
the inertia response of the synchronous machine to support the power balance of the system; tgov ∼ tnadir (the
governor acts to the lowest frequency), the inertia response of the synchronous machine and the primary frequency
modulation power of the generator jointly support the power balance of the system. For the governor action delay
tgov , thermal power, gas turbine units and nuclear power units shall be less than 3S, while for hydropower units,
the rated head below 50 m shall be less than 10 s, and the rated head above 50 m shall be less than 4S.

3.2. Analysis of grid inertia characteristics of wind power frequency response in power system with large
disturbance

After the power grid is disturbed, its swing equation is usually described as:
s H S N d f (t)
Pm (t) − Pc (t) = ∆P (t) = + D∆ f (7)
fs dt
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In the formula: Pm (t) and Pc (t) are the mechanical power and electromagnetic power of the generator
respectively; S N is the rated capacity of the generator; f s is the rated frequency of the system; d f (t) /dt is the
frequency change rate at time t; D is generator damping; ∆ f is the frequency deviation.
If the frequency data in a very short time after the disturbance is used, ∆ f is very small at this time, so D∆ f
can be ignored. Then Eq. (7) can be simplified as:
2H S N d f (t)
= Pm (t) − Pe (t) = ∆P (t) (8)
fs dt
In previous studies, only the inertial response of synchronous generator is considered, and the measurement error
is large. When the inertia response of the wind farm is added to the system, that is, after the disturbance occurs,
the disturbance ∆Pdist of the synchronous generator, wind farm and load response system is:
∆Pdist = ∆PG + ∆Pw + ∆PL (9)
In the formula: ∆PG , ∆PW and ∆PL are the active power change of synchronous generator, wind farm power
change and load power change respectively.
By using virtual inertia control, the fan can respond to system frequency changes. According to the principle
of virtual inertia control, the inertia response of fan can be described by swing equation. The wind farm is often
composed of dozens or even hundreds of fans. For the convenience of calculation, the wind farm is equivalent to a
fan with its inertia time constant HW . The inertial response of the wind farm can be described as follows through
the swing equation [18]:
2HW SW N d f W (t)
= Pm (t) − Pe (t) − K D ∆ f (10)
fn dt
In the formula: SW N is the rated capacity of the wind farm; f W is the frequency at the wind power access point;
K D is the sag coefficient. The change of Pm before and after the disturbance is very small, so it can be considered
that Pm is constant. Since the frequency data in a very short time after the disturbance is started is used, at this
time, ∆ f is very small and can be ignored, and K D ∆ f , the change of active power of the wind farm after the
disturbance can be expressed as:
2HW SW N d f W (t)
∆PW (t) = Pe t − − Pe (t) =
( )
(11)
fn dt

