SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

SECOND SEMESTER TERM PAPER

ON

WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS

CONCRETE MATERIALS (CEG888)

WRITTEN AND SUBMITTED BY

OGBONNA CHUKWUMA 209042002

NOVEMBER 2022

TABLE OF CONTENT

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OGBONNA CHUKWUMA 209042002 Page 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ------------------3

2.0 WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES

------------------4

2.1 TYPES OF WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES

------------------4
2.1.1 ELEVATED AND UNDERGROUND TANKS
----------------------4
2.1.2 DAMS ----------------------5
2.1.3 DIKES ----------------------6
2.1.4 SWIMMING POOL ----------------------6
2.1.5 OTHERS; Levees, Canals, Channels etc. ----------------------7

2.2 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND

QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS ------------------7

3.0 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ------------------9

3.1 COMMON MAINTENANCE ISSUES AND MITIGATION ------------------9

3.1.1 Chemical attack
3.1.2 Water Ingress
3.1.3 Deterioration
3.1.4 Carbonation
3.1.5 Physical damage
3.2 REPAIR OF WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES
3.2.1 Patching
3.2.2 Grouting
3.2.3 Waterproofing with sealant
3.2.4 Resurfacing/Overlay
------------------- --9
---------------------14
---------------------14
---------------------14
---------------------16
-----------------16
--------------------16
--------------------17
--------------------18
--------------------19

4.0 CONCLUSION -----------------20

5.0 REFERENCES -----------------20

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1.0INTRODUCTION

Water retaining structures, like other hydraulic structures made of reinforced or

pre-stressed concrete shares similarities in design, construction, maintenance
and repair, from the small sized ones like channels, pool etc. to massive
infrastructures like dams and large fluid reservoir or vessels.

The code of practice, BS 8007:1987 for liquid-retaining structures forms an

important part of the basis from which the design, construction, operational
safety and maintenance of these infrastructures can be managed.

Because of their sheer size and load carrying requirement, enormous volumes of
concrete and steel are required, hence the need to meet all quality control
standard for materials and workmanship.

Routine maintenance of these assets and prompt repairs to defective portions are
required to forestall large scale deterioration that may likely cause a total
shutdown.

This paper discusses the various types of water retaining structures,

maintenance issues often encountered and standard preventive works to be
carried out during design, construction and service life of the structure. Standard
repair techniques and materials are also discussed.

2.0 WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES

Water retaining structures are built to hold water or exclude it. They are
used to create large bodies of water, or reservoirs, which have a variety of
functions, including land irrigation, power generation, water supply and flood
control.

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2.1 TYPES OF WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES

There are various types of water retaining structures, for example overhead
water tanks in buildings and public water supply, swimming pool, underground
water tanks, dams, dikes, etc. Each is unique in design and can be made of
different materials ranging from clay or plain concrete to steel and glass.

Concrete is the commonly used materials for water retaining structure and is the
subject of the discussion.

2.1.1 ELEVATED AND UNDERGROUND TANKS

Elevated and underground water tanks are of varying types found in private
homes and public water treatment and storage facility. They can be made of
reinforced concrete, as often noticed in public water works facility; PVC,
galvanised steel or a composite of both materials as found in Braithwaite tanks,
Diya R. (2020).

These tanks are mainly used to store portable water for use in homes, farms or
factories.

Fig 1. Braithwaite water tank

2.1.2 DAMS

Dams are massive structures built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain
water for irrigation, power generation or flood control purposes.
Dams are also built to provide water for human consumption and use in
industrial processes.

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They are used to increase the volume and depth of water available in a river in
order to improve navigation and allow barges and ships to travel more easily.
Dams can also provide a lake for recreational activities such as swimming,
boating, and fishing.

Many dams are built for more than one purpose; for example, water in a single
reservoir can be used for fishing, to generate hydroelectric power, and to
support an irrigation system. Water-control structures of this type are often
designated multipurpose dams.

Fig 2. A Dam in operation

2.1.3 DIKES

Some embankments usually made to control or hold back water from the sea or
a river from flooding a coastal area is known as dikes: A dike is a structure
made of earth or stone that's used to hold back water.

They are widely used to protect low-lying areas against inundation. Dikes are
often built to increase a dam's effectiveness by preventing water from leaving
the reservoir through secondary valleys.

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Fig 3. Houtrib dike in Netherlands.

