Art History

Assoc. Prof. Karam Abdallah

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Classical Civilizations
Roman Art

Lecture 5

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INTR351 - Heritage of Interior Design 3
 History of the Roman Empire
• Roman Kingdom began with the city's founding,
traditionally dated to 753 BC in Central Italy, and ended
with the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of
the Republic in about 509 BC.
• Roman Republic was the period of ancient Roman
civilization beginning in 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with
the establishment of the Roman Empire.
• Roman Empire covers the history of Ancient Rome from
the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the
abdication of the last Emperor in 476 AD.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Kingdom
INTR351 - Heritage of Interior Design 4
 Roman Sculpture
• Roman Sculpture, with artists from across a huge
empire and changing public tastes over centuries, is
above all else, remarkable for its sheer variety and
eclectic mix.
• The art form blended the idealized perfection of
earlier Classical Greek sculpture with a greater
aspiration for realism and absorbed artistic
preferences and styles from the East to create images
in stone and bronze which rank among the finest
works from antiquity.
• Aside from their own unique contribution, Roman
sculptors have also, with their popular copies of earlier
Greek masterpieces, preserved for posterity invaluable
works which would have otherwise been completely
lost to world art. 5
 Roman Sculpture

• Sculpture also became more monumental with

massive, larger-than-life statues of emperors, gods
and heroes.

• Towards the end of the Empire, sculpture of

figures tended to lack proportion, heads especially
were enlarged, and figures were most often
presented flatter and from the front, displaying the
influence of Eastern art.

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Roman Sculpture

It is also important to distinguish two quite

distinct ‘markets’ for Roman sculpture,
• the first was the aristocratic ruling class taste
for more classical and idealistic sculpture
• whilst the second, more provincial, ‘middle-
class’ market seems to have preferred a more
naturalistic and emotional type of sculpture,
especially in portraiture and funerary works.

An interesting comparison of the two approaches

may be found in Trajan’s Column in Rome and a
trophy at Adamklissi commemorating the same
Dacian campaigns.
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 Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus Between 122 and 115 BC
Roman Republic
The reliefs consist of two large panels on the long sides of the
base and two smaller panels for the short sides. The large panel
conserved in the Louvre is typical of Roman civic art and depicts a
scene which one would only find at Rome in this period: the
census. The other three panels depict a mythological theme in a
Hellenistic style: the marriage of Neptune and Amphitrite.

Given the difference in style, subject and material, it is thought

that the two friezes are not contemporary. The mythological frieze
seems to have been executed earlier, covering the three visible
sides of the base.

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https://giacobbegiusti9.wordpress.com/2018/08/30/giacobbe-giusti-altar-of-domitius-ahenobarbus-fiel-of-mars/
 Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus

The relief, which is one of the first examples of continuous narrative style,
is read from left to right and it can be divided into three scenes.
• First the recording of the Roman citizens in the register of the censor.
• Second the purification of the army before an altar dedicated to Mars.
• Third the levy of the soldiers.

The Roman census was a period when all Roman citizens were recorded.
Based on each individual’s wealth, the censor, the Roman magistrate
(here the third person reading from left to right), determined who would sit
in the senate and who would serve in the military, which the Romans
considered an honor.

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https://www.exploringart.co/ancient-roman-art-altar-domitius-ahenobarbus/
 Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus
Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus.
Wedding of Poseidon and
Amphitrite (front panel).
Glyptothek. Munich. Germany.

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Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus

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 Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus

The presence of a God in a daily Roman life’s

moment validates the importance of the
ceremony and the altar represents the
connection between divine power and “civil”
power. An imperishable connection. Mars
touches a side of the altar and on the other side
there is one of the most important people in
Rome: the censor. That means that his power
comes directly from a God, and not a random
god, but the God of war and Roman’s “father”.
Rome’s strength was the army and the
motivation to be part of it was one of the best
keys to its success.

