Anatomical Science International (2007) 82, 65–81 doi: 10.1111/j.1447-073x.2007.00180.

Review Article
Blackwell Publishing Asia

Historical evolution of anatomical terminology from ancient

to modern
Tatsuo Sakai
Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan

Abstract
The historical development of anatomical terminology from the ancient to the modern can be divided into five
stages. The initial stage is represented by the oldest extant anatomical treatises by Galen of Pergamon in the
Roman Empire. The anatomical descriptions by Galen utilized only a limited number of anatomical terms,
which were essentially colloquial words in the Greek of this period. In the second stage, Vesalius in the early
16th century described the anatomical structures in his Fabrica with the help of detailed magnificent
illustrations. He coined substantially no anatomical terms, but devised a system that distinguished anatomical
structures with ordinal numbers. The third stage of development in the late 16th century was marked by
innovation of a large number of specific anatomical terms especially for the muscles, vessels and nerves. The
main figures at this stage were Sylvius in Paris and Bauhin in Basel. In the fourth stage between Bauhin and
the international anatomical terminology, many anatomical textbooks were written mainly in Latin in the 17th
century, and in modern languages in the 18th and 19th centuries. Anatomical terms for the same structure
were differently expressed by different authors. The last stage began at the end of the 19th century, when the
first international anatomical terminology in Latin was published as Nomina anatomica. The anatomical
terminology was revised repeatedly until the current Terminologia anatomica both in Latin and English.
Key words: anatomy, history, medical illustration, terminology, textbooks.

Introduction
Anatomical terminology indicating the various parts and
organs of the human body is the most basic vocabulary
in medicine and serves as the convenient tools in the
anatomical sciences. The current international termi-
nology, Terminologia anatomica, includes approximately
7000 entries. The anatomical terms are specific and
self-intelligible, namely, their meaning can be under-
stood from the terms themselves without referring to
the context. In everyday life we also use many colloquial
words to indicate parts and organs of the body. Most
of the anatomical terms are different from the colloquial
words, and must have been invented intentionally in
certain periods in the history of anatomy since the time
of the oldest known anatomists such as Herophilus
and Erasistratus in ancient Alexandria.
A question naturally arises as to how and when
the anatomical terms were invented and developed.
Concerning this question, the literature tells us that
many of the anatomical terms for muscles, vessels and
Correspondence: Tatsuo Sakai, Department of Anatomy, School
of Medicine, Juntendo University, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku,
Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan. Email: tatsuo@med.juntendo.ac.jp
Received 1 September 2006; accepted 24 October 2006.
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
nerves were coined in the 16th and early 17th centuries.
As founders of these anatomical terms, the names of
Sylvius in Paris and Bauhin in Basel have been frequently
mentioned. The current anatomical terms have been
defined officially in the international anatomical
terminology. The first international terminology was
titled Nomina anatomica in 1895 at the meeting of
Anatomische Gesellschaft in Basel (His, 1895).
To clarify the evolution of the modern anatomical
terms derived from the colloquial words in the ancient
anatomical treatises, I have surveyed a series of ana-
tomical works from Galen’s ancient treatises to the
modern anatomical textbooks either in my library or
obtained as digital images. It became obvious from
the survey that the anatomical descriptions in the
historical literature were transformed significantly in
parallel with the evolution of anatomical terms, as
well as that of anatomical illustrations, in history.
I have written the present review article in hopes
that the significance and usefulness of anatomical
terminology would be realized and appreciated not
only by anatomical experts, but also by general medical
doctors and students. The anatomical terms have greatly
facilitated communication in the medical disciplines
and stimulated anatomical investigations in various
dimensions from the macroscopic to the molecular
levels in humans as well as in the various other species
on Earth.
66 T. Sakai