2.1.4 SWIMMING POOL

It is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure

activities. It can be built into the ground as in-ground pools or above ground as
a freestanding construction or as part of a building or other larger structure. It
may be found as a feature aboard ocean-liners and cruise ships. In-ground pools
are most constructed from materials such as concrete, natural stone, metal,
plastic, or fiberglass, and can be of a custom size and shape or built to a
standardized size.
Dams and dikes are retaining structure used to build reservoirs. Structure

Fig 4. Swimming pool

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2.1.5 OTHERS

Levees, channels, canals, wells are other types of water retaining structures.

2.2 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS

The code of practice, BS 8007:1987 for liquid-retaining structures forms an

important part of the basis from which the design, construction, operational
safety and maintenance of these infrastructures can be managed.

Water tightness is the most important parameter to cater for in design and
construction, among other requirements. The structure is considered to have
failed when it lost its impermeability.

To ensure a watertight structure the concrete must be adequately reinforced in

sections where tension may occur and cast with well graded aggregate of
maximum size of 12mm. Chemical admixtures that has special water
impermeability ability should be used in concrete production.

Continuity in reinforcement work to prevent cracking must be provided at

corners and at member junctions. This reinforcement must extend well beyond
where it is required to resist the tensile stresses, particularly when these stresses
occur on the face in contact with the liquid.

The design should consider the cases where the structure is full of liquid and
when it is empty. The structure when empty must have the strength to withstand
the active pressures of any retained earth. Since the passive resistance of the
earth is never certain to be acting it should generally be ignored when designing
for the structure full.

Formwork must also be carefully constructed to avoid grout leakage at the

Joints and consequent areas of concrete vulnerable to water penetration.
Particular care must also be given to the use of formwork ties. Through ties
should not be used, as this offer a potential leakage path.

Flotation, particularly during construction, is a major problem in many

underground tanks and basements. To overcome this, it may be necessary to
dewater the site, increase the dead weight of the structure, or provide for
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temporary flooding of the structure. In any case, the construction sequence must
be carefully studied, and specified at the design stage.

3.0 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

Water retaining structures, as with other engineering facilities, require routine

maintenance and repair to optimise its functionality and enhance the life span of
the facility.

There are lots of maintenance challenges associated with structures whose

primary function is either to retain or contain water, same for other hydraulic
structures.

For this reason it is pertinent for a proper design and construction to be done in
cognizance BS 8007: 1987, and other relevant standard that may be required.

3.1 COMMON MAINTENANCE ISSUES AND MITIGATION.

Since many of the structures are constructed as reinforced concrete, it is

expected that the chemical and mechanical influences of these materials can
severely degrade the facilities over time.

The kinds of deterioration usually noticed in water retaining structures often

depend on the type of structure and the construction materials.

Let us take a look at the major maintenance problems commonly associated

with water retaining structures.

3.1.1 CHEMICAL ATTACK

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Chemical attack of water retaining structure material component is one the
major maintenance challenges that occur over the life span of the structure. In
most cases these chemical reactions occur between the mineral salt present in
the water/fluid or soil being retained and the reinforced concrete component of
the structure, Science direct (2022).

This affects the strength and durability of the structure by causing cracking of
concrete, volume change, deterioration and other issues that may lead to failure
of the structure.

The different types of chemical attacks and their effects on concrete structures
are explained below.

3.1.1.1 Sulphate attack

Sulphates are found in compounds of calcium, magnesium, sodium, ammonium

and potassium. They occur in soil or ground water.

Sulphates attacks calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium aluminates present

in the concrete and results in changing the volume of cement paste in concrete.

Fig 5. Canal walls under sulphate attack

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It is therefore important to control the quality of water and aggregate used in
making concrete. They should be free from all form of sulphate compound.

Sulphate-resisting Portland cement should be used when constructing on soil or

water with high sulphate content.

3.1.1.2 Chloride attack

Chloride attack on concrete severely affects its durability by causing corrosion

to the reinforcement bars. Chlorides can be introduced into the concrete during
mixing of fresh concrete with water or aggregates that have been contaminated
with calcium chloride or after construction if the structure is located in an
environment that contains high content of chloride compound.

During the service life of the water retaining structure, chloride salts present in
the water permeate the concrete pores to react with the alkaline protective layer
around the reinforcement. This reaction removes the alkaline protection to steel
bars for corrosion to set in.

Fig 6. Reinforced concrete under chloride attack

Quality control measures for all component of concrete as stated in 3.1.1.1

should be observed during construction.

