CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
GROUP 3 - AGGREGATES
I. WHAT ARE AGGREGATES?
 Aggregates are the natural or artificial
inorganic granular materials used with a
cementing medium to form mortar or
concrete.
 Aggregate occupy around 70% to 80% other
volume of the concrete,reduce shrinkage
effects and minimize costs.
II. USES OF AGGREGATES
 Aggregate can be used in a number of ways in
construction.
 As a Load Bearing Material
 As a Filling Material
 As an Infiltrating Material
 In roads and railway ballast the aggregates are
used to resist the overall (static as well as
dynamic) load, to distribute the load properly
to the supporting ground and to drain the
water off the surface. In concrete the
aggregate is used for economy, reduce
shrinkage and cracks and to strengthen the
structure. They are also used in water filtration
and sewage treatment processes.
III. METHODS OF EXTRACTING AND PROCESSING
AGGREGATES
 Underwater sources:
 Dragline excavationDredging
 Land Sources:
 Blasting bedrocks
 Track Drills
 Crushers and Screens
IV. GOOD QUALITIES OF AN IDEAL AGGREGATE
 An ideal aggregate used for the manufacturing
of concrete and mortar, should meet the
following requirements:
 It should consists natural stones,gravels and
sand or in various combinations of these
materials.
 It should be hard, strong and durable.
 It should be dense, clear and free from any
coating.
 It should be free from injurious vegetable
matters.
 It should not contain flaky (angular) and
elongated pieces.
 It should not contain any material liable to
attack steel reinforcement in case of reinforced
concrete
V. CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
 Classification Based on Source
 Natural Aggregates
- Are taken from native deposits with no change in
their natural state during
production other than crushing, grading, or washing
Examples:
sand, gravel, crushed stone, pumice
 Artificial Aggregates
- Are those materials obtained either as a by-
product of an unrelated industrial
process or by a special manufacturing process like
heat treatment.
Examples:
blast-furnace slag, expanded perlite, expanded
vermiculite, burned clay
 Classification Based on Shape
 Rounded Aggregates
- Are naturally rounded aggregates that are formed
by water or weathering
- Need less cement paste to make concrete
- Interlocking between particles is poor
- Not suitable for high strength concrete
 Irregular Aggregates
- Partly shaped aggregates are called irregular
aggregates
- No specific shape
 Angular Aggregates
- These aggregates have sharp edges and rough
surfaces.
- All types of crushed rocks are good examples for
this type of aggregates
- They need more cement paste, since voids are
more in the aggregates
- Ideal for producing high strength concrete
 Flaky Aggregates
- Flaky aggregates have thickness less than 0.6
times mean sieve size to which particles belong.
- Flaky aggregates reduce the durability of concrete
 Elongated Aggregates
- Individual particles are longer than they are wider
or deeper and due to this appear to be long and
thin.
- This particle-type provides more surface area to a
concrete mix
 Classification Based on Size
 Fine Aggregates
- Aggregates passing through IS 4.75mm sieve
- Fine aggregates are basically natural sand particles
from the land through the
mining process, the fine aggregates consist of
natural sand or any crushed stone
particles that are ¼” or smaller
- Examples:
(a) Natural Sand
Fine aggregates formed by natural disintegration of
rocks
(b) Crushed Stone Sand
Fine aggregates made by crushing natural gravels
(c) Broken Fine Aggregates
Obtained by crushing broken brick (Surkhi)
 Qualities of Fine Aggregates
- Fine aggregate should be clean i.e. it should be
free from lumps, organic material, etc.
- It should be strong and durable.
- It should not react with cement after mixing.
- Also, it should have a tough floor.
- It should not absorb greater than 5% of water.
-These types of aggregates should not be soft and
porous.
 Properties of Fine Aggregates
(a) Size
-The largest size that falls under the limit of the
exact set is 4.75 mm.
-Using the largest size will give more dense
concrete, but a mixture of all sizes is more desirable
and more economical.
-If cement mortar is prepared for masonry work or
plastering work, very fine types of
sand of similar size is used.
