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African Reaction to European Colonization

From 1879 when the first clash was recorded in the Congo Basin, European
colonizers began taking steps to colonize as many territories as possible on the
African continent. In the face of this European activity, Africans reacted
differently. Some kingdoms chose to collaborate with colonizers, while a larger
number decided to resist.

African Resistance to European Colonization

African resistance refers to the various methods which African kingdoms, Empires,
communities, and people used to oppose colonialism. Generally, African resistance
took the following forms: refusal to sign treaties, rejection of treaties earlier
signed, refusal to pay taxes, refusal to offer colonial labour, refusal to join the
colonial army, destruction of European crops, declaration of war, etc.

Causes of African Resistance

A) Political Causes
1) Desire to preserve their Sovereignty/independence

African leaders led their people in the fight against colonialism because they
wanted to remain independent. Colonialism meant an end to political freedom.
European control meant the affairs of all African kingdoms and empires were to
be controlled by them. Africans were not ready for this, and took measures to
preserve their independence. For instance, Emperor Menelik II led the people of
Abyssinia in a fight against Italy because he wanted to protect the sovereignty of
his kingdom
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2) European Disrespect of Treaties

European administrators, missionaries and traders often disrespected the terms of

treaties which had been signed at the time of annexation. In most cases,
annexation treaties stated that there will be no interference in the customs and
ways of life of the local people. However, shortly after annexation, Europeans
began taking steps to replace African values and civilization with those of Europe.
This was very common in French colonies. In Cote d’Ivoire for instance, the local
population rebelled because of French attempts to replace their traditional values.

3) Misinterpretation of Treaties

In some cases, Europeans signed treaties of friendship or trade with the local
people, but later attempted to convert them to treaties of annexation. In 1889 for
example, the Italian government signed a treaty of friendship with Emperor
Menelik II. This was known as the treaty of Ucciali. When the scramble for
Africa began, the Italian government began claiming that it was a treaty of
annexation. This led to war as the Italian wanted to take control through deception.

4) Deposition of African Rulers

During the period of colonialism, Europeans deposed traditional rulers who

opposed them, and replaced them with their supporters. This was disrespectful and
against African rule of succession. In 1887 for example, the British deposed King
Jaja of the Kingdom of Opobo for opposing their attempts to take over control of
his kingdom. The British consul in the area, Harry Johnston deceived king Jaja
to enter a British warship. He was then forcefully transported to the West Indies.
King Prempeh I of the kingdom of Asante was also exiled to Sychelles in 1898
for opposing British annexation
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5) Harsh Colonial rule

European colonial rule was generally very harsh. The cordial relationship which
existed between African middlemen and European nationals before annexation
ceased to exist when colonization began. Africans were treated with a lot of
disrespect. For instance, public flogging was a very popular form of punishment
under all colonial regimes in Africa. It was common for men who committed
crimes to be flogged in public places, even in the presence of their family
members.

6) Recruitment of Africans into the military

Thousands of Africans were conscripted into the army and used to fight against
resistant kingdoms. During the First World War, thousands of Africans lost their
lives as they were forced to fight on behalf of their colonial governments. Military
service led to the loss of countless African lives. This led to resistance.

B) Economic Causes
1) Desire to maintain middleman monopoly over interior trade

Coastal traders were against European penetration and occupation of the interior of
Africa. This was because it led to the elimination of their profitable position as
middlemen. At the time of annexation, coastal middlemen did not know that
Europeans will move into the interior. As such, they saw colonization as a
continuation of their profitable trade. In the Niger Delta for example, the people of
Opobo, under King Jaja fought fiercely against the British because of their
attempts to deal directly with the interior.
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2) Seizure of Native Land

Europeans seized the lands of the local people in order to carry out different
projects such as plantation agriculture, construction of mines, building of
settlements, establishment of schools, etc. The owners of such lands received little
or no compensation. The most notorious cases of land seizure were found in
Algeria, Kenya, South Africa and Tanzania. The displaced Africans had no choice
but to fight back.

3) Forced Labour

Africans were forced to work in European plantations, construction projects, and

transport goods to and from the interior with little or no compensation. Europeans
sought to exploit African labour in every way possible for their personal benefit
and that of the home country. Forced labour was most intense in the Belgian
Congo where the people were almost reduced to the level of slaves. Also, in
French colonies, forced labour was very rampant, especially among the
unassimilated Africans.

4) Heavy Taxation

Europeans imposed a series of taxes on the local people. Taxes were generally
imposed for two main reasons: to raise money to cover colonial expenses, and to
force Africans to offer paid labour. The numerous colonial taxes led to misery
among African people. In several colonies, there were riots and demonstrations
against colonial authorities because of taxation. Anti-tax resistance occurred in
Sierra Leone, Cote d’Ivoire, Kenya, Nigeria, and several other parts of the
continent.
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5) Cash crop restrictions

In some colonies, Africans were banned from cultivating cash crops on their own.
They could only work in plantations owned by white people. This was meant to
prevent any form of competition between white people and the local population. In
Algeria and Kenya for instance, the people were banned from owning plantations.
In Tanganyika, the local people were permitted to own plantations, but the prices
offered for their crops were very discouraging, leading to mass suffering.

6) Domination of Economic Activities

European businessmen monopolized import and export trade. Prices of goods were
determined by Europeans, and not necessarily by the forces of demand and supply.
Also, banks and insurance companies were owned and run by Europeans. Within
the colonial administration and in businesses, Africans were only employed to
lower positions, no matter their levels of education.

C) Social causes
1) Intervention in Indigenous Culture

European missionaries condemned several aspects of African culture. African

religion was considered paganic and primitive, and polygamy was discouraged,
although it was very popular among all communities. Traditional organizations
were also condemned and termed ungodly, and Christians were called upon to
boycott them. All these led to tension especially between missionary groups and
traditional authorities.

2) Racism

European colonizers believed in the superiority of the white race. They believed
that it was the natural order of things for white people to rule over, and dominate
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black people. As such, Africans were treated as sub-humans in their own land of
birth. This led to hatred for colonialism and the white man in general.

3) African Interpretation of Natural Calamities

In some parts of the continent, Africans believed that natural calamities were
caused by European activities on their land. Traditional rulers believed that
European attacks on their traditional religion influenced ancestral spirits to curse
their lands. In the Herero Kingdom of South Africa, the people believed that the
rinder pest disease which killed hundreds of cattle in 1897 was caused by colonial
atrocities.

4) The role of African Superstition

African beliefs in supernatural forces such as magic and ancestral spirits also
encouraged resistance. They knew Europeans were militarily superior to them, but
believed that they could achieve victory through supernatural means. African
superstition gave the people of Tanganyika courage to launch the Maji Maji
revolt. Also, the Mau Mau revolt in Kenya was encouraged by spiritual beliefs.

5) Social atrocities

Although Europeans considered Africans inferior, they were involved in several

sex scandals with African women. Cases of adultery and rape of African women
were common among European traders, planters and soldiers. African men accused
these Europeans of raping their women and spreading veneral diseases to them.
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CASE STUDIES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE:

A) The Mandinka Resistance to French Imperialism, 1882-1898

Introduction

Between 1882 and 1898, France faced the greatest resistance in her attempt to
establish a colony in West Africa. The Mandinka resistance to French colonization
lasted for 16 years, under the leadership of Samori Toure. Although he was finally
defeated in 1898, he gained the admiration of both African and European historians
and politicians. This was because of his skills in warfare and administration, as
well as his ability to resist French forces for 16 years. The protracted resistance
explains why Samori Toure was described by French historians as “the Bonaparte
of Africa” or simply as “Black Napoleon.” By this, the French compared his
military skills to that of Napoleon the Great of France. In order to understand the
determination of Samori to defend the empire, it is important to examine the role
he played in its establishment.