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3.1.1.3 Alkali-Aggregate reaction

Chemical reaction also occurs between alkali in cement and silica content of
aggregates to form a gel-like substance that absorbs water thereby causing
volume increase in concrete. This increasing volume develops into cracking and
disintegration of concrete.

According to BS8110: Part 2, Clause 6.2.5.4, Alkali Silica reaction can be

prevented by;

1. Reducing the Saturation of concrete.

2. Use of Low alkali Portland cement.

3. Use of replacement cementitious materials such as blast furnace slag or

pulverized fuel ash and normal aggregate that does not possess alkaline reactive
substances.

Hence the need for quality control of cement, aggregates and water to be used in
construction.

Aggregate with Alkali reactive constituents

3.1.1.4 Acid attack on concrete

Some acids can easily attack concrete that are not produced with acid resistant
constituent or admixtures. Acids like oxalic acid, phosphoric acids are not
harmful to concrete. Calcareous aggregates are more affected by acids while
siliceous aggregates are good resistant.

The extent of damage acids can cause depends on the pH of the acid solution.
Damage is very severe if the pH value is very low.

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When acids reach reinforcement through crack or pores within the concrete,
they will cause corrosion of bars and resultant cracking of concrete.

Fig 7. Concrete floor under acid attack

To prevent acid attack good dense concrete with adequate cover is required and
sulphate-resistant cements should be used.

3.1.2 WATER INGRESS

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Water retaining structures, by function should have the ability to hold or restrain
water even in its minute volume as sometimes noticed during seepage or ingress
of water. Impermeability is a key measure of such structures.

Water ingress reduces the capacity and functions of the structure and could also
aid the deterioration of concrete component over time.

There is need to do a proper aggregate particle grading/sizing to achieved a

more dense concrete after compaction while controlling water cement ratio.

Concrete admixtures like Aqualatex, costarmix 200 Cast, plasticisers, super-

plasticisers etc. are useful during concrete production. Water proofing materials
and membranes on the surfaces of the structure members are also recommended
where needed.

3.1.3 DETERIORIATION

These are one of the noticeable outcomes of chemical, mechanical and

environmental impacts on the water retaining structure during its service life
and are also a sign of aging of concrete.

Deterioration can be controlled by using high quality materials and

workmanship in the design and construction of the structure under proper
supervision. A well planned maintenance program is also required.

3.1.4 CARBONATION

Carbonation occurs when atmospheric carbon dioxide penetrates the concrete

matrix, reacting with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate. The
compound formed reduces the alkaline protection around reinforcing bars
thereby resulting to corrosion.

According to The Constructor (2022), Carbonated concrete has a pH value of

8.3 while the passivation of steel starts at a pH value of 9.5. The depth of
Carbonation in good dense concrete is about 3 mm at an early stage and may
increase to 6–10 mm after 30–40 years. Poor concrete may have a depth of
Carbonation of 50 mm after say 6–8years.

It is important to control the following parameters during design and

construction of reinforced water retaining structures.

1. Depth of concrete cover

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 2. Density of concrete
3. Cement content
4. Water-cement ratio

The depth of carbonation is determined using the solution of phenolphthalein in

diluted alcohol. When the solution is applied the Non – carbonation zones
becomes pink in color and remaining uncolored portion is termed as carbon
affected zone, The Constructor 2022.

Fig 8. Carbonation reaction on concrete material

3.1.5 PHYSICAL DAMAGE

Physical damage to parts of water retaining structure may occur due to extra
service load that was not anticipated during design and construction stages.

The impact of fatigue on water retaining structures like dams could also result
in gradual physical damage. Moving heavy objects colliding with element of the
structure creates some degree of damages. All these contribute to failure in
strength and durability.

4.0 REPAIR OF WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES

Immediately deterioration sets in, repair is an important remedy in extending the

life span of the structures. The replacement of
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defective and spalled concrete with a protective and durable material around
reinforcement is of great importance.

Therefore, deteriorated reinforced concrete should be repaired with

impermeable, highly alkaline cement-based materials, closely matching the
properties of the parent concrete.

4.1 Patching

Patch repair consists of removal of the damaged concrete, cleaning of rust, and
replacing of the original geometry with a patch material. Patch repairing is one
of the common concrete repair techniques, especially when a localized
corrosion occurs.

Below are the requirements of a good patching material:

•Must be as durable as the surrounding material

•Must be easily prepared in site.

•Should be able to resist wide range of temperature and moisture content

•Chemically compatible with the substrate

•Possess a similar colour and surface texture to the surrounding material.