(b) Strength
-The strength of the aggregate cannot ensure the
strength of the concrete.
- The strength of coarse aggregates are more
important.
(c) Shape
-Irregularly nodular shaped sand is preferable to
completely round grained sand.
-The shape of the aggregate plays a more important
role in the coarse aggregate than in the fine
aggregate.
(d) Specific Gravity
-The specific gravity of aggregates is the ratio of the
density of water to its density.
-It is used for concrete mix design and if not
specified the specific gravity is taken as 2.7 because
the specific gravity of most aggregates obtained
from different sources falls between 2.6 and 2.8.
(e) Surface Texture
-Generally, round surface aggregates are better for
smooth aggregates, this property is also related to
coarse aggregate.
(f) Water Absorption
-Typically, for sand, water absorption is negligible, it
is desirable that water absorption should be kept
(g) Surface Index
-It is an empirical number that corresponds to a
specific surface of overweight particles given finer
fractions.
(h) Soundness
-It refers to the expansion and contraction of
aggregate when subjected to temperature changes.
-A good, sound aggregates is one that exhibits
minimal expansion or contraction under changing
temperatures.
(i) Surface Moisture
-Many aggregates have a tendency to attract
moisture that is adsorbed around each particle and
gives rise to the bulking phenomenon.
(j) Specific Surface
-The surface area per unit weight of the material is
called a specific surface.
(k) Bulking
-Bulking is a phenomenon that causes the
aggregates to swell by absorbing moisture
from the humid air.
-The concrete mix design may be inaccurate and
enough additional sand is always added to
compensate for this swelling when this bulk sand
will return to normal state.
(l) Bulk Density
-It refers to the amount of voids or spaces between
particles, as well as the total density of aggregates
considered.
-The unit weight of sand is between 17 and 25
kNIm3.
 Fine Aggregate Grading
 Fineness Modulus (FM)
- Obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative
percentages by mass of a sample aggregate
retained on each of a specified series of sieves and
dividing the sum by 100.
FM = sum of cumulative percent retained/100
 Calculation of Fineness Modulus of Sand
- Let us say the dry weight of sample = 1000g. After
sieve analysis the values appeared are tabulated
below.
Therefore, fineness modulus of aggregate =
(cumulative % retained) / 100 =
(275/100) = 2.75
 Coarse Aggregates
- The aggregates which is retained on IS 4.75mm
sieve . Most commonly used coarse aggregates are
crushed stone, gravel, broken
pieces of burnt bricks, etc.
 Coarse Aggregate Grading
VI.SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES
- It is a process of dividing a sample of aggregate
into various fractions, each consisting of particles of
same nominal size. The resultant of particle size
distribution is called the gradation.
 Gradation
(a) Well Graded
- Well-graded aggregates have a gradation of
particle size that fairly evenly spans the size from
the finest to the coarsest. A core of well-graded
aggregate concrete shoes a packed field of many
different particle sizes.
(b) Poorly Graded
- This aggregate is characterized by a small variation
in size. It includes aggregate particles that are near
the same size. This means that the particles of the
aggregate pack together, leaving relatively large
voids in the concrete.
(c) Gap Graded
- Gap-graded aggregate consists of aggregate
particles in which some intermediate-size particles
are missing. A core of gap-graded concrete shows a
field of small-seized aggregate interspersed with
slightly large aggregate pieces embedded in a small
sized aggregate.
VII. TESTS TO BE CONDUCTED
 Crushing Test on Aggregates
- The aggregate crushing value gives the crushing
strength of aggregate up to which it can bear the
load without fail.
 Abrasion Test on Aggregates
- Hardness property of aggregate is determined by
conducting abrasion test. Los Angeles abrasion
testing machine is used to conduct this test.
 Impact Test on Aggregates
- Impact value of aggregate will give aggregate
capability
against sudden loads of forces.
 Soundness Test on Aggregates
- To determine the weathering resistance of
aggregate, soundness test is conducted. If the
resistance against weathering is good for aggregate,
then it will have high durability.