How Samori Toure Established the Mandinka Empire

Samori Ibn Lafiya Toure was born around 1830 in the Milo River valley of the
Kankan Region, in present day Guinea. His father was a herdsman while his
mother was a trader. Samori followed his mother’s occupation but at a later age, he
decided to become a soldier.

In the early 1850s, Samori’s mother was captured and enslaved by king Sori
Birama (Sere-Burlay) of the Cisse (sise) Clan. In order to ensure the release of
his mother, Samori decided to join the Sise army. In 1860, he successfully saved
his mother from captivity. By this time, he had become a skilled commander who
had a lot of respect within the Sise army.
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Samori Toure’s popularity in the army made him to start dreaming of establishing
an empire of his own. He built a large army and called for solidarity and equality
among all Mandinka people. His ideas made him more popular both within his
army and among the entire Mandinka community. With the large army, Samori
began his wars of expansion.

In 1866, he captured the kingdom of Kamadugu. Between 1871 and 1873, other
kingdoms like Kankan, Konia, Toron, Wasalonke and Bamako were captured. All
these became parts of the new empire. By 1880, Samori Toure had successfully
established one of the largest empires in West Africa. It consisted mainly of
Mandinka people. To the North West, the Mandinka Empire shared boundaries
with the Tukolor Empire; to the west was Futa Jallon, while the forest borders of
Sierra Leone and Liberia were its neighbours in the east and south.

In order to ensure unity within the empire along religious lines, Samori converted
to Islam. To show this change, he abandoned the pagan title Faama and adopted
the Muslim title Almani. He was therefore referred to as Almani Samori Toure.
In 1886, he called on all his subjects to abandon paganism and embrace Islam.

In the early 1880s, Almani Samori Toure clashed with French forces which were
penetrating into the interior of West Africa from their base in Senegal. This was
the beginning of a long conflict which lasted for about 16 years.

Causes of the Mandinka Resistance

1) French Imperialism in West Africa

After the annexation of Egypt by Britain, French interest in the territory was
frustrated. France was therefore determined to acquire territories in West Africa to
compensate for the loss of Egypt. After establishing their base in Senegal, French
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officials decided to expand and acquire more colonies in West Africa. It was in the
course of this expansion that French forces clashed with the army of Samori Toure.
French encroachment into the Northern part of the Mandinka Empire led to the
first phase of the war with Samori Toure.

2) Desire to Maintain Sovereignty

Samori Toure was not willing to surrender his empire to the French. After several
wars of expansion, Samori had successfully established a vast empire at the cost of
thousands of human lives. He was therefore determined to protect his empire from
French colonization, no matter the cost.

3) Samori’s Expansionism

While France was interested in establishing colonies in West Africa, Samori was
equally determined to expand his empire towards the north. This was a threat to the
French who had already established their base in Senegal. The interest of the
French and that of Samori were therefore conflicting. This made a clash between
both sides inevitable.

4) Religious Conflict

Samori Toure believed that one of the main ways to ensure unity within the empire
was to introduce Islam. He converted to Islam in 1850 and soon became a member
of the Tijaniyya Brotherhood. He also adopted the Muslim title Almani. Samori
made Islam the official religion in his empire, and forced his people to convert.
The vision of Samori to create a pure Islamic state came under threat because of
French interest in the area. Samori and other Muslim leaders saw France (a
Christian state) as an enemy. It was therefore necessary to defeat the French and
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send them away from the area before they could have the chance to contaminate
Islam with Christianity.

5) Military Preparedness on both sides

The clash between the Mandinka Empire and French forces was also made
possible by the fact that both sides were militarily prepared for war at any time.
France had over 250 soldiers in the region. The force was well equipped, with
other units in other French colonies in Africa. These units could be called up for
reinforcement when need arose. On the other hand, Samori had a force of 3000
soldiers, 5000 warriors and other reserves. Military preparedness made war very
likely.

6) French Support for Samori Toure’s Enemies

The tension between the French and the Mandinka Empire was also caused by the
attitude of the French towards Samori Toure’s rivals. The French offered support
to King Tieba of the Kingdom of Sikasso, who constantly attacked the Mandinka
Empire. Also, the French encouraged the conquered people in the northern part of
the Mandinka Empire to revolt against the authority of Samori and seek their
independence. This attitude of France towards the Mandinka Empire led to the
second war between both sides (the second phase).

Course of the Mandinka Resistance

The war between Samori Toure and the French took place in two phases. The first
face was solved through negotiations while the second ended with the defeat of
Toure by the French. Both phases are examined below.
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Phase I of the Franco-Mandinka War, 1882-1886

In 1882, the French who were advancing towards Bamako and the Niger bend
came into contact with Mandinka soldiers who were expanding towards the north.
Samori’s forces attempted to displace French forces which had taken over
Bamako, but failed. Later, French forces attempted to seize the gold-rich town of
Boure from the control of Samori. Mandinka forces fought fiercely and repelled
the French.

Between 1882 and 1886, both sides were engaged in several battles which recorded
heavy human and material losses. Samori was ready to make some compromises
with the French for the sake of peace. As such, both sides signed the Treaty of
Bissandugu in 1886. Following the treaty, Samori Toure surrendered to France all
the territory which he owned in the north of the River Niger. In return, France
promised to respect the new boundary with Samori, and also protect friendship
between the Mandinka people and French people in West Africa.

Why Samori Signed the Treaty of Bissandugu with the French

- Samori believed that by satisfying French demands for territory in the

northern part of his empire, he would gain their friendship and prevent
another clash.
- The clash made Samori to realize the superior strength of French forces and
their advanced weapons. As such, he wanted time to build a stronger army,
both in terms of personnel and weapons.
- Samori hoped to form an alliance with Britain in the near future. In order to
do this, he needed peace in his empire.
- He hoped that by appeasing France with territories in the north, French
officials would assist him to fight enemy kingdoms like the Sikasso.
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Why the French Signed the Treaty of Bissandugu

- France wanted to defeat the Tukolor Empire first before challenging Samori
in future. The treaty was just a means to avoid fighting two African empires
at the same time.
- By pretending to be friends with Samori, the French wanted to ensure that
no alliance was made between the British and the Mandinka Empire.
- The French wanted to pretend to make friends with Samori Toure so as to
prevent any possible alliance between Samori and Mahmadu Lamine.
Lamine was the king of a Senegalese kingdom which was anti-French.

The treaty of Bissandugu was therefore a very unreliable treaty because no side
was genuine in its commitment. However, it led to a period of relative peace
between the French and the Mandinka Empire (1886-1891). In 1891, there was
another clash.

Phase II of the Franco-Mandinka War, 1891-1898

By 1890, France began efforts to cause instability in the Mandinka Empire. French
forces encouraged conquered groups within the Mandinka empire to revolt. Several
groups revolted, especially those which were unhappy with Samori for imposing
Islam on them. They were also angry because of the taxes which Samori imposed
to help finance his numerous wars of expansion. Apart from encouraging revolts,
France supplied arms to king Tieba of Sikasso. The Sikasso were enemies of the
Mandinka.

In 1891, French forces invaded the Mandinka Empire. Samori’s forces mounted
stiff resistance but suffered heavy casualties at the beginning. After several months
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of fighting, French forces captured Bissandugu-the capital city of the Mandinka

Empire. In order to reorganize and fight back, Samori and his men retreated
towards the east and established a new capital city at Dabakala, in present day Cote
d’Ivoire. The new empire was surrounded by territories owned by Britain and
France.