The three major types of patch materials available in the market are Cement
mortars and concretes, Polymer mortar and concrete and Epoxy-resin mortar
and concrete.

The plain cement mortar repairing is not suitable for structural repair works
because of their dimensional instability, weak adhesion, and durability.

The resin mortars including acrylics, polyurethanes, polyesters, and epoxies

have superior properties as repair mortars. But the use of these mortars is
restricted because of their cost and incompatibility with most of the substrate
concretes.

The cement-polymer mortar has better adhesive properties, crack resistibility

and compatibility. Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) latex is being effectively
used to modify cement mortar to be used as a repair system in practical

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application. Some additional reinforcements are added partially or totally to
restore the original area of bars.

4.2 Grouting

In liquid-retaining structures, all cavities, voids or cracks on concrete surfaces

after the knocking-off of formworks should be treated with grout.

Grout is a type of mortar used to fill joints, cracks, and cavities in tiles,
masonry, and brickwork. It typically
consists of water, cement, and sand; or cement and water but for concrete
grouting a finer size of coarse aggregate (between 4.75 – 12mm) is added to the
mix with the right water-cement ratio. When used in semi-liquid form, it may be
pumped, spread, or poured into cavities and allowed to harden, creating a tight,
water-resistant seal.

Grouting helps to repair defective and protect concrete surfaces from further
attacks by agents of concrete deterioration. An epoxy bonding agent should be
used where needed when repairing defective areas of water storage tanks.

Grout specifications and work methods can be obtained from specialist grout
suppliers. Grout must be non-shrink. Grout that has the potential to sag on
vertical surfaces may not be used.

The preparation of surfaces to expose aggregates is vital. The so-called “feather

edging” of new concrete should be prevented by cutting perpendicularly into
surfaces to a depth of at least 10 mm. The bottom corners of such cut-outs
should be round to prevent air entrapment in the corners during repair.

4.3 Waterproofing with Sealant

Sealants are used to seal the concrete surfaces and joints to prevent the ingress
of moisture/water, solid matters such as dust and sand into the structures. This
can be bituminous felt / sealant or chemical sealants.

Concrete sealers are finish coatings used to protect the concrete and to
accommodate joint movements. Sealers act to prevent damage from abrasion,
water and chemical agents. Sealers reduce the porosity of concrete and prevent

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water and dirt from getting into the concrete, S. Thirugnana Sambandam
(2015).

It creates a barrier on the concrete’s surface. It is used for enhancing exposed

aggregate-coloured concrete since they are shiny. These sealers penetrate the
concrete and can get 1-4 millimetres into the concrete to increase water
tightness. Unlike the film formers, they do not leave a sheen or gloss.

Fig 9. Penetration of sealant in concrete

4.4 Resurfacing / Overlay

These are repair works carried out to remedy the defective walls or floor
surfaces, making them resistant to chemical attacks and ingress of water by
providing the required concrete cover.

According to S. Thirugnana Sambandam (2015), in the repair of structures

showing spalling and disintegration, it is usual to find that there have been
substantial losses of section and/or pronounced corrosion of the reinforcement.

In some cases where concrete spalling has been allowed to occur for a long
resulting in a larger defective area and exposure of steel to corrosion, protective
concrete resurfacing can be carried out using shotcrete and concrete pump
machine.

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A new layer of reinforcement bars can be provided in cases where corrosion has
reduced the section areas of the steel.

5.0 CONCLUSION

It can be deduced from this paper that water-retaining structures, like other civil
engineering infrastructures, require special attention during all phases of design,
construction and operational life cycle. Suitable quality control measures for
materials and workmanship should be strictly adopted and adhered to through
effective supervision.

6.0REFERENCES

1. BS 8007; 1987. Design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous

liquids. BSI.
2. Prof C Viljoen, Prof JV Retief, Dr NPJ de Koker, Dr C McLeod and Mr
HG Kruger. 2020. Practical Guidance for the Design and Construction of
Liquid retaining Structures. Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch
Press.
3. Dr S. Thirugnana sambamdam, 2015. Building Maintenancence and
repairs. Delhi: Annamalainagar-608 002.
4. BS 8110; Part 1. 1997. Structural Use of concrete. British Standard
Institute.
5. The Constructor 2022, https://theconstructor.org/concrete/chemical-
attacks-types-concrete-structures/7237.
6. Diya. R. 2019,
https://basiccivilengineering.com/category/structures/ desgnandConstructi
onofWaterretainingstructures.
7. Science direct 2022,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/chemical-attack-on-
concrete.

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