 Shape Test on Aggregates
- Shape of aggregate is also important consideration
for the construction of pavement. Aggregate should
not contain flaky and elongated particles in it. If
they contain this type of of particles, they will affect
the stability of mix.
 Bitumen Adhesion Test on Aggregates
- Bitumen adhesion test will give the stripping of
bitumen from the aggregate.
 Specific Gravity on Aggregates
- Specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of its
mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at
specific temperature.
 Water Absorption on Aggregates
- This test helps to determine the water absorption
value of aggregate.
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
GROUP 4 - CEMENT
I. WHAT IS A CEMENT?
 Cement is a fine, soft, powdery-type substance.
 It is made from a mixture of elements that are
found in natural materials such as limestone, clay,
sand, and/or shale.
 When cement is mixed with water, it can bind sand
and aggregates into a hard, solid mass called
concrete.
II. HISTORY OF CEMENT
 Cement was first developed by, Joseph Aspdin, a
19th-century British stone mason, who heated a
mixture of ground limestone and clay in his kitchen
stove and pulverized the mixture into a fine
powder.
 The result was the world's first hydraulic cement:
one that hardens when water is added.
 Aspdin dubbed his creation Portland cement due to
its similarity to a stone quarried on the Isle of
Portland, off the British coast.
 In 1824, this brilliant craftsman obtained a patent
for what would prove to be the world's most
ubiquitous building material, laying the foundation
for today's global Portland cement industry.
III. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
 The raw materials used for the manufacture of
cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina, and
iron oxide.
 These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at
high temperature to form more complex
compounds.
 The relative proportions of these oxide
compositions are responsible for influencing the
various properties of cement, in addition to rate of
cooling and fineness of grinding.
IV. FUNCTIONS OF INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT
 Lime (CaO)
 Major ingredient of cement.
 Excess quantity of lime makes the cement unsound.
 If the lime is used more than 65 %, it may result in
the problem of expansion.
 If it is less, it decreases the strength and allows the
cement to set quickly.
 Silica
 An important ingredient which gives strength to
cement.
 Silica provides high compressive strength, abrasion
resistance, and bond strength to cement.
 Alumina
 Excess use of alumina quickens the setting time but
weakens the cement bonding.
 It also lowers the temperature of clinkers.
 Iron Oxide
 It helps the fusion of the raw materials during the
burning stage.
 It gives colour, strength, and hardness to cement.
 Magnesium Oxide
 If present in small quantities, MgO imparts
hardness and colour to cement.
 If excess in quantity, it weakens the cement.
 Sulfur Trioxide
 It can enhance the expansive performance of
cement materials and prolong the setting time of
cement.
 A very small quantity is required in the
manufacturing of cement.
 If is in excess, SO3 makes the cement unsound.
 Alkalies
 Only a small quantity is required.
 High amount of alkali leads to difficulty in the
regulation of setting time, low amount leads to the
discolouration of cement.
V. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
 Fineness
 It is the biggest factor in the strength of cement.
Higher fineness leads to higher strength.
 Fineness of cement affects hydration rate.
 Smaller cement particles react much quicker than
the larger particles.
 Fineness test is used to check the proper grinding of
cement.
 Soundness
 The capacity of not changing the properties of the
material, like volume change; when water is added
to it, is soundness.
 Material with high soundness has a higher strength.
So cement should also have high soundness.
 Cement should be the cause of high soundness in
mortar and concrete.
 Some of the tests carried out to ensure the
soundness are: Le Chatelier Test & Autoclave test
 Consistency
 The consistency of cement is the minimum water
requirement to start the chemical reaction between
water and cement to form a paste.
 In other words, the flowing ability of cement paste
is the consistency.
 Vicat Test is carried out to measure the consistency
of cement.
 Setting Time
 When water is added to the cement, it hardens and
sets.
 Setting time may depend upon uniformity of
cement, water-cement ratio, presence of
admixtures, etc.
 The initial setting time of the cement should not be
less, and the final setting time should not be high.