French forces continued to organize a series of attacks on different fronts on the

new empire. In 1897, Samori captured and destroyed the Muslim city of Kong
which was under French control. He also won several battles against French forces.
Later, Samori proposed an alliance with King Prempeh of Asante, but French
forces prevented the alliance from happening. In 1898, Samori won a great victory
against the French at the battle of Owe. However, shortly after the victory,
Mandinka forces were hit by heavy rains and protracted hunger.

In spite of the numerous battles won by Mandinka troops, Samori Toure was
overcome by French forces in 1898. This occurred after the French captured
Sikasso-located in the north-east of Samori’s empire. This made it impossible for
Samori to buy horses for the transportation of wartime needs like food and
ammunition. On 29th September 1898, Samori Toure was captured at Guelemou
by Captain Gouraud. He was eventually deported to Gabon where he died two
years later (1900) of pneumonia at the age of 70. His capture and exile marked the
end of the Mandinka resistance

Measures Adopted by Samori Toure to Preserve the Independence of his

Empire, 1882-1898

The first attempt by France to establish control over the Mandinka Empire
occurred in 1882. From this period, Samori Toure adopted several measures to
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prevent France from annexing his empire. Some of the measures are examined
below.

1) Declaration of War

After the first clash with French forces, Samori decided to make use of the military
which he had built over the years. In the second phase of the resistance, his
soldiers, warriors and all fighting units of the empire were called upon to fight for
the protection of the empire. He wanted the French to realize that he was ready to
protect the Mandinka Empire even at the cost of thousands of lives.

2) Scorched Earth policy

When retreating from any area, Samori and his troops destroyed everything of
value. This included houses, crops, bridges, livestock and water sources. The aim
was to expose French forces to hunger and thirst. French forces thus had to depend
on their base for most supplies. Such inconvenience prolonged the independence of
the Mandinka Empire as French forces advanced rather slowly.

3) Avoidance of Open Confrontation

Samori Toure believed that the best way to survive any war with the French was to
avoid face-to-face battle (pitch battle). This was because he knew the military
might of the French, both in terms of training and modern weapons. As such he
adopted the guerilla tactic of hit-and-and run. This prolonged the life of his Empire
as his troops were not easily defeated.

4) Diplomacy

During the resistance, Samori tried to make friends with the British and use their
friendship against the French. This was more pronounced during the first phase of
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the resistance. This made it difficult for the French to launch a full-scale war
against the Mandinka Empire because they were not certain about the extent of
friendship between Samori and the British. In 1886, Samori Toure decided to sign
a treaty with the French. The treaty of Bissandugu preserved relative peace for
about five years.

5) Eastward Retreat

After suffering heavy losses from the French, Samori moved the center of his
Empire eastwards. The new capital city became Dabakala. This eastward retreat
kept him further away from French forces and made his empire last longer.

Why Samori Toure Resisted the French for so Long

From the first clash between French forces and Samori’s troops, right up to when
he was captured and defeated, it took over 16 years. The following factors explain
why it took so long for French forces to defeat Samori Toure.

1) Military Organization

Samori had a strong standing army of 3 thousand professional soldiers known as

Sofas. The sofas were made up of slaves and volunteers. They began their military
training at a young age. Apart from the sofas, Samori had 5 thousand warriors and
10 thousand reserved soldiers. The Mandinka army was divided into 10 regiments
(units). Each regiment was made up of foot soldiers, cavalry and carriers. Carriers
transported food and weapons to different military bases. Mandinka soldiers had
different uniforms depending on their ranks and function. Military units were
found in different provinces of the empire. This form of military organization made
it difficult for the French to have an easy victory.
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2) Nature of Ammunition

Samori’s soldiers were equipped with both imported and locally made weapons.
Modern weapons were imported from European merchants through Sierra Leone.
Warriors on the other hand were mostly armed with locally made weapons.
Mandinka blacksmiths were specialized in the production of dane guns and
gunpowder. Much of the gunpowder was however imported. Mandinka
blacksmiths produced about 200 guns every week. Thus foreign and domestic
supplies helped to supply Mandinka troops with the necessary requirements for a
long battle.

3) Massive Support

One of the reasons for the long resistance was the massive support and loyalty
which the Mandinka people showed their leader. Due to Samori’s teachings about
social equality and solidarity, many of his people loved and supported him. His
people were ready to make sacrifices in support of their king against a foreign
invader. In addition, the empire was made up of thousands of Muslims. They saw
the French as infidels who wanted to destroy Islam. Muslims were therefore very
active in the war against France.

4) Samori’s Administrative Skills

He established an effective system of administration which operated at two levels,

namely, the central administration and the provincial administration. The central
administration was directly under Samori, meanwhile the provinces were placed
under the control of governors. From the beginning, the governors were brothers or
friends of Samori. Later, he appointed mostly his sons to rule over the provinces.
This ensured the unity of the empire since governors were very loyal in times of
peace and war.
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5) Military Tactics

Samori was a military genius. He understood the weaknesses of his forces when
compared to the French. As such, he adopted guerilla warfare. By this method,
Samori avoided open combat with the French. Rather, his warriors made use of
ambushes and surprised attacks, and retreated to their hideouts before the French
could have time to react. Besides guerilla warfare, Samori made use of scorched
earth policy. The destruction of crops, bridges, water sources and livestock by
retreating Mandinka forces slowed down the French.

6) Samori’s Diplomatic skills

After the first clash with the French, Samori constantly expressed his desire to
place his empire under British protection. This was aimed at creating division
between the British and the French. The division and suspicion between Britain
and France bought Samori some time. In 1886, Samori realized the dangers of
playing off Britain against France. He then decided to sign the treaty of
Bissandugu with France. The treaty established a boundary between the Mandinka
Empire and the French. The agreement made it possible for both sides to have
relative peace before the second clash.

7) Economic Welfare of the Empire

The empire was economically well organized. There was a state farm at
Bissandugu where food was cultivated to feed warriors and other state workers.
Each province also had a state farm. Apart from agriculture, Samori also kept
control over trade. Gold was obtained from the gold mines of Boure. The main
items of trade in the empire were gold, ivory and slaves. The empire was therefore
very rich, making it easy for Samori to fight a protracted war.
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8) The influence of other revolts

The Samori Toure revolt also lasted long because of the divided attention of
French forces. In the 1890s, France was fighting several other kingdoms in
Senegal, Dahomey, and Cote d’Ivoire. This made it impossible for French troops to
concentrate on the Mandinka. France accepted the treaty of Bissandugu because of
the numerous cases of resistance she was facing simultaneously. The hidden
French plan was to suspend the war with Samori with the intention of attacking
him on a future date.

Reasons for the Failure of the Mandinka resistance

Although Samori is often praised for mounting one of the greatest African
resistance in colonial times, he actually did not succeed to subdue the French. The
eventual defeat of Samori Toure can be attributed to military, political, natural and
social factors.

A) MILITARY FACTORS
1) Military Weakness

Although Samori’s fighters made use of modern weapons, most of them only had
access to locally made ones like dane guns and spears. As the war progressed, most
of the weapons the Mandinka had obtained from Sierra Leone got exhausted. As
such, they had to depend on the products of local blacksmiths. On the other hand,
French forces had a steady supply of modern weapons like maxim guns and
automatic rifles. Also, all French forces were trained, unlike Mandinka forces that
were made up of soldiers, warriors and even farmers.
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2) The Prolonged Nature of Samori’s War

The war between Samori Toure and the French was the longest primary resistance
to colonialism. The prolonged nature of the war led to exhaustion of arms and
ammunition. Mandinka people became weary of war and wanted it to end. Some
began migrating to places where they could live in peace. As the war progressed,
the number of people who were in support of it continued to decrease.