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https://www.exploringart.co/ancient-roman-art-altar-domitius-ahenobarbus/
 Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus

Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, "Census" scene

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https://www.exploringart.co/ancient-roman-art-altar-domitius-ahenobarbus/
Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus

The panels bearing the mythological scene, a marine thiasos of late

Hellenistic style, are made of a different marble derived from Asia
Minor. The reliefs probably depict the marriage of Neptune and
Amphitrite.

At the centre of the scene, Neptune and Amphitrite are seated in a

chariot drawn by two Tritons who dance to music. They are
accompanied by a multitude of fantastic creatures, Tritons and
Nereides who form a retinue for the wedding couple.

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 As with the Greeks, the Romans
loved to represent their gods in
statues.
When Roman emperors began to
claim divinity then they too became
the subject of often colossal and
idealised statues, often with the
subject portrayed with an arm
raised to the masses and striking a
suitably authoritative stance as in
the Augustus of the Prima Porta.

Portrait of Augustus as general

Marble copy of bronze original
c. 20 BC

https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/images-of-power- 15
art-as-an-historiographic-tool/augustus-caesar
 Under Hadrian there
was a return to
idealised images such as
in Classical Greek
sculpture
(e.g. the colossal statue
of Antinous, c. 130 CE)

But there was an important innovation in

terms of a more natural rendering of the eyes
in marble works. Previously, pupil and iris had
only been painted on to the sculpture but now
these also came to be sculpted as had been
the case in bronze and terracotta works.
The colossal statue of Antinous, favourite of
Roman Emperor Hadrian, who drowned in the
Nile in 130 CE and was officially made a god by
the emperor. Excavated from the site of
Hadrian's villa. (The Vatican Museums, Rome). 16
For official portraits of the ruling elite,
in contrast to lower class subjects, the
subject continued to be idealised, for
example, the statue of Augustus as
Pontifex Maximus has the emperor
looking much more youthful and
fresh-faced than he actually was at the
time of sculpting (end of the 1st
century BCE).
Augustus as Pontifex Maximus 12 BC 17
 However, by the time of Claudius in the mid
1st century CE, and even more so under Nero
and the Flavian emperors, official portraiture
on occasion strove for more realism. In the
same period female portraits are also notable
for their elaborate hairstyles and they no
doubt were prime instigators in fashion trends.

The example of verism in

Roman portraiture – a
private portrait of a Claudius was Roman Nero was Roman
patrician, 1st century BC, emperor from 41 to emperor from 54 to 68
via Smart History 54 CE. CE. 18
https://www.thecollector.com/roman-marbles/
 Caesar Augustus

Marble bust of Trajan, c. Hadrian set in a bust with cuirass

108-117 C.E. Marble. Ca. 130 CE. 19
Statues could also be used for
decorative purposes in the home
or garden and they could be
miniaturized, especially in precious
metals such as silver. One type of
such statues which were peculiar
to the Romans was the Lares
Familiares. These were usually in
bronze and represented the spirits
which protected the home.

They were typically displayed in pairs

in a niche within the house and are
youthful figures with arms raised and
long hair who typically wear a tunic
and sandals.
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 Architectural Sculpture

Sculpture on Roman buildings could be

merely decorative or have a more political
purpose, for example, on triumphal arches
(which most often celebrated military
victories) the architectural sculpture captured
in detail key campaign events which
reinforced the message that the emperor was
a victorious and civilizing agent across the
known world.
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 A typical example is the Arch of Constantine in
Rome (c. 315 CE) which also shows defeated and enslaved
‘barbarians’ to ram home the message of Rome’s
superiority. Similarly, on columns such as Trajan’s Column
(c. 113 CE).
Such a portrayal of real people and specific
historical figures in architectural sculpture is in marked
contrast to Greek sculpture where great military victories
were usually presented in metaphor using figures from
Greek mythology like amazons and centaurs such as on
the Parthenon.