 The best initial and final setting time for cement is
given as:
 Initial Setting Time: 30-45 Minutes
 Final Setting Time: Below 10 Hours
 Heat of Hydration
 The chemical reaction between cement and water
is called the heat of hydration.
 When water is added to cement, heat is generated.
This can affect cement quality because excessive
hydration leads to undesired strength.
 Hydration depends upon the water-cement ratio,
uniformness, temperature of curing, etc.
 Strength of Cement
 Compressive, tensile, and flexural strength play a
vital role in the durability and quality of cement.
 Factors affecting the strength of cement are:
 Water-cement ratio of a mix.
 Loading conditions
 Cement-fine aggregate ratio
 Age of cement
 Curing conditions
 Size and shape of a specimen
 The manner of moulding and mixing
 Compressibility
 Cement has high compressive strength. Thus, it
provides stability and durability to the structure.
VI. MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
 There are more than twenty types of cement used
to make various specialty concrete, however the
most common is Portland cement.
 Several types of Portland cement are available. The
most common, called ordinary Portland cement
(OPC), is grey, but white Portland cement is also
available.
 Its name is derived from its resemblance to
Portland stone which was quarried on the Isle of
Portland in Dorset, England.
VII. 4 STAGES OF MANUFACTRURING PORTLAND
CEMENT
 Crushing
 All except soft materials are first crushed, often in
two stages, and then grounded, usually in a
rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills containing a
charge of steel grinding balls.
 For limestone and clay, they are ground separately
to a size of about 25 mm in crushers. Then it is
pulverized into fine powder in ball mills and tube
mills.
 The crushing and pulverizing process is carried out
separately for each material.
 Blending
 The raw materials are then mixed in correct
proportions in dry powdered form with the help of
compressed air.
 This finely ground powder of the raw materials is
called raw mix.
 In the dry process, these mixes are stored in silos;
slurry tanks are used in the wet process. Thorough
mixing of the dry materials in the silos is ensured by
agitation and vigorous circulation induced by
compressed air.
 Burning
 The raw mix is then fed into the rotary kiln, made
up of steel tubes.
 The temperature at the firing end ranges from
about 1,350 to 1,550 °C (2,460 to 2,820 °F),
depending on the raw materials being burned.
 The burned product emerges from the kiln as small
nodules of clinker. These pass into coolers, where
the heat is transferred to incoming air and the
product cooled. The clinker may be immediately
ground to cement or stored in stockpiles for later
use.
 Grinding
 The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are
ground to a fine powder in horizontal mills similar
to those used for grinding the raw materials.
 About 3-5 % gypsum is added during grinding to the
cooled clinkers to prevent flash set.
 Clinkers are ground in ball mills and tube mills after
controlled cooling. Closed-circuit grinding is done in
tube mills. A cyclonic separator ensures proper
particle size distribution.
 After grinding the cement into a fine powder, it is
stored in silos.
 With the help of an automatic machine, the cement
is then weighed and packed in bags of 50 kg.
 Each step of cement's manufacturing process
requires monitoring with frequent chemical and
physical tests to ensure cement meets industry
specifications.
 Scientists may use oxide analysis to verify the
content and composition of cement samples.
 Some physical features they may inspect may
include: (Air content, Compressive strength, Early
age strength development, Increased heat of
hydration, Lower heat of hydration, Particle size,
Setting time)
VIII. USES OF CEMENT
 Cement is widely used across the world in the
construction of various engineering structures.
 It has proved to be one of the leading engineering
material of modern times and has no rivals in
production and applications.
 Cements may be used alone (i.e., “neat,” as
grouting materials), but the normal use is in mortar
and concrete in which the cement is mixed with
inert material known as aggregate to form a strong
binding material.
 To prepare mortar
- Cement mortar is like a paste which is prepared by
adding certain quantity of water to cement and sand
mixture.
- Cement in this case is denoted as matrix while sand is
termed as adulterant.
- We know Cement has good binding properties while
there are other binding materials are also available, but
cement is mostly used because of its high strength and
water resisting properties.