3) French Military Strategy

The French were commanded by General Borgnis, who had a lot of experience in
modern warfare. He occupied the Tukolor Empire in the northwest, Sikasso in the
northeast, and Cote d’Ivoire in the South. From these neighbouring territories, he
attacked the Mandinka Empire on three fronts. This made it difficult for Samori to
resist for too long.

4) Samori’s Attack on Sikasso

In the 1880s, Samori attacked the kingdom of Sikasso. This was because he wanted
to create a trade route through which he could buy horses and other military needs.
From that period of the attack, the people of Sikasso became enemies of Samori.
During the war between Samori Toure and the French, King Tieba of Sikasso
easily accepted to ally with the French against his enemies.

5) Effects of the Scorched Earth Policy

Although the policy was aimed at making life difficult for the advancing French
forces, Mandinka people also suffered a lot because of it. The destruction of
settlements, crops and livestock led to hunger and hardship throughout all the areas
where fighting had taken place.
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6) The Collapse of other Anti-French Revolts

By the 1890s, the French had succeeded to crush or weaken all other anti-French
revolts in West Africa. While the Tukolor Empire was seriously weakened, the
resisting kingdoms in Cote d’Ivoire and Dahomey were crushed. This gave French
forces the opportunity to concentrate on the war against the Mandinka Empire.

B) Political Factors
1) British Refusal to Form an Alliance

In the 1880s and 1890s, Samori Toure proposed a military alliance with Britain,
but the British refused. He even proposed to sign a treaty of protection with the
British government, but this did not happen. Britain’s refusal to form an alliance
with the Mandinka Empire was in line with one of the provisions of the Berlin Act
which prohibited European powers from allying with any African kingdom against
a fellow European power. The absence of British support facilitated French
victory.

2) British Occupation of the Kingdom of Asante

In 1896, Britain occupied Asante, a kingdom located to the east of the Mandinka
Empire. This made it impossible for Samori to retreat eastwards as French forces
advanced. As such, Mandinka forces were forced to remain only within the borders
of the Mandinka Empire.

3) Failure to form an African alliance

Samori was unable to form an alliance with any of his neighbours. His main
neighbours were King Tieba of Sikasso, Ahmadu of the Tukolor Empire and
Prempeh of Asante. All of them refused to ally with Samori against the French.
This can be explained by the fact that Samori’s policy of expansionism created a
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lot of enemies. Also, these kings were jealous of the size and riches of the
Mandinka Empire. The absence of an African ally left Samori alone to fight the
French.

4) African support for the French

Some West African kingdoms offered support to the French against Samori. These
kings were either enemies of Toure, or were jealous of the fame of his empire. The
main kingdoms which allied with France were Kong and Sikasso. Their kings
believed that by allying with the French, they will not be annexed by France, and
their independence will be protected. Samori therefore fought against the French
and enemy neighbours.

5) Decline of Loyalty

The war against the French lasted for too long, causing misery in the empire. As a
result, several people began to lose confidence in Samori’s leadership. Samori’s
troops were also accused of molesting the local people during the war.
Unfortunately, Samori was more interested in the war than in the suffering of his
people. Most people gradually withdrew their support for Samori and his forces.

6) The Quick Collapse of Bissandugu

The capture of the capital city just a few months after the start of the second phase
was a major blow to Samori Toure. As a capital city, Bissandugu was strategically
located, and had a lot of military facilities. Its capture forced Samori to retreat to a
less comfortable place. Also, after the capture, French forces had the opportunity to
use Bissandugu as their base in attacking Mandinka forces in the east.
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7) French Deceit

The French deceived Samori that if he surrendered, they would treat him with
respect. They promised to let him retire peacefully to his home town called
Konyan and practice Islam. Without this offer, Samori would have mounted stiff
resistance on the day of his capture. Unfortunately, the French did not respect the
promise. They instead exiled him to Gabon.

C) Natural Factors
1) The Influence of Rainfall and Cold

A certain school of thought holds the view that Samori was to a large extent not
defeated by French troops but by forces of nature. After the British occupation of
Asante, it became impossible for Samori to keep retreating further eastwards. As
such, his troops began to move westwards where they encountered heavy rains and
cold. This made the movement of his troops and horses to be very slow. His
warriors equally fell sick due to extreme weather. All these contributed to his
defeat.

2) Famine

In order to raise a large force to fight the French, Samori called on farmers and
hunters to join his warriors. The neglect of farming and hunting led to shortage of
food throughout the empire. By 1898, there was severe food shortage, especially in
the mountains (north of Liberia) where Mandinka troops were stationed. The
neglect of agriculture was made worst by the use of scorched earth policy.

3) The Loss of Strategic Barriers

When Samori Toure retreated eastward from Bissandugu to Dabakala, he realized

that the new capital did not have natural barriers like hills, mountains and large
 Page 23 of 50

rivers. Dabakala was therefore vulnerable to French attack, especially from Core
d’Ivoire.

D) Social Factors
1) Division Within the Empire

In his attempt to ensure unity within the Mandinka Empire, Samori Toure called on
all his subjects to abandon traditional religion and embrace Islam. This annoyed a
certain group of people who wanted to maintain their traditional form of worship.
As such, there were constant religious uprisings in the empire. This form of
disunity went a long way to favour the French.

Impact of the Mandinka Resistance

Samori Toure’s war against the French had far-reaching effects as examined
below.

1) Depopulation

The prolonged war against the French led to high death rates. It is estimated that
over 2500 Mandinka people lost their lives. Most of them were killed by enemy
forces, while others died as a result of famine and extreme weather.

2) Economic Ruins

The abandonment of farms by those who became warriors and those who migrated
led to economic losses. The scorched earth policy also led to destruction of
property such as settlements, crops, livestock and market areas.

3) Massive Migration

The war led to the involuntary migration of thousands of people. Mass migration
occurred seven times throughout the period of the war. People moved from areas
 Page 24 of 50

of intense fighting to areas of relative peace. Even the capital city was moved from
Bissandugu to Dabakala.

4) Delay in French Movement

The protracted war delayed the pace of French occupation of West Africa. It took
the French 16 years to be able to establish colonial rule on the Mandinka people.
The time and resources used to defeat the Mandinka would have been used to
annex several territories in the region. Hence, Samori slowed down the
colonization of West Africa.

5) Empire Collapse

The defeat, exile and eventual death of Samori Toure marked the end of the
Mandinka Empire. Much of the empire became part of Guinea till independence in
1958.

6) African Military Might

Although the French eventually defeated the Mandinka Empire, they developed
respect for the military strength of the people. The Mandinka showed that Africans
were not a group of disorganized people as Europeans thought. No doubt, some
French scholars compared Samori Toure to Napoleon Bonaparte.

7) Rise of African Nationalism

The long term impact of the Mandinka resistance is that it encouraged the rise of
African Nationalism. The prolonged war against the French convinced Africans
that they could stand up for their rights. Also, the legacy of Samori Toure
contributed to the rise to power of his nephew, Sekou Toure.
 Page 25 of 50

Significance/Importance of Samori Toure in Africa History

Samori Toure began his career as a simple trader and later diverted into the
military. He quickly became famous and commanded a lot of respect in the army.
His fame and influence made his dream to build an empire a success. Shortly after
establishing the Mandinka Empire, Samori Toure ran into conflict with the French
and resisted them with all his strength. He is therefore of great significance in
Africa history both in the positive and negative domains.