4. Estimation of system inertia under wind power connection

In the past, when the wind power inertia system is not added, the behavior of power system frequency deviation
caused by major disturbance loss such as machine cut-off and load cut-off can be approximately expressed
by formula (12). In the equation, the inter machine oscillation caused by synchronous power and transmission
performance is not considered, and the equivalent system inertia, generator and load are assumed [9].
d (∆ f / f 0 )
M + K ∆ f = −∆P (12)
dt
In the formula: ∆ f is the change of frequency (Hz) and ∆P is the power generation loss. M (= 2H ) is the
inertia constant of the system, f 0 is the rated system frequency (Hz), and K is the power/ frequency characteristic
( pu/H z) of the system. When the rotation reserve of the system is large, the power/ frequency characteristic value
becomes larger.
Since the loss is known and the frequency change (t = 0) at the beginning of each event is zero (∆ f = 0),
the inertia constant (M) is given by estimating the frequency change rate (d (∆ f / f 0 ) /dt) at the beginning of the
measurement transient and using the following equation:
−∆P − K ∆ f
M = d(∆ f / f ) (13)
0
dt
|t=0
However, the measured transient contains the oscillation component generated by synchronous power between
generators. Therefore, it is necessary to suppress the influence of this component when estimating the frequency
change rate. For this purpose, the time polynomial approximation is applied to the transient waveform in a period
longer than the period of the oscillation component, that is, the whole-time range of the transient is measured (about
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15 to 20 s after the start of the event). As described in formula (13), when the oscillation component is quite large,
the appropriate order of polynomial approximation is 5. Therefore, a polynomial approximation in the form of the
following equation is used:
∆ f / f 0 = A1 t + A2 t 2 + A3 t 3 + A4 t 4 + A5 t 5 (14)
Where t(s) is the time elapsed from the beginning of the event.
By estimating the coefficients A1 to A5 , the inertia constant of the power system in the system load basis can
be obtained using the following equation:
M = −∆P/A1 (15)
When new energy such as wind power is added to the power grid, the frequency change of the power grid is often
caused by the imbalance of system input and output power. When the power system is disturbed, under the action
of unbalanced power, the inertia response process of each synchronous generator in the system can be described
as
df
2H = Pm − Pe − D∆ f (16)
dt
In the formula: H is the inertia time constant of synchronous machine rotor; Pm is the mechanical power of the
rotor and Pe is the electromagnetic power of the rotor, both of which are unit values; D is the mechanical damping
coefficient.
The physical meaning of inertia response process is that there is a sudden change in the active power output of
the generator, and the generator rotor accelerates or decelerates due to the imbalance between electromagnetic power
and mechanical power, showing frequency fluctuation externally. Because the frequency deviation at the initial stage
of disturbance is very small ∆ f ≈ 0. Therefore, D∆ f can be ignored to obtain:
df
2H = ∆P (17)
dt
According to Eq. (17), the inertia time constant H determines the ROCOF after the system is disturbed. The
larger H , the smaller ROCOF, and the slower the system frequency drops, so as to win more time for primary
frequency modulation.
For synchronous generators, when disturbed, the rotor kinetic energy changes, and the energy released or
absorbed is the increase or decrease of output electromagnetic power. For the wind turbine, the virtual inertia
control method changes the output electromagnetic torque and rotor speed of the wind turbine by controlling its
internal electromagnetic components, so as to change the dynamic active power support provided to the power grid
and realize the inertia response of the wind turbine. After the system frequency fluctuates, the variable speed wind
turbine can be equivalent to a synchronous generator with inertia Hw (Hw is the virtual inertia time constant of
the wind turbine) under the virtual inertia control, and the size of Hw can be changed by changing the frequency
modulation parameters. Due to the small capacity of a single wind turbine generator, its power support effect on
the power grid is not obvious, and its inertia response ability needs to be evaluated from the level of wind farm.
Therefore, this paper equates the wind farm as a unit, and uses the virtual inertia time constant Hw of wind farm
to measure the inertia response effect of wind farm. The inertia time constant of the wind farm mentioned below is
the virtual inertia time constant. For the effective inertia time constant of the system, its mathematical expression
is:
∑k ∑n
i=1 Hw,i Sw,i + j=1 Hc, j Sc, j
Hsys = (18)
ssys
In the formula: Hw,i is the virtual inertia time constant of the ith wind farm; Sw,i is the total capacity of the
ith wind farm; Hc, j is the inertia time constant of the jth synchronous generator; Sc, j is the rated capacity of the
jth synchronous generator; Ssys Is the total capacity of the system; K and n are the number of wind farms and the
number of synchronous generators in the system respectively.
It can be seen from the above analysis that due to the disturbance time in the power grid, the physical process
of inertia response always occurs, so the inertia characteristics are always contained in the process of generator
active power frequency dynamic response. The on-line evaluation method of power system inertia based on system
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identification firstly takes the generator active power change P as the input and the frequency change f as the output.
Through the system identification method, a high-order dynamic model from generator active power to frequency
is established. The general form of system identification model is:
B (q) C (q)
A (q) y (t) = u (t − n k ) + e (t) (19)
F (q) D (q)
In the formula: A (q) = 1 + a1 q −1 + · · · + ana q −na ; B (q) = 1 + b1 q −1 + · · · + bn b q −n b ; C (q) = 1 + c1 q −1 +
· · · + cn c q −n c ; D(q) = 1 + d1 q −1 + · · · + dn d q −n d and F (q) = 1 + f 1 q −1 + · · · + f n f q −n f are the orders of A (q);
B (q); C (q); D (q) and F (q) respectively. U means input; y represents output; e represents error; n k represents
input–output delay, usually 0 or 1; q is the backward shift operator.
The inertia response of power generation equipment in the system is approximated as a linear process, and its
transfer function can be expressed as:
1
∆f = ∆P (20)
Hs + D
The unit impulse response is:
1 −Dt
δi (t) = e 2H (21)
2H
It can be seen from Eqs. (20) and (21) that the order of the high-order identification model is reduced to the
form of first-order transfer function, and then the inertial time constant can be calculated from Eq. (21).