Ancient anatomical terms by Galen of

Pergamon

In ancient Greek and Rome, many doctors were

active and wrote various treatises mainly in Greek.
Anatomical dissection was performed especially in
ancient Alexandria by Herophilus and Erasistratus.
However, most of the ancient anatomical treatises
were lost except for those by Galen of Pergamon
(129–216). Galen wrote a great number of anatomical
as well as medical treatises, which were respected
as authoritative in medieval and Renaissance Europe.
Most of Galen’s treatises were translated into Latin,
and approximately half of them have been translated
into modern languages, mainly into English. The extant
Galen literature was published repeatedly as Opera
omnia until the early 19th century edition by Kühn
(1821–1833) (Fig. 1).
The major anatomical works by Galen, including
three comprehensive treatises and several small
articles of specific topics, are available as Greek and
Latin texts of Opera omnia by Kühn (1821–1833) and
as well as those in modern languages as follows.
Comprehensive treatises: De naturalibus facultatibus
I-III (Natural faculties), Kühn (1821–1833; 2: 1–214),
Brock (1916) in English, Kusayama (1998) and Ninomiya
(1998) in Japanese; De anatomicis administrationibus
I-XV (Anatomical procedures), Kühn (1821–1833; 2:
215–731), Singer (1956) and Duckworth (1962) in
English, Simon (1906) in German, Garofalo (1991) in
Italian; and De usu partium I-XVII (Usefulness of the
parts), Kühn (1821–1833; 3: 1–933, 4: 1–366), May
(1968) in English, Daremberg (1854–1856) in French, Figure 1. First page of Galen’s De usu partium I-XVII from Kühn
Garofalo (1978) in Italian; articles: De ossibus ad (1821–1833; 3: 1–933, 4: 1–366). The page contained the Greek
tirones (Bones for beginners), Kühn (1821–1833; 2: text in the upper half and the Latin translation in the lower half of
732–778), Singer (1952a) in English; De venarum the page.
arteriarumque dissectione (On anatomy of veins and
arteries), Kühn (1821–1833; 2: 779–830), Goss (1961)
in English, Sakai et al. (2006) in Japanese; De nervorum much later and the last four volumes were rewritten
dissectione (On anatomy of nerves), Kühn (1821–1833; after they had been lost in the great fire in Rome in
2: 831–856), Goss (1966) in English, Sakai et al. (2003) 192. The first eight volumes and a half of Anatomical
in Japanese; De musculorum dissectione ad tirones procedures are extant as Greek text, and the rest
(On the anatomy of muscles for beginners), Kühn has been recovered from the extant Arabic translation.
(1821–1833; 18B: 926–1026), Goss (1963) in English; The English translations of Galen’s anatomical works
De instrumento odoratus (Organ of smell), Kühn (1821– are useful to glimpse the meaning of anatomical texts.
1833; 2: 857–886), Wright (1924) in English; and De However, reading and understanding the English
uteri dissectione (Dissection of the womb), Kühn translations are not an easy task because the anatom-
(1821–1833; 2: 887–908), Goss (1962) in English. ical and related terms in modern European languages
The most important anatomical works by Galen are originated from Greek and Latin, and frequently changed
Usefulness of the parts in 17 volumes and Anatomical meanings. Either literal or free translations in modern
procedures in 15 volumes. The first volume of the European languages inevitably have led to the dete-
former was written during Galen’s first stay in Rome rioration of the significance of Greek texts of Galen’s
(162–166) and the rest of the volumes were written anatomical description. Furthermore, the previous
early during his second stay from 169, according to translations frequently identified only a part of the
Galen’s My own books (Kühn, 1821–1833; 19: 8–48; anatomical structures described. Recently Sakai et al.
Singer, 1997; Tsuchiya, 1997). The latter was written (2003, 2006) translated Galen’s On anatomy of veins