Positive Significance

1) An empire Builder

Through military conquest, Samori Toure successfully united the Mandinka

kingdoms in the upper Guinea into a large empire. The empire was famous for its
large size, booming trade, effective administration and a well-built army to protect
it. Samori is considered one of the greatest Empire builders in Africa.

2) A Great Administrator

He established an effective administration in the Mandinka Empire. The

administration was divided into two levels: the Central administration based in
Bissandugu and the provincial administration. In the provinces, power was shared
between Governors, District heads, and village heads. They were all under the
emperor and showed loyalty to the central administration in Bissandugu.

3) A Great Resistance Leader

Within a period of 16 years, Samori mounted a stiff resistance to French attempts

to take over his empire. His resistance made use of both local and modern
weapons. In terms of tactics, he made use of the scorched earth policy and guerilla
 Page 26 of 50

warfare. He was one of the greatest resistance leaders in Africa. No doubt, he was
compared to the greatest French ruler, Napoleon Bonaparte.

4) An Intelligent Diplomat

Samori Toure was a great diplomat. He placed himself at the center of politics
between Britain and France, and tried to use one against the other. Eventually, he
signed the treaty of Bissandugu with the French. He was therefore able to negotiate
with French politicians without any fear.

5) A Promoter of Islam

Samori Toure was a devoted Muslim. He used his political influence to promote
Islam throughout the empire. Samori saw Islam not only as an upright way of life
but as a means to unify the people under his rule. He took the Muslim title Almani
and was also a member of the Tijaniyya brotherhood. His life reflected what was
required of a true Muslim leader.

6) A great Modernist

He took measures to modernize his empire. Samori constructed roads for horses
and carts, introduced a moderate tax system, set up a pyramidal system of
administration, and made good laws based on social equality. He was constantly
taking steps to develop the Mandinka Empire.

7) An Inspirer of Modern African Nationalism

His protracted resistance against the French became a source of inspiration to

modern African nationalists, especially after the Second World War. He was a
great source of inspiration to Kwame Nkrumah of Gold Coast. Also, his nephew,
 Page 27 of 50

Sekou Toure, became popular in Guinea because of the legacy of Samori Toure.
Sekou Toure went on to become the first president of Guinea.

Negative Significance

1) An Architect of Protracted War

His protracted war against French forces caused mass suffering among his people.
Several people died in the war, either as a result of direct fighting or famine caused
by scorched earth policy. His determination to keep fighting suggests that he did
not care about the suffering of his people as much as he cared about winning the
war.

2) An Aggressor

He was very hostile towards his neighbours. Samori was constantly looking for
ways to expand the size of his empire. He did this by attacking nearby kingdoms.
This created a lot of tension and insecurity. His aggressiveness explains why he
found it impossible to form an alliance with any neighbour to fight the French.
 Page 28 of 50

B) THE ABYSSINIAN RESISTANCE TO ITALIAN COLONIZATION,

1894-1896

Introduction

Abyssinia (Ethiopia) was the sole African territory to organize a successful

resistance against European (Italian) attempts to colonize her in the 19 th Century.
The resistance took place between December 1894 and March 1896. Abyssinian
troops were led principally by their ruler, Emperor Menelik II, against Italy, a
major colonial power. On March 1st, 1896, Italian forces under the command of
General Baratieri surrendered to Menelik at the battle of Adowa. The loss was
a disgrace to King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. The most important significance
of the battle of Adowa was that Abyssinia survived Italy’s attempts to colonize her.
After the war, no other colonial power made an attempt to establish colonial rule
on the territory in the 19th century.

Reasons for the Abyssinian Resistance

The clash between Italy and Abyssinia was caused by the following factors:

1) Italian Imperial activities in East Africa

The Italian government had a lot of interest in East Africa. In 1869, the Italian
government purchased the Sea Port of Asab. This was followed by their
occupation of Masawa in 1885. In the same year, Italy annexed Eritrea. In 1892,
the Italian government also annexed Somaliland. The colonial activities of Italy in
these neighbouring areas threatened the sovereignty of Abyssinia and created
tension between the two sides.
 Page 29 of 50

2) Italy’s desire to create an empire in East Africa

The Italian government had plans to create a large empire in East Africa. It was to
comprise of Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somaliland. After the annexation of Eritrea
and Somaliland, the government’s next target was Ethiopia, which was located
between the two colonies. Unfortunately for Italy, Emperor Menelik was not ready
to surrender his empire to the Italians. This was frustrating to Italy, and made war
inevitable.

3) Menelik’s determination to protect Ethiopia’s sovereignty

The objectives of Italy and Menelik over Abyssinia were conflicting. Menelik was
determined to protect his empire from Italian rule. He enjoyed extensive control
over the empire, and was not ready to lose that. Also, the empire traded freely with
major European and Arab countries. All of these were to come to an end in case of
Italian annexation. As such, Menelik and his people were ready to oppose
colonization by every means possible.

4) Military preparedness

The war between Italy and Abyssinia was also made possible by the fact that the
two sides were militarily ready, both in terms of soldiers and arms. In the early
1890s, Abyssinia had a standing army of about 100,000 soldiers, who were
equipped with modern weapons. Most of the weapons were bought from European
countries, including Italy herself. On the other hand, Italy believed she was
militarily prepared. She had just gained her unification, and had confidence in its
military. The Italian government also had a local army unit in East Africa known
as Askaries. Military readiness on both sides made war more likely.
 Page 30 of 50

5) Conflict over the treaty of Ucciali

Shortly after Menelik’s rise to power, he signed the treaty of Ucciali (also known
as Wichale) with the Italian government. This took place on May 2nd, 1889. The
treaty was necessitated by the struggle over power in Abyssinia after the death of
Emperor Yohannes IV or John IV. In the treaty, Italy recognized Menelik as the
new emperor of Abyssinia, and also provided arms to assist him (30,000 muskets
and 28 canons). In return, Menelik compensated Italy with some territories in the
north of Ethiopia, which the Italian government added to Eritrea. The treaty had
several other terms. However, within a short time, complications arose over article
17 of the treaty. The article placed Abyssinia under Italy in all international
transaction. The Italian government soon began interpreting this to mean
annexation. This was not the Abyssinian interpretation. The complications over
this article created a lot of tension.

6) Cancellation of the treaty of Ucciali

In February 1893, Emperor Menelik informed European countries that he had

officially cancelled the treaty of Ucciali which he had signed with the Italian
government. He explained that although he considered it a treaty of friendship, the
Italian government wanted to manipulate article 17 and take over control of his
empire. The Italian government considered this action disrespectful and
provocative.

7) Italian domination of economic activities in East Africa

Menelik was not happy with Italian domination of the area. Italy controlled the
ports of Asab and Masawa. Traders from Abyssinia were forced to pay heavy
taxes for using these ports. This made life difficult for the traders and Abyssinian
people who benefited from goods passing through the ports.
 Page 31 of 50

8) Seizure of Abyssinian Land

After their occupation of Eritrea in 1885, the Italian government began to gradually
enter into Abyssinian land in the northern part of the empire. This was partly
caused by the fact that the climate of the area was favourable for European
habitation. The seizure of Abyssinian land led to the displacement of farmers and
cattle rearers. Menelik believed that there was urgent need to put an end to Italy’s
provocations.

9) Italian Economic interest in Abyssinia

The Italian government was interested in the rich agricultural products of Ethiopia,
notably wheat, barley and coffee. Apart from these, the Italian government wanted
to exploit the forest products as well as mineral deposits of the empire. Before the
war started, Italian businessmen had made several unsuccessful attempts to exploit
these agricultural and natural resources. Menelik therefore saw Italian presence in
the area as a threat to the economic welfare of his empire.