5. Simulation example
5.1. Simulation system

In order to verify the power system inertia online evaluation method proposed in this paper, based on the typical
four machine two zone simulation system in document [19], a two zone system with wind farm is built by MATLAB/
Simulink, in which the wind power output accounts for 30% of the total output of the system, as shown in Fig. 3.
Each fan adopts virtual inertia control, and the simulation parameters are shown in Table 1.

Fig. 3. Four machine two zone simulation system.

Table 1. Generator parameters.

Alternator Hi /s Rated power Inertia
Wind farm 10 633.566 6335.66
G2 3 400 1200
G3 5 400 2000
G4 8 400 3200
Total 1833.566 12735.66
System equivalent time constant 6.945

During the normal operation of the system, measure the frequency fluctuation ∆ f and active power fluctuation
∆ p at the grid connection between each generator and the wind farm. In order to ensure that the data can fully
reflect the “active power frequency dynamic process” of power generation equipment, any 45–60 s measurement
data shall be taken. At the wind farm outlet ∆ f , as shown in Fig. 4, it can be seen that the frequency offset is
within ± 0.1 Hz.
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Fig. 4. Frequency offset at wind farm outlet.

5.2. Method accuracy comparison

Ref. [9] uses the system frequency for on-line inertia evaluation. It is a system identification technology based
on autoregressive moving average model. It can be seen from formula (14) that the traditional method has a great
impact on the estimation of the system and the order of the model. It can be seen from Table 2 that the maximum
error in the 10th order model will reach - 30.32%, and the general error is large. This is because the traditional
method needs to reduce the order in the process of obtaining the time constant, resulting in the poor fitting of the
model, resulting in the error of inertia evaluation. Therefore, the measurement of system inertia time constant under
the access of wind farm at this stage cannot be used.

Table 2. Online estimation of wind farm inertia measured by traditional methods.

Model order Evaluation value of inertia time constant/s Error
2 7.304 −29.78%
3 9.103 −12.53%
4 8.887 −14.43%
5 8.429 −15.43%
6 9.578 −4.54%
7 6.932 −31.33%
8 6.503 −30.32%
9 4.782 −27.54%
10 6.983 −25.43%
Average value 7.611 −21.26%

Table 3 shows the results of the traditional inertia online evaluation method based on system identification. It
can be seen that inertia time constant obtained by the traditional method is 5.472 s and the error is - 18.93%. The
equivalent inertia time constant of the simulation system shown in Fig. 3 is. 6.75 s. The online evaluation result
of system inertia by the method proposed in this paper is 6.912 s, and the error is 2.4%, as shown in Table 4.
Comparing the inertia online evaluation results in Tables 3 and 4, it can be seen that proposed method avoids the
influence of the traditional identification model order. At the same time, the inertia time constant calculation method
based on step response does not need to reduce the identification model order, which greatly improves the accuracy
of inertia Online evaluation.
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Table 3. Online estimation of wind farm inertia measured by traditional methods.

Alternator Theoretical value of inertia Evaluation value of inertia Error
time constant/s time constant/s
Wind farm 10 7.343 −26.57%
G2 3 2.542 −21.52%
G3 5 3.732 −25.36%
G4 8 6.948 −13.15%
System 6.75 5.472 −18.93%

Table 4. The inertia online evaluation results of this method.

Alternator na nb nc Theoretical value of inertia Evaluation value of inertia Error
time constant/s time constant/s
Wind farm 6 8 4 10 10.426 4.26%
G2 9 11 7 3 3.132 4.4%
G3 10 11 3 5 5.459 9.18%
G4 5 10 4 8 8.421 5.26%
System – – – 6.75 6.912 2.4%

6. Conclusion
In order to solve the problem that it is difficult to measure and evaluate the real-time inertia when large-scale
wind power is connected to the power grid, this paper improves the traditional method of measuring the grid inertia,
and deduces the grid inertia measurement model after large-scale wind power is connected.
(1) In this paper, the current situation of power system inertia is accurately described. The response of
synchronous machine inertia and wind power inertia under large disturbance is determined.
(2) Through the measurement method used in this paper. The simulation results show that it has high accuracy.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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