- Generally, the cement sand ratio in a mortar is in
between 1:2 to 1:6. The ratio of cement and sand mix is
decided based on the importance of work.
 To prepare cement concrete
- Cement concrete is a major building material in the
world which is widely using because of its marvelous
structural properties.
- The ingredients of cement concrete are cement, fine
aggregate, coarse aggregate and water respectively.
 To Build Fire Proof or Heat Proof Structures
- To with stand against high temperatures and to prevent
fire accidents structures should be built with great fire-
resistant materials like cement.
- High alumina cement is more suitable material to make
concrete for the structures in high temperature regions.
IX. TYPES OF CEMENT
 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
 Most widely used type of cement manufactured
and used worldwide.
 “Portland” is a generic name derived from a type of
building stone quarried on the Isle of Portland in
Dorset, England. OPC is suitable for most general
concrete jobs and mortar or stucco construction
projects.
 Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
 Created by grinding pozzolanic clinker, sometimes
with additives of gypsum or calcium sulfate, with
ordinary Portland cement.
 Compared to OPC, it has a higher resistance to
various chemical reactions within concrete.
 Used for projects like bridges, piers, dams, marine
structures, sewage works or underwater concrete
projects.
 Rapid-hardening Cement
 Contractors or construction teams may choose this
for its high strength in the early stages of the
hardening process. Its strength in three days is
comparable to OPC strength at seven days with the
same water-to-cement ratio.
 May have an increased lime content, combined  Often useful in architectural projects and interior
with a finer grinding process, or better strength and exterior decorative projects like designing
development. garden paths, floors, swimming pools and
 Used for projects with early-stage form work ornamental concrete products.
removal or when the focus is on increasing  Colored Cement
construction rates and decreasing costs  Has properties similar to OPC and white cement.
 Extra-rapid-hardening Cement  Manufacturers mix 5% to 10% mineral pigments
 May set and become durable even faster than OPC with OPC to achieve the desired color.
and rapid-hardening cement. Construction  Like white cement, contractors often use this type
professionals achieve this by adding calcium for decorative purposes and projects to enhance
chloride to rapid-hardening cement. their designs.
 Useful for cold-weather concrete projects due to its  Air-entraining Cement
fast setting rate.  More workable with a smaller water-cement ratio
 Quick-setting Cement than OPC and other types of cement.
 Similar to extra-rapid-hardening cement, this Manufacturers add air-entraining agents like glues,
concrete type may set and become stronger even sodium salts and resins to the clinker during the
quicker than OPC and rapid-hardening cement. Its grinding process to create this cement.
grain and strength rate are similar to OPC, but it  Common used for frost resistance in concrete.
hardens faster.  Expansive Cement
 Beneficial for time-sensitive projects or those  Can grow slightly over time without shrinking
located near stagnant or running water during the hardening process.
 Low Heat Cement  Beneficial for projects like grouting anchor bolts or
 Produced by monitoring the percentage of concrete ducts.
tricalcium aluminate in the mixture to ensure it  Can also be used in structure joints or to reinforce
stays below 6% of the whole. This helps maintain other concrete structures.
low heat during the hydration process, making this  Hydrographic Cement
cement type more resistant to sulfates and less  Created by mixing in water- repelling chemicals.
reactive than other types of cement.  Has high workability and strength and also repels
 Suitable for mass concrete construction or projects water to prevent weather damage.
to help prevent cracking due to heat.  Used for projects such as dams, water tanks,
 Sulfate-resisting Cement spillways and water retaining structures.
 Helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on
concrete.
 Common use is for constructing foundations in soil
with high sulfate content.
 Beneficial for projects like canal linings, culverts and
retaining walls.
 Blast Furnace Slag Cement
 Produced by grinding clinker with up to 60% slag.
This creates cement with many of the same
properties as OPC.
 However, it may be less expensive to produce than
other types, making it a good choice for financially
conscious projects.
 High-Alumina Cement
 A type of rapid-hardening cement created by
melting bauxite and lime together and grinding it
with clinker.
 Has high compressive strength and may be more
flexible and workable than OPC.