10) The role of the rinderpest disease

Rinderpest was a disease that attacked cattle and sheep. It was first noticed in East
Africa in the 1880s, shortly after Italy occupied Eritrea. Within a short time, it
spread into northern Ethiopia. Although there existed no direct link between the
disease and the presence of Italians in the area, Ethiopians accused the Italian
government of being responsible for its outbreak. The death of thousands of sheep
and cattle was therefore blamed on Italy. This led to tension between Ethiopian
livestock keepers and Italians.
 Page 32 of 50

11) Succession dispute in Abyssinia

In 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV (also known as John IV) died. Based on an

agreement signed in 1879, Menelik succeeded him as the new emperor of
Abyssinia. In the 1890s, Prince Mangasha, the son of the late king Yohannes
began to challenge Menelik for the throne. The power struggle between Menelik
and Mangasha led to division within the empire. Although Italy had recognized
Menelik as the emperor in the treaty of Ucciali, the Italian government saw the
dispute as an opportunity to attack what they thought was a divided empire. The
cancellation of the treaty of Ucciali by Menelik also constituted a grievance to
Italians. As such, the Italian government mobilized its troops in East Africa and
attacked Abyssinia in December 1894.

Brief course of the war

Italian forces were commanded by General Baratieri, while those of Abyssinia

were commanded by Emperor Menelik himself with the assistance of General
Ras Alula. When the war started, all Ethiopians, including the supporters of prince
Mangasha, united under Menelik to fight a common enemy. Both sides won
several minor or indecisive battles. The most decisive battle of the war was fought
in the town of Adowa. On March 1st, 1896, Italian forces surrendered to
Menelik at the battle of Adowa. This brought an end to the war, and Italy did not
make any further attempt to annex Abyssinia in the 19 th century. The war was
concluded with the signing of the treaty of Addis Ababa on 26th October 1896.

Reasons for Ethiopia’s victory in 1896

The Abyssinians were able to defeat the Italians at the decisive battle of Adowa
because of several reasons, which can be classified into military, political and
geographical. These reasons are examined below.
 Page 33 of 50

A) Military Reasons
1) Effective Leadership

During the invasion, Menelik commanded Abyssinian forces himself. This show of
courage encouraged several soldiers to fight wholeheartedly. Menelik was a very
experienced and devoted military leader with a great war plan. Even those who
were not trained soldiers admired his courage and offered their support against the
invaders.

2) Ethiopian experience in warfare

Before the war with Italy, Abyssinian forces had been involved in several other
wars under emperors Theodore, John IV, and Menelik. Between the 1860s and
early 1890s, Abyssinia had fought against Britain, Egypt and Sudan. Apart from
these wars, Abyssinian forces had constantly been involved in cases of rebellion
within the empire, and had successfully subdued all rebellious groups. All these
gave them a lot of experience and confidence which helped in the war against Italy.

3) The use of Modern Weapons

Menelik had a well-equipped army. His army had modern weapons such as
automatic rifles and canons. During the signing of the treaty of Ucciali, Italy
supported Menelik with 30,000 muskets and 28 canons. Several other weapons
were imported from Italy and other European countries. Before the war started,
Ethiopia had about 140,000 rifles and 40 canons. This made it possible for them
to match the weapon type of Italians.

4) Size of the Abyssinian Army

Abyssinian forces had a numerical advantage over those of Italy. Menelik and
General Ras Alula commanded a well-trained army of over 100,000 soldiers,
 Page 34 of 50

excluding volunteer warriors. On the other hand, General Baratieri had only
20,000 Italian troops, known as Askaries. Abyssinian forces were therefore five
times larger than those of Italy (Askaries). This made it easy for Menelik to
succeed.

5) Composition of the Italian army

The twenty thousand Italian troops (Askaries), commanded by General Baratieri

were mostly made up of Eritrean mercenaries (people who fight only because of
money) and levites (poorly trained fighters). They fought with little commitment
since it was a foreign war which did not directly involve their land. Mercenaries
were only interested in the compensation which the Italian government promised
them.

6) Italy’s unpreparedness

Italy underestimated the military strength of Abyssinia, and went to war without
adequate preparation. They just assumed that the Abyssinian army was weak and
could be easily crushed like in several other cases in Africa at the time of
colonization. As such, very few professional soldiers from Italy were called up.
Rather, the Italian government hurriedly attacked with a group of uncommitted
soldiers.

7) The blunders of General Baratieri

The Italian General relied on Eritrean informants for vital information on the
movement of Ethiopian forces. He failed to carry out any investigation on the
loyalty of the informants. Unfortunately, most of them were double agents who
worked for Menelik. Also, Baratieri was a poor military commander, who was not
 Page 35 of 50

respected by many of his subordinates. As such, several of his troops abandoned

battlefields during the war.

8) Mastery of the terrain

Ethiopian troops fought at home. As such, they were familiar with the terrain in
which they were fighting. On the other hand, Italian soldiers were strangers, and
had to rely on guides and spies. The available geographical maps at the time were
few, and not very accurate. All these worked to the advantage of Ethiopian
soldiers.

9) Military tactics of Ethiopians

Although Ethiopian soldiers had numerical superiority, Menelik still made use of
guerilla warfare. Through this method, several surprise attacks were made on
Italian forces from hills and thick forests. Guerilla warfare contributed greatly to
the success of Menelik since the Italian general was not used to this type of
combat.

10) Italy’s failure to launch a surprise attack

The Italian government ordered for the mobilization of its troops in Eritrea, which
was a neighbouring territory to Abyssinia. The constant movement of people
between the two territories soon led to the spread of information about Italy’s plan.
As such, before the Italian attack, Menelik had been alerted, and was ready with
counter measures.
 Page 36 of 50

B) Political Reasons
1) Effective Political Leadership

Menelik was a great political leader who was admired by most Ethiopians. During
the resistance, he made all Ethiopians to realize the need to unite against a common
enemy. As such, even those who did not support him before the Italian attack were
willing to risk their lives to protect their country.

2) The role of rumour/war propaganda

Menelik promoted the rumour that he had died of a snake bite. Italian forces
therefore attacked without adequate preparation, thinking that the Ethiopian army
will be without a leader. They were disappointed to find Menelik leading his forces
at the battle of Adowa.

3) Menelik’s Diplomacy

Emperor Menelik made friendly relations with major European powers like
Britain, France and Russia. This made it possible for them to sell weapons to
Ethiopia before the war started. Also, he used the treaty of Ucciali to import arms
from the Italians, which he later used to defeat them.

4) The attitudes of Britain, France and Russia

Britain and France had forces in their colonies near Abyssinia, but decided not to
support Italy. British forces were found in Egypt and Sudan, while those of France
were found in French Somaliland. These two powers, alongside Russia, had
investments in Ethiopia. Russia gave a loan to Menelik, and sent the Red Cross to
Ethiopia to care for the injured.
 Page 37 of 50

5) Eritrean Support

Eritrea became an Italian colony in 1885. Between this period and the outbreak of
the war, many Eritreans developed hatred for Italy because of harsh colonial
policies. As a result, several Ethiopians supported Abyssinian forces. They
provided food, water and shelter, and also gave them valuable information on the
movement of Italian troops. Some Eritrean soldiers fighting in the Askaries even
abandoned their duty during the battle of Adowa.

6) Lack of Popular Support in Italy

Back at home, many Italians did not support the war against Ethiopia. Since the
signing of the treaty of Ucciali, Italians saw Ethiopia as an ally. They wanted the
conflict to be settled amicably. Also, the Roman Catholic Church in Italy was
against the war. This internal division discouraged a lot of Italian forces.