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 Column of Trajan

The Triumph was a riotous military ritual celebrated

by the Romans over the course of centuries—whenever
their commander had won a spectacular victory.
On the appointed day (or days) the city would be
overflowing with crowds, pageantry, spoils, prisoners,
depictions and souvenirs of foreign lands—but then, just as
quickly as it began, the glorious tumult was over.

Being pragmatists, the Romans enlisted both

means of commemoration—the ephemeral and the
permanent. The Column of Trajan (dedicated in May of 113
C.E.) might be the crowning example of the inborn need to
commemorate—in more permanent form—historical deeds
that dominates the psyche of Roman art and artists.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/early-empire/a/column-of-trajan#: 23
 Column of Trajan

Column of
Trajan,
dedicated 113
C.E., plan,
elevation, and
section

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/early-empire/a/column-of-trajan#: 24
 Column of Trajan

The iconographic scheme of the column illustrates Trajan’s

wars in Dacia. The lower half of the column corresponds to the first
Dacian War (c. 101–102 C.E.), while the top half depicts the
second Dacian War (c. 105–106 C.E.). The first narrative event
shows Roman soldiers marching off to Dacia, while the final
sequence of events portrays the suicide of the enemy leader,
Decebalus, and the mopping up of Dacian prisoners by the
Romans.
The execution of the frieze is meticulous and the level of detail
achieved is astonishing. While the column does not carry applied paint
now, many scholars believe the frieze was initially painted. The sculptors
took great care to provide settings for the scenes, including natural
backgrounds, and mixed perspectival views to offer the maximum level of
detail. Sometimes multiple perspectives are evident within a single scene.
The overall, unifying theme is that of the Roman military campaigns in
Dacia, but the details reveal additional, more subtle narrative threads.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/early-empire/a/column-of-trajan#: 25
 Column of Trajan

The crossing of the Roman Army over the Danube River in the first Dacian
War (the large figure is a personification of the Danube) (detail), Column of
Trajan, dedicated 113 C.E., Rome (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/early-empire/a/column-of-trajan#: 26
 Column of Trajan

Battle between Romans and Dacians (detail), Column of Trajan,

dedicated 113 C.E., (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/early-empire/a/column-of-trajan#: 27
Column of Trajan

The Emperor (fifth from the lower right) oversees construction (detail), Column
of Trajan, dedicated 113 C.E., (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0) 28
Column of Trajan

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Altar of Augustan
Altars could also be used to present important
individuals in a favourable light, perhaps the first such
piece is the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus from Rome
(c. 100 BCE) which may depict the orator Marcus
Antonius.
The most famous altar of all is the Ara Pacis of
Augustus (completed 9 BCE) in Rome, a huge block of
masonry which depicts spectators and participants at a
religious procession. Unlike later official sculpture the
representation of the emperor is understated but what
makes the monument significant is the rendering of
the figures in a state of action. It seems as though they
have been captured in a single moment as in a
photograph, a child pulls on a toga, Augustus’ sister
tells two chatterers to be silent and so on. 30
Altar of Augustan

Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace), 9 B.C.E. (Ara Pacis

Museum, Rome, Italy) (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
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Altar of Augustan

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Altar of Augustan

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Altar of Augustan

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Arch of Constantine in Rome (c. 315 CE)

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 Funerary Sculpture

Funeral busts and stelae (tombstones) were one of the most

common forms of sculpture in the Roman world. These
sculptures could portray the deceased alone, with their
partner, children and even slaves (see the 1st century CE
gravestone of the corn-merchant Ampudius, now in the
British Museum). Figures usually wear a toga and women
can hold the pudicitia pose with hand on chin in remorse.
Grave altars were also common and these could carry relief
scenes from the deceased’s life or stock scenes and those of
the more wealthy could portray different generations of
family members.