 Used for projects where cement is subject to
extreme weather like high temperatures or frost.
 White Cement
 A type of OPC that's white instead of Gray.
 Prepared from raw materials that don't include iron
oxide and may be more expensive than other
cement types.
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY
GROUP 4 - STRUCTURAL TECHNOLOGY AND ROCK
MECHANICS
I. WHAT IS STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY?
 The study of the three-dimensional distribution
of large bodies of rock, their surfaces, and the
composition inside the rock units to learn about
their tectonic movements' history, past
geological events and environments that could
have deformed them
 Sub-discipline of geology that studies how rocks
deform in response to the stresses that act
within the Earth
 The study of factors such as origin, occurrence,
classification, type and effects of various
secondary structures like folds, faults, joints,
rock cleavage and are different from those
primary structures such as bedding and
vesicular structure, which develop in rocks at
the time of their formation
II. IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY TO CIVIL
ENGINEERS
 Helps them to properly plan a project when
considering the design, location, and other
important geological factors
 Helps ensure a safe and cost-effective design for
construction projects
III. ATTITUDES OF BEDS AND OUTCROPS
 Beds
 layers of sedimentary rocks that are distinctly
different from overlying and underlying subsequent
beds of different sedimentary rocks
 layers of beds are called strata
 formed from sedimentary rocks being deposited on
the Earth's solid surface over a long period of time
 Outcrops
 An exposed rock formed by the intrusion of molten
granite into by preexisting country rock at a depth
of about country rock at a depth of about ten miles
below the surface
 A bedding attitude is defined as:
 Strike
- The direction of a line produced by the intersection of
an imaginary horizontal plane ion of an imaginary
horizontal plane with an inclined bed
 Dip
- The angle between the imaginary horizontal plane and
the inclined bed measured in a plane oriented at degrees
to the strike line
IV. WHAT ARE GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND WHAT ARE
THEY USED FOR?
 Geologic maps
 Uniquely suited to solving problems involving Earth
resources, hazards, and environments
 Represent the distribution of different types of rock
and one of different types of rock and surficial
deposits, as well as locations of geologic structures
such as faults and folds
 Are the primary source of information for various
aspects of land-use planning, including the setting
of buildings and transportation systems {aid in
locating water-supply wells, and assist in locating
potential polluting operations, such as landfills}
 Geological Map Descriptors
 When recording observations, geologists use
descriptive terms and rock names that are in
common use or unique to an area
 These terms are then synthesized and rewritten
into formal map unit descriptions that are
published with the map
V. ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS
 Color
 Represent various types of geologic features or
units (a particular type of rock with a known age
particular type of rock with a known age range)
 Geologic units are indicated by colors that can
range from yellows and reds to purples and brown
purples and browns.
 Letter
 Usually composed of an initial capital letter
followed by one or two lowercased letters
 The capital letter represents the age of the geologic
unit
 The lower-cased letters indicate the geologic unit's
name or the type of rock of which it is comprised
 Contact and fault lines
 When two geologic units are located next to each
other, the place where they meet is called a
contact. The two main types of contact. The two
main types of contacts are depositional contacts
and faults.
 Depositional contacts are created when geologic
units are composed under, over, or next to each
other. The place where they meet is called a
depositional contact and is indicated by a thin line.
 Faults are cracks or fractures in Earth's crust (outer
portion of Earth's surface) caused by the movement
of land masses, called plates, on either side of the
fault line. When plates move suddenly, the result is
an earthquake.
 A fault line (a thick line with the same geologic unit
on both sides of the line) indicates geologic units
that have been moved by faults after they have
been formed. Fault lines are especially important
for geologic maps of where faults are known to be
active
VI. FOLDS, FAULTS AND JOINT AND THEIR BEARINGON
ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION
 Folds
- A geologic structure that is formed by layers or beds of
rock being bent or folded because of pressure and high
temperature
 3 Types of Folds
 Monoclines
- A form of a geological structure with folds in the rock
strata which resemble steps
- There are two or more horizontal limbs in this structure
which are joined by an inclined short limb
 Anticlines
- Form when rocks are compressed by plate-tectonic
forces
- They can be as small as a hill or as large as a mountain
range
 Synclines
- A fold with younger layers closer to the center of the
structure
 Faults
- Fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of
rock
- Allow the blocks to move relative to each other.