7) Pressure from the Italian Government

The government of King Victor Emmanuel III did not give adequate time for the
army to prepare for the war. In February 1896 when the war was going on, the
government sent a telegram to General Baratieri, scolding him for wasting a lot of
time in Ethiopia without victory. This made him to launch a hasty attack on
Adowa. The attack had disastrous consequences.

C) Geographical Factors
1) Natural Protection

The hilly and mountainous nature of Ethiopia hindered the movement of Italian
forces. Ethiopians on the other hand already lived in these areas. This contributed
to the defeat of the invading forces.
 Page 38 of 50

2) Harsh climatic Conditions

The harsh tropical climate of Ethiopia affected the invading forces negatively.
Although most of the Askaries were from Eritrea and Somaliland, their
commanding officers were from Italy. They were not used to the climate.

3) Faulty geographical maps

The map used by General Baratieri was very faulty and misleading. This made it
difficult for him to understand the natural environment of Ethiopia. Consequently,
Ethiopian guerilla fighters easily launched surprised attacks from areas which
Italian troops knew nothing about.

Impact/Significance of the Adowa Victory

The victory of Adowa and the peace treaty which concluded the war had far-
reaching consequences on the Kingdom of Abyssinia, Africa as a whole, and Italy.

A) Impact on Abyssinia
1) Preservation of Independence

The victory over Italy at the battle of Adowa made it possible for Ethiopia to
remain independent during the period of European scramble for Africa. After the
Italian failure, no other attempt was made to annex the territory in the 19 th Century.
Ethiopia therefore gained the status of one of the two African states which were
not colonized.

2) Replacement of the treaty of Ucciali

As a result of Ethiopia’s victory, a new treaty was signed known as the treaty of
Addis Ababa. It defined relations between Italy and Ethiopia, and effectively put
an end to the old treaty of Ucciali.
 Page 39 of 50

3) Consolidation of power

Emperor Menelik gained enormous support as a result of the victory. He was

praised for his military leadership. This gave him the opportunity to consolidate his
position as the undisputed Emperor of Ethiopia. After the victory, the campaign to
bring Prince Mangasha to power became very unpopular. Menelik therefore ruled
Ethiopia until his death in 1913.

4) International Recognition

The victory projected the image of Ethiopia in Africa and the World. European
powers like Britain and France recognized the independence of Abyssinia. In 1923,
Ethiopia became a member of the League of Nations, and in 1945, she was among
the founding members of the UNO. In Africa, Addis Ababa became a symbol of
the continent’s pride. As such, it became the headquarters of the OAU and later
that of the AU.

5) Modernization of Ethiopia

The political stability which Ethiopia enjoyed after the victory gave Menelik the
opportunity to carry out rapid development. He built modern roads, railways,
bridges, hospitals and schools. These were made possible by financial and
technical assistance from European countries. Menelik also introduced a national
currency known as the Menelik Dollar, which promoted trade.

6) Establishment of International Relations

The victory of Adowa changed European attitude towards Ethiopia. Several

powers began to see it as a great nation. As a result, they started establishing
bilateral relations with Ethiopia. This began in 1897 when Britain, France, Russia
 Page 40 of 50

and Turkey established their embassies in Addis Ababa. Ethiopia also established
its embassies in these countries.

7) Expansion of Ethiopia’s influence in North East Africa

After the war with Italy, Menelik began to expand the boundaries of his empire
through conquest. The wars of expansion were inspired by the victory over Italy,
and the modern weapons which were bought from Britain, France, Russia and
Turkey. Menelik captured territories like Galla, Sombat, Lake Rudolf and Somali.

8) The Influx of Black Intellectuals

The victory made black intellectuals in different parts of the world to develop
interest in Ethiopia. For instance Benito Sylvain from Haiti visited Ethiopia four
times. He was an advocate of pan Africanism. During his visits, he brought letters
from the president of Haiti to Emperor Menelik. Also, William Lewis, a black
intellectual from Cuba visited Addis Ababa in 1903 and 1904.

9) Human and material losses

The battle of Adowa was won at the cost of thousands of Ethiopian lives. Apart
from human losses, houses, farms and livestock were destroyed. This led to hunger
and hardship immediately after the war.

B) Impact on Africa
1) It Inspired other African Resistance

The victory over Italy acted as a source of inspiration to several colonies in Africa.
This made them to be able to rise up against unwanted colonial policies. For
instance the Maji-Maji revolt in Tanganyika against the Germans was partly
inspired by the victory of Ethiopia against Italy.
 Page 41 of 50

2) Rise of African Nationalism

The Adowa victory laid the foundation for the rise of African nationalism. Other
African territories admired the independence of Ethiopia and wanted to be of the
same status. After the Second World War when the wind of change began blowing
across the African continent, several African nationalists used the victory at
Adowa as a means to inspire their followers.

C) Impact on Italy
1) Italian humiliation/Loss of prestige

The defeat to an African kingdom was a humiliation to Italy. The Italian

government was forced to sign the treaty of Addis Ababa recognizing the fact that
Italy had lost to Ethiopia. Italy’s dream to create a large empire in East Africa was
shattered.

2) Human losses

The battle of Adowa led to the deaths of hundreds of Italian military officers and
thousands of Askaries. Several others were captured by Menelik’s forces.

3) It sowed seeds of revenge

Due to the humiliating defeat at the battle of Adowa, several Italians began to talk
about the need for a war of revenge. In 1935, Italy under Benito Mussolini attacked
Ethiopia with the main aim of restoring the pride and image of Italy.
 Page 42 of 50

GENERAL REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE

During the period of European scramble, penetration and administration of

colonies in Africa, hundreds of ethnic groups rose up in opposition to colonialism.
Apart from the Abyssinian resistance, all other African revolts against colonialism
failed. This failure can be explained by the following reasons:

A) Political Reasons
1) European Diplomacy

European colonialists deceived African rulers into signing away their sovereignty.
Most kings signed treaties without fully understanding their terms. When such
kings attempted to resist European penetration, the treaties which they had earlier
signed were presented to them to remind them that they were officially colonized.

2) Disunity in Africa

Within the African continent, there was a lot of conflict and disunity. Most
kingdoms suffered from repeated succession disputes which made them divided
and weak. French annexation of Dahomey was facilitated by disunity caused by
succession disputes. In other cases, disunity was caused by conquered people who
did not want to be under a foreign ruler. For instance, in the Tukolor Empire,
there was disunity because the conquered people hated the rule of Sekou Ahmadu.

The greatest source of disunity in Africa was the prevalence of inter-tribal wars.
These wars created enmity between neighbours. Some kingdoms were ready to ally
with colonial powers against their enemies because of years of inter-tribal wars.
For instance the Fante allied with the British to fight the Asante in the Gold
Coast.
 Page 43 of 50

3) Absence of the spirit of Nationalism

In the late 19th Century and early 20th Century, most African leaders and their
subjects did not have a strong feeling of nationalism. They did not see colonialism
as European domination of their continent. Most leaders only cared about the
welfare of their kingdoms, and were ready to help Europeans in subjugating others.
King Tieba of Sikasso for instance supported France to conquer Samori Toure.
Also, king Jaja of Opobo sent warriors to support Britain in the defeat of Asante.
If African kings had a strong spirit of nationalism, they would have stood together
to protect the sovereignty of the entire continent.

4) European cooperation/unity

Although European powers had clashes among themselves in different parts of

Africa, they took steps to prevent the outbreak of war among themselves.
Europeans saw themselves as one race, with the aim of conquering the whole of
Africa without resorting to war. In order to achieve this, they summoned colonial
conferences in Berlin and Brussels. European unity made it easy for them to
conquer African kingdoms. Resisting African kingdoms also found it impossible to
create any alliance with a European country against another one.