© 2007 The Author

Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
 History of anatomical terminology
and arteries and On anatomy of nerves from the Greek
texts with detailed annotations and discussions identify-
ing many of the anatomical structures described. During
these studies I noted that, in the anatomical texts,
Galen used only a small number of Greek colloquial
words to indicate structures of the body. An example
of such a passage is cited below from On anatomy
of nerves.
The anterior cavities (*of the cranium) about the brain
[εγκεφαλος] themselves gradually narrow into the
shape similar to pine-cones as they proceed forward,
until they come to the origin of the nose [ρις], lying
side by side and touching altogether, that nothing
exists between them except the thin membrane [µηνιγξ]
(*of the cerebral falx). At each side of them, one in
the right part, and one in the left, is a nerve [νευρον]
(*of the optic nerve) worth mentioning in thickness, and
almost the softest of all other nerves, growing out
from the brain itself, and coming forward into the eyes
[οφθαλµος] (*in the orbit) out of the cranium [κρανιον]
through a hole (*of the optic canal) having exactly
the same breadth as the thickness of the nerve. This
hole is located at the (*deepest) place where first the
space of the eyes begins to grow, and when you observe
(*from the front) those nerves they will appear like
some roots of the eyes. It does not break up into many
fibers, like all other nerves spreading into the recipient
organs [οργανον], and there is something else remark-
able, which is not easy to explain in words, or you
will not believe when you hear it, before you witness
with your own eyes.
(Adapted from Goss (1966) and Sakai et al. (2003);
The parentheses with asterisks indicate notes by the
present author, and the square brackets show the
original Greek anatomical words.)
The aforementioned text describes the anatomy
of the optic nerve, which emerges from the brain
through the optic canal to the eyeball, and explains
the difference from other nerves, using only seven
colloquial words. The description represents vividly
and precisely the scene of anatomical dissection. The
modern anatomical experts with sufficient knowledge
and experience of the human anatomy would well
appreciate that Galen dissected and observed the
body himself and made these observations during
dissection with masterly clarity. Readers are required
to have certain knowledge of anatomy to understand
the text. Indeed Galen wrote the anatomical treatises
and articles frequently for certain patrons who either
loved anatomy deeply or had experience with Galen
dissecting animals.
Another example of Galen’s anatomical texts is cited
here, describing the anatomy of muscles moving the
wrist, from Usefulness of the parts Book 2, Chapter 2.
Two of the muscles on the inner side of the forearm,
and those the largest (*flexor digitorum superficialis/
profundus), flex the fingers. The next largest, also two
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
67
in number, flex the whole wrist (*flexor carpi radialis/
ulnaris). The two oblique muscles (*pronator teres/
quadratus) turn the radius and with it the whole arm
to the prone position. The seventh one (*palmaris
longus), the last and smallest of those extending the
length of the forearm, in the opinion of anatomists
before my time also flexes the five fingers, but actually
no movement of the fingers is entrusted to it and it
has been formed for a certain marvellous purpose
which I shall explain later in this book. Of the nine
muscles on the outer side of the forearm, one (*extensor
digitorum) extends all the fingers except the thumb;
two others (*two of extensor digiti proprii) move the
same four fingers laterally. A fourth muscle (*extensor
pollicis longus) moves only the thumb, giving it the
more oblique of its two external movements, the other
being furnished by another muscle (*abductor pollicis
longus and extensor pollicis brevis) which also
moderately extends the whole wrist; the vigorous
extension of the wrist, however, is performed by two other
muscles (*extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi radiales
longus/brevis). The remaining two (*brachioradialis,
supinator) supinate the radius and carry the whole
arm with it to the same position.
(Adapted from May (1968); The parentheses with
asterisks indicate the names of muscles identified by
the present author.)
The aforementioned text describes muscles in the
forearm, six on the flexor side and nine on the extensor
side. Even without specific anatomical terms, we can
guess these 15 muscles as indicated by the notes in
the parentheses based on the positions and functions
of muscles. The flexor carpi radialis/ulnaris are identified
by the description ‘on the inner side of the forearm
… the next largest, also two in number, flex the whole
wrist’, and the extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi
radiales longus/brevis are judged from ‘on the outer
side of the forearm … vigorous extension of the wrist
… is performed by two other muscles’.
The description is slightly inconsistent with the
human anatomy because Galen dissected no human
cadavers, only the bodies of monkeys and other animals,
due to the social and cultural restrictions in the Roman
empire. The two extensor digiti proprii moving four
fingers are actually the four extensor digiti proprii
arising from the two origins in the monkey (Howell &
Straus, 1933), and not extensor indicis and extensor
digiti minimi in the human anatomy. The distinction
between the extensor carpi radialis logus and brevis
as well as that between the abductor pollicis longus
and extensor pollicis brevis are missing in Galen’s text.
Otherwise the anatomical description by Galen fits
well the anatomy of human forearm muscles.
As Galen’s texts show, the anatomical descriptions
without specific terminology are perfectly possible, but
inevitably contain considerable weaknesses in trans-
mission of anatomical information to others. First, the
texts are intelligible only to anatomical experts with
68
sufficient knowledge of anatomy. Beginners cannot
access anatomical knowledge in the literature without
specific terminology, although Galen wrote several