 3 Main Types of Faults
 Normal faults
- Form when the hanging wall drops down
 Reverse faults
- Form when the hanging wall moves up
 Trans current or Strike-slip
- faults have walls that move sideways, not up or down
 Joints
- a brittle-fracture surface in rocks along which little or
no displacement has occurred
VII. INTRODUTION TO ROCK MECHANICS
 The theoretical and applied science of the
mechanical behavior of rock
 Deals with issues in geosciences related to rock
mass characterization and rock mass mechanics,
such as characterization and rock mass mechanics
 Doncerned with the application of the principles of
engineering mechanics to the design of structures
built in or of rock
 The structure could include-but not limited to - a
drill hole, a mining shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam,
a repository component, or a building
VIII. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
 Hardness
- The ability of a material to resists scratching abrasion
penetration or wear on it known as hardness or the
ability of a material resists plastic deformation
 Porosity
- The percentage of void space in a rock
- Defined as the ratio of the volume of the voids or pore
space divided by the total volume Rocks with rounded
grains are usually
- Rocks with rounded grains are usually softer and
crumblier than rocks with interlocking grains
- Common porous rocks are sandstone, limestone, clay
 Permeability
- The property of rocks that is an indication of the ability
for fluid to flow through rocks
- High permeability will allow fluids to move rapidly
through rocks.
- Is affected by the pressure in a rock
 Luster
- Is how a mineral reflecting light.
- The terms metallic and nonmetallic describe the basic
types of lusters.
- Some minerals that don't exhibit luster are referred to - the ability or capacity of a material to withstand or
as "earthy," "chalky," or "dull." support a load without fracture
 Streak
- Is the color of the powdered mineral, which is usually - a strength of rock is a function of the confining pressure
more useful for identification than the color of the whole - the strength of rock is defined as the pulling force,
mineral sample. Rubbing the mineral on a streak plate required to rupture a rock sample
will produce a streak.  Elasticity
- A streak plate can be made from the unglazed back side - the ability of material to regain its original shape and
of a white porcelain bathroom or kitchen tile. size after the removal of external load is known as
- Some minerals won't streak because they are harder elasticity
than the streak plate. - is the property of matter that causes it to resist
 Cleavage deformation in volume of shape
- The way in which a mineral break along smooth flat
planes is called cleavage.
- These breaks occur along planes of weakness in the
mineral's structure. However, if a mineral breaks along
an irregular surface, it does not have cleavage.
 Fracture
- When a mineral breaks irregularly, the breaks are called
fractures. The breaks can be described as grainy, hackly
(jagged), conchoidal (curved), or splintery.
 Tenacity
- How well a mineral resists breakage is known as
tenacity. Tenacity is described using these terms:
 Brittle - Mineral crushes to angular fragments
(quartz).
 Malleable - Mineral can be modified in shape
without breaking and can be flattened to a thin
sheet (copper, gold).
 Sectile - Mineral can be cut with a knife into thin
shavings (talc).
 Flexible - Mineral bends but doesn't regain its shape
once released (selenite, gypsum).
 Elastic - Mineral bends and regains its original shape
when released (muscovite and biotite mica).

IX. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK

 Those properties of a material that define its
behavior under applied forces
 Stress
- force applied to an object
 Strain
- a change in shape or size resulting from applied forces
 Young’s Modulus
- the tendency of an object to deform along an axis when
opposing forces are applied along that axis
 Shear Modulus
- an object’s tendency to shear when acted upon by
opposing forces
 Bulk Modulus
- the tendency of an object to deform in all direction
when uniformly loaded in all direction
 Poisson’s Ratio
- a mechanical property involved when relating the
lateral strain to the longitudinal strain
 Strength