5) Political stability in Europe

During the period of European scramble for Africa, no major clash occurred
between European countries in Europe. The presence of peace in Europe made it
possible for colonialists to concentrate their military in crushing African revolts.

6) The decline of African kingdoms/empires

Africans resisted colonial rule when the golden age of powerful kingdoms and
empires had passed. During the period of annexation, penetration and occupation
 Page 44 of 50

of Africa, kingdoms like Oyo, Dahomey, Sudan and Buganda had either
declined or completely collapsed. In their glory days, these kingdoms would have
mounted more powerful opposition to European colonization.

7) Early European control of the African coast

From the period of slave trade to the effective introduction of legitimate trade,
European traders took control of several ports along the coast of Africa. Also
present along the coast were explorers and missionaries. This made it possible for
them to have a mastery of the terrain. Also, their control of coastal towns and ports
facilitated the importation of arms for use against resisting African people.

B) Military Reasons
1) European military superiority

European countries were militarily superior both in terms of arms and personnel.
Their armies were well armed with modern weapons such as machine guns, maxim
guns and automatic rifles. These weapons instilled a lot of fear in Africans. The
sound of maxim guns was enough to send armed African fighters into hiding. In
terms of soldiers, European armies were well trained and well organized under
experienced military commanders.

2) African military weaknesses

African states were militarily very weak when compared to European countries.
African fighters were poorly trained and poorly organized. Their commanders had
no experience on modern methods of warfare. Generally, Africans made use of
warriors, and not professional soldiers. In terms of arms, Africans had inferior
weapons like dane guns, spears, bows and arrows, and even cutlasses. These
 Page 45 of 50

weapons were outdated, and disadvantageous when compared to what Europeans

used.

3) The role of the Brussels Conference

In 1890, European diplomats met at Brussels and agreed to impose an arms

embargo on Africans. According to the embargo, Europeans were not to sell
modern weapons to Africans. As such, powerful weapons like machine guns did
not reach the hands of any African kingdom after the conference. This helped to
make Africans very inferior in terms of arms and ammunition, and gave Europeans
enormous advantages.

4) Composition of European colonial forces

In all colonial forces, a bulk of the soldiers were of African origin. Thousands of
Africans were recruited and trained to become part of the colonial force. These
Africans had a mastery of the terrain and were used to local climatic conditions.
They were led by only a small percentage of white soldiers and officers. Europeans
therefore had the advantage of a heterogeneous force.

5) The role of gunboats

Europeans demonstrated their superiority by displaying powerful gunboats which

frightened and intimidated Africans. This show of force discouraged hundreds of
people from joining any force of resistance. Several people who went to war
against Europeans were already psychologically defeated after witnessing the
strength of gunboats.
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6) Military reserves

It was easy for colonial powers to get reinforcements from other nearby or distant
colonies. This was in a case where an African kingdom put up a powerful
resistance. Reinforcement was facilitated by European ownership of modern means
of transportation like steamships. Africans hardly had any reinforcements, except
from other parts of the same kingdom. In such cases, the reinforcements had to trek
for long distances. Often, those who joined the fighting later were farmers. They
mostly joined when most of the warriors had either been captured or killed.

7) Absence of an African military alliance

Africans either failed to see the need to create a military alliance, or were unable to
put aside their differences and form an alliance. As such, each kingdom prepared
for war alone, fought alone, and eventually lost alone. Military alliances would
have been more difficult for Europeans to suppress.

C) Economic Reasons
1) Inadequate Resources

Most African kingdoms were not economically rich enough to fight a prolonged
war against European countries. Europeans on the other hand were capable of
sustaining prolonged wars against Africans. In situations of long wars, Africans
felt the impact more. This was the case with the Mandinka resistance. After a
decade of fighting, several soldiers began to abandon the resistance because of
economic hardship.

2) Size of African kingdoms

Several resisting African kingdoms were small, both in terms of surface area and
population. Smaller kingdoms meant smaller military sizes. In small kingdoms, an
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increase in military recruitment could easily lead to hunger. Europeans on the other
hand had many colonies in Africa and other parts of the world, which could
support them both economically and militarily.

3) The impact of slave trade

Although cases of African resistance occurred long after the abolition of slave
trade, it can be argued that the depopulation caused by the trade affected African
resistance negatively. For over three centuries, thousands of able-bodied men and
women were transported out of the continent. As such, each resisting African
kingdom fought with fewer men due to slave trade.

D) Social Reasons
1) The Influence of Christian missionaries

Missionaries brainwashed Africans to accept colonial rule with little or no

question. African Christians who were against colonial domination were reluctant
to pick up arms because Christianity condemned war and encouraged peace and
forgiveness. Christianity therefore made it easy for Africans to be manipulated by
white men.

2) African Superstition

African belief in war magic equally contributed to the collapse of indigenous

resistance. Instead of drawing up reliable battle plans, some kingdoms put their
trust in traditional beliefs and mystical powers. For instance in 1907, the Maji-
Maji resistance in Tanganyika collapsed because the warriors depended on the
power of their sacred water which eventually failed them.
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IMPACT OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE

African resistance to European annexation, penetration, consolidation, and colonial

policies had far-reaching consequences. The main ones are examined below.

1) Depopulation of Africa

Resistance wars led to the deaths of thousands of Africans. Europeans used their
advanced weapons and well-trained army to inflict heavy damages on the resisting
people of Africa. During the Maji-Maji resistance alone, over 75,000
Tanganyikans were killed. Death rates were generally higher on the African side,
leading to depopulation.

2) Massive Involuntary Migration

Due to the insecurity created by resistance wars, thousands of people were forced
to migrate to more peaceful locations. Migration was either done as small family
groups or as entire villages or kingdoms. During the war against the French in
West Africa, Samori Toure moved a large part of his empire towards the east as
he escaped from the French. Involuntary migration was common in all areas where
Africans fought against Europeans.

3) Establishment of colonial forces

After crushing any resistance, colonial powers established military bases in the
areas to prevent any future uprising. Also, in some areas, Europeans set up
powerful colonial forces to discourage the people from following the examples of
other resisting kingdoms.
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4) Harsh Treatment

After the failure of any resistance, its leaders were often subjected to very harsh
punishment. Most of them were deported. For instance, when the Mandinka
resistance collapsed, Samori Toure was deported to Gabon. King Jaja of the
kingdom of Opobo was also deported to the West Indies. Apart from the leaders,
the general population was often subjected to forced labour for different European
projects.

5) Delay in European advancement into the interior

Due to African resistance, European movement into the interior of Africa was
slowed down. Europeans had to suppress every resistance along their path before
they could advance into the interior. For instance, it took the French over 15 years
before they could establish their rule over the Mandinka Empire in West Africa.

6) Disruption of economic activities

Several years of fighting disrupted economic activities such as agriculture, trade

and local industries. The disruption of agriculture led to hunger, while the
disruption of trade prevented societies from benefiting from goods produced by
others. Local industries like pottery, carving and blacksmithing were all
interrupted. Africans were forced to rely on European goods.

7) Rise of modern African Nationalism

African resistance encouraged the rise of modern nationalism in two ways; firstly,
the harsh treatment which Europeans gave to resisting kingdoms and their leaders
created a feeling of hatred for colonial authorities. Secondly, the success of the
Abyssinian resistance and the prolonged Mandinka war convinced Africans that
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they could force the colonial masters out of their continent if they were
determined.

EUROPEAN CCOLONIAL POLICIES IN AFRICA