anatomical articles for beginners. Second, the anatomical
texts permit various possibilities of interpretation so
that the accuracy of the information is difficult to verify.
Further development of anatomical sciences cannot
be expected on the basis of such ambiguous anatomical
information. Third, the anatomical texts without specific
terminology require much time and effort to read, and
in addition a masterly grasp of what Galen intends,
to write down clear and intelligible descriptions.
Anatomical terms with ordinal numbers
by Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) is frequently considered
to be the founder of modern anatomy and medicine.
His major work Fabrica (Vesalius, 1543a) in seven books
contains detailed description of the human anatomy
as well as a number of artistic precise illustrations. Other
anatomical works by Vesalius include Tabulae sex
(Vesalius, 1538) consisting of six anatomical tables and
explanations, and Epitome (Vesalius, 1543b) being an
introductory treatise on anatomy. Translations of these
works are available as follows: Tabulae sex, Singer and
Rabin (1946) in English; Fabrica, Richardson and Car-
man (1998, 1999, 2002) for the Books 1–4, and Singer
(1952b) for a part of Book 7 in English; and Epitome,
Lind (1949) in English, Nakahara (1994) in Japanese.
Fabrica consists of seven books dealing with (i)
bones and cartilage; (ii) ligaments and muscles; (iii)
veins and arteries; (iv) nerves; (v) abdominal organs
of nutrition and generation; (vi) heart and associated
organs in thorax; and (vii) brain. The anatomical
illustrations of the skeletal man in Book 1 as well as
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
T. Sakai
Figure 2. Text from Vesalius’ Fabrica Book 2,
Chapter 44 describing the muscles producing
movements of the wrist. From Vesalius
(1543a).
the muscle man in Book 2 are magnificent and most
outstanding among the numerous illustrations in Fabrica.
In Fabrica and the other works, Vesalius described
individual anatomical structures with text and associated
anatomical illustrations (wood engravings). Examples
of the combination of verbal and pictorial presentations
are taken from Fabrica Book 2 on the muscles, Chapter
44 on the muscles producing movements of the wrist
(Fig. 2).
Along with the wrist the rest of the hand flexes and
extends and moves to either side (the motion to which
we apply the adjective obliquus). It does this by means
of four muscles. The first musclea draws from the inner
tubercle of the humerusb a beginningc of mixed fleshy
and sinewy substance. From here it is attached to the
whole length of the ulna, from which it takes the strength
of its beginning as it proceeds; this is so especially
at the top end of the ulna not far from the joint of the
forearm to the arm …
a Σ in Table IV, Z in Table I, a in II, m in III,* in V, Ξ
in IX; b S in fig. 1 of Ch. 23 of Bk. I; c γ in Table IV.
(Adapted from Richardson & Carman, 1999)
The text describes the flexor carpi ulnaris in modern
terminology. Vesalius named it as the ‘first muscle’
among the four muscles which ‘flexes and extends and
moves to either side’ the wrist. In Fabrica (Vesalius,
1543a) the muscles, blood vessels and peripheral
nerves were systematically distinguished with ordinal
numbers. Vesalius’ anatomical description with ordinal
numbers was obviously no more intelligible than that
of Galen, which lacked specific anatomical terms.
However, the intelligibility of Vesalius’ anatomical texts
was improved by the addition of precise anatomical
illustrations.
The aforementioned text was accompanied by
side notes that indicated the structures depicted in the
 History of anatomical terminology
Figure 3. Table IV of Vesalius’ Fabrica Book 2 showing the
anterior view of muscle man. A part of this figure is enlarged in
Figure 4. From Vesalius (1543a).
anatomical illustrations. Book 2 of Fabrica contained
16 anatomical illustrations at the beginning, and each
illustration was followed by explanations for letters in
the illustration. The side notes to the text corresponded
to the letters on the illustrations. For example the first
muscle in the present text was accompanied by the
side note ‘a’, which referred to letters in tables IV, I,
II, III, V and IX. Table IV (Figs 3,4) of Fabrica Book 2
illustrated an anterior view of muscle man and its
labeling letter ‘Σ’ obviously indicates the flexor carpi
ulnaris muscle. Chapter 43 describes the 29 muscles
moving the fingers (Table 1).
In Fabrica Book 2 containing 62 chapters, the muscles
in the body were classified not by their anatomical
locations, but by their functions into groups, which
were dealt with in certain chapters (Table 2). For
example, the upper limb muscles were divided into
seven groups including those moving the arms (Chapter
23), moving the scapula (Chapter 26), attaching to
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
69
Figure 4. Enlargement of a part of Figure 3 showing the anterior
forearm muscles. The label ‘Σ’ on the right forearm indicates the
flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. From Vesalius (1543a).
the palm by a thin tendon (Chapter 41), moving the
fingers (Chapter 43), producing movements of the
wrist (Chapter 44), pronating and supinating the radius
(Chapter 45), and flexing and extending the elbow
(Chapter 46). The individual muscles were in principle
labeled by the ordinal numbers within the chapters.
Some muscles were given with specific terms in addition
to the ordinal numbers. For example, the first and second
pairs (m. masseter and m. temporalis) moving the
lower jaw were called ‘mansorius’ and ‘temporalis’,
respectively. Vesalius did not newly invent the specific
names, but adopted names by previous authors,
mainly Galen.
Fabrica of Vesalius improved anatomical description
by introducing precise anatomical illustrations. The
text description was also altered by introduction of
the ordinal numbers for muscles, blood vessels and
nerves. The terms with ordinal numbers may be called
ordinal terms. However, introduction of the ordinal
terms did not improve the intelligibility of the description
significantly. Without the help of the illustrations one
can only ambiguously guess at the muscles, vessels
70 T. Sakai