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From the 2nd century CE burial (as opposed to the more
traditional cremation) became more common and so a
market developed for sarcophagi. These were carved in
stone and often had scenes from mythology sculpted in
high relief on all four sides and even the lid. ‘Asiatic’
sarcophagi were the most highly decorated with reliefs
cut almost in the round. The Proconnesian typea had
sculpture above maidens holding garlands and the ‘Rome’
type had a blank side for placing the sarcophagi against a
wall. By the 2nd century CE the sculpture could also
include a portrait of the occupant, usually in heroic guise,
perhaps as a victorious general or, later still, in a
dedicated panel or tondo on the front side.

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The golden ratio

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The golden ratio

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Wall Painting

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1- Incrustation Style
Beyond tracking how the styles evolved out of one another,
Mau’s categorizations focused on how the artist divided up
the wall and used paint, color, image and form—either to
embrace or counteract—the flat surface of the wall.

Example of First Style painting, House of the

Faun, Pompeii, built 2nd century, B.C.E. Detail of faux marble
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2- Architectural Style painting

Architectural Style," was first seen in Pompeii

around 80 B.C.E. It incorporated elements of such as faux
marble blocks along the base of walls.
This style attempted to trick the viewer into
believing that they were looking through a window by
painting illusionistic images.

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Example of Second Style painting, cubiculum (bedroom),
Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale, 50–40 B.C.E., fresco
265.4 x 334 x 583.9 cm
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Example of Second Style painting, cubiculum
(bedroom), Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at
Boscoreale, 50–40 B.C.E., fresco
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In one of the most famous examples of the Second
Style, P. Fannius Synistor’s bedroom (now
reconstructed in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art), the artist utilizes multiple vanishing points.
This technique shifts the perspective throughout
the room, from balconies to fountains and along
colonnades into the far distance, but the visitor’s
eye moves continuously throughout the room,
barely able to register that he or she has remained
contained within a small room.

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The figures are examples of megalographia, a Greek
term referring to life-size paintings. The fact that the
figures are the same size as viewers entering the room,
as well as the way the painted figures sit in front of the
columns dividing the space, are meant to suggest that
the action taking place is surrounding the viewer.
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Example of Second Style painting, view of the Dionysiac frieze,
Villa of the Mysteries, before 79 C.E., fresco, 15 x 22 feet, just
outside the walls of Pompeii on the Road to Herculaneum
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 3- Ornate Style

The Third Style, or Mau’s "Ornate Style," came

about in the early 1st century C.E. and was
popular until about 50 C.E. The Third Style
embraced the flat surface of the wall through
the use of broad, monochromatic planes of Example of Third Style painting,
panel with candelabrum, Villa
color, such as black or dark red, punctuated by
Agrippa Postumus, Boscotrecase,
ornaments, minute and intricate details. last decade of the 1st century
B.C.E. 48
 4- Intricate Style

‘’Intricate Style" became popular in the mid-first century C.E.

and is seen in Pompeii until the city’s destruction in 79 C.E. It
can be best described as a combination of the three styles
that came before. Faux marble blocks along the base of the
walls, as in the First Style, frame the naturalistic architectural
scenes from the Second Style, which in turn combine with the
large flat planes of color and slender architectural details from
the Third Style. The Fourth Style also incorporates central
panel pictures, although on a much larger scale than in the
third style and with a much wider range of themes,
incorporating mythological, genre, landscape and still life
images.

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Example of Fourth Style painting, Ixion Room, House of the Vetii, Pompeii, 1st
century C.E. 50
 References:

• https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/apollo-sauroctonus

• https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/UsefulNotes/Augustus
• https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-
civilizations/roman/early-empire/a/column-of-trajan#:

• https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-
historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/images-of-power-art-as-an-
historiographic-tool/augustus-caesar

• http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/antiquity/roman-sculpture.htm

• https://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Sculpture/

• https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/wall-
painting/a/roman-wall-painting-styles

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Thank you

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