Table 1. Muscles moving the fingers in Fabrica Book 2, and nerves in Fabrica, as in the case of texts by Galen.
Chapter 43 Indeed Vesalius improved the anatomical description
VESALIUS MODERN not by improvement of anatomical terminology, but
by utilizing the visual recognition of structures through
1st Flexor digitorum superficialis anatomical illustrations.
2nd Flexor digitorum profundus
The reaction against the published Fabrica was
3rd Flexor pollicis longus
sensational and diverse. Sylvius (1478–1555) criticized
4th to 11th 7 interossei and flexor digiti minimi
12th Flexor pollicis brevis
new anatomical findings in Fabrica and tried to justify
13th Opponens pollicis the incorrect anatomical descriptions by Galen. Geminus
14th to 16th Adductor pollicis (1510–1562) and Valverde (1520–1588) published
17th Adductor pollicis anatomical textbooks borrowing descriptions and
18th Extensor digiti minimi illustrations from Fabrica and Epitome. The influence
19th Extensor indicis of Vesalius’ Fabrica and Epitome is tremendous and
20th Abductor digiti minimi unparalleled in the history of anatomy. Colombo (1510–
21st Extensor pollicis longus 1559), Fallopio (1523–1562) and many other anatomists,
22nd Extensor pollicis brevis and part worked along the same lines with Vesalius to dissect
of abductor pollicis longus
human bodies, and corrected and augmented previous
23rd Part of abductor pollicis longus
anatomical descriptions including those by Vesalius.
24th Abductor pollicis brevis
25th First dorsal interosseous
26th to 29th Lumbricals Descriptive anatomical terms by Sylvius
and Bauhin
(adapted from Richardson & Carman, 1999)
After publication of Vesalius’ Fabrica, several anatomical
textbooks were published including De re anatomica

Table 2. Ordinal description of muscles in Fabrica Book 2 by Vesalius

Chapters Contents Ordinal terms for the muscles

Chapter 11 Muscles of the eyes 1st−7th

Chapter 13 Muscles of the cheeks, lips, and nasal alae 1st−6th pairs (1st−12th)
Chapter 15 Muscles that move the lower jaw 1st− 4th pairs
Chapter 17 Muscles moving the hyoid bone 1st− 4th pairs (1st−8th)
Chapter 19 Muscles of the tongue 1st− 4th pairs and 1 (1st−9th)
Chapter 21 Laryngeal muscles 1st− 6th, intrinsic; 1st−4th pairs, shared
Chapter 23 Muscles moving the arm 1st−7th
Chapter 26 Muscles moving the scapula 1st− 4th
Chapter 28 Muscles moving the head 1st−7th pairs (1st−14th)
Chapter 31 Muscles of the abdomen 1st− 4th
Chapter 33 Muscles of the male testes and the female uterus –
Chapter 35 Muscles moving the thorax 1st− 6th pairs and 3
Chapter 38 Muscles moving the back 1st− 8th pairs (1st−16th)
Chapter 41 Muscles attached by their sinewy thinness to the middle 1
of the palm and the skin on the inside of the fingers
Chapter 43 Muscles moving the fingers 1st−29th
Chapter 44 Muscles producing movements of the wrist 1st− 4th
Chapter 45 Muscles pronating and supinating the radius 1st− 4th
Chapter 46 Muscles that flex and extend the elbow 1st−5th
Chapter 49 Muscles peculiar to the penis 1st− 4th and 3
Chapter 50 Muscle of the neck of the bladder, which prevents urine –
from flowing out unless we wish it
Chapter 51 Muscles of the rectum –
Chapter 53 Muscles moving the lower leg 1st−9th and 1
Chapter 55 Muscle hidden in the back of the knee, wrongly regarded –
by Galen as the principal author of flexion of the lower leg
Chapter 56 Muscles moving the thigh 1st−10th and 1
Chapter 59 Muscles moving the foot 1st−9th
Chapter 60 Muscles moving the toe 1st−21st

(Based on Richardson and Carman, 1999)

© 2007 The Author

Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
 History of anatomical terminology
Figure 5. Text from Sylvius’ Galeni physiologicae partem
anatomicam isagoge Book 2, Chapter 7 dealing with the
muscles moving the wrist in tabular form. From Sylvius (1555).
(On things anatomical) by Colombo (1559), Obser-
vationes anatomicae (Anatomical observations) by
Fallopio (1561), and De corporis humani structura et
usu (Structure and utility of the human body) by Platter
(1583). In these books the muscles, blood vessels
and peripheral nerves were called in principle by
their ordinal terms, as Vesalius did in Fabrica.
In the general history of medicine and anatomy,
Sylvius is mentioned frequently as the founder of
modern anatomical terminology. Töply (1903) stated
that his achievements in the anatomical terminology
were unquestionable. Eycleshymer (1917) wrote in
his monograph on the anatomical terms, ‘Jacobus
Sylvius (Jacques Dubois) was the first to give names
to most of the muscles, vessels, etc.’ Persaud (1997)
wrote that we are indebted to Sylvius for introducing
anatomical nomenclature, particularly with respect to
the muscles.
Sylvius was a teacher of Vesalius at Paris. His In
Hippocrates et Galeni physiologicae partem anatomicam
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
71
isagoge (Anatomical introduction) (Sylvius, 1555) in
three books were commentaries on the anatomy of
Hippocrates and Galen. In the book Sylvius listed
certain anatomical terms in tabular form in Chapter 1
of Book 1 for bones (Chapter 1, Book 1) as well as in
the chapters in Book 2 for the portal veins (Chapter 2),
systemic veins (Chapter 3), arteries (Chapter 5), nerves
(Chapter 6) and muscles (Chapter 7; Fig. 5). Sylvius
used the anatomical terms of bones from the literature
by Hippocrates and Galen, whereas those of muscles,
blood vessels and peripheral nerves were newly
invented by Sylvius. He explained the reason for
inventing the new anatomical terms in the preface of
his second book.
Imitating Hippocrates and Galen, we amused ourselves
with new names of some parts, especially of veins,
arteries and muscles, for the sake of brevity of speech
and perspicuity of thing. If the fathers at the summit
of medicine took notice to present the proper names
derived from the substantial or from the accidental,
which may be similar to or remote from the things,
to the parts at least above mentioned (since they are
not reluctant to do to others), we were free from this
labor. Because they discerned the individual bones,
many parts of bones, even attachments of bones and
assemblies of bones by appropriate names.
(from Sylvius, 1555, translation by courtesy of Dr Sawai)
For the muscles Sylvius used descriptive epithets,
such as ‘scalenus’, ‘serratus’, ‘rhomboideus’, ‘levator’,
‘pectoralis’, ‘brachiaeus’, ‘intercostales’ and so on, to
indicate the specific characteristics of the individual
muscles. The anatomical terms with descriptive epithets
may be called descriptive terms, in contrast to the
ordinal terms by Vesalius. The descriptive terms for
the muscles by Sylvius can be classified into three
types based on the meaning of epithets, namely (i)
shape-indicative; (ii) location-indicative; and (iii) action-
indicative types (Sawai & Sakai, 2006). One can easily
recollect the anatomical structures from the descriptive
terms. Most of the descriptive terms of the muscles
are still in use in modern anatomy. Vesalius and his
contemporary anatomists used only a small number
of descriptive terms for the muscles, for example,
‘rectus abdominis’, ‘transversus abdominis’, ‘temporalis’
and so on, which had been translated from the
Greek terms in Galen’s works. Sylvius increased
the number of descriptive terms for the muscles
dramatically.
Recently Sawai and Sakai (2006) noted that the
descriptive terms by Sylvius were not used in the
anatomical publications until the end of the 16th century.
The anatomical books in these periods, including
Historia de la composicion del cuerpo humano (History
of the composition of the human body) (Valverde, 1556),
De re anatomica (Colombo, 1559), Observationes
anatomicae (Fallopio, 1561), and Opera anatomica
72 T. Sakai
Figure 6. Text from Bauhin’s Theatrum anatomicum Book 4,
Chapter 20 describing the muscles moving the wrist. From
Bauhin (1605).
(Anatomical works) (Laurentius, 1593) described the
muscles with ordinal terms, and not with descriptive
terms. The use of ordinal terminology by these authors
brought about a disastrous confusion among authors,
because different ordinal numbers were used for the
same muscles among the authors. For example, the
flexor carpi ulnaris muscle was called ‘1. brachiale
movens’ by Vesalius (1543a), ‘2. manus interior musculus’
by Colombo (1559), and ‘1. carpi flexor’ by Laurentius
(1593).
At the end of 16th century, Bauhin (1560–1624)
published two anatomical books, De corporis humani
fabrica (Fabrica) (Bauhin, 1590) and Theatrum ana-
tomicum novis figuris aenis illustratum (Anatomical
theater) (Bauhin, 1605) in which he introduced descrip-
tive terminology in order to bring an end to the confusion
over ordinal terminology for muscles, blood vessels and
nerves. Whitteridge (1980), a famous medical historian
who intensively studied the anatomy in the 16th and
early 17th centuries, praised the contribution of Bauhin
to anatomical terminology as introducing reforms into
the terminology. Recently, Sawai and Sakai (2006)
analyzed Bauhin’s Fabrica and Theatrum anatomicum,
and clarified the process of the formation and spread
of the descriptive anatomical terminology in the 16th
and early 17th centuries.
Bauhin (1590, 1605) compared the ordinal terms
in previous anatomical books, and introduced the system
of descriptive terms for individual muscles, blood vessels
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
Table 3. Carpal muscles in Theatrum anatomicum Book 4 on
extremities, Chapter 20
Bauhin Modern
I. Flectentium & inferior Flexor carpi ulnaris
II. Flectentium seu superior Flexor carpi radialis
I. Extendentium seu inferior Extensor carpi ulnaris
II. Extendentium seu Extensor carpi radialis
superior vel Bicornis longus/brevis
From Bauhin, 1605.
and peripheral nerves. For example in Theatrum ana-
tomicum Book 4, Chapter 20 dealing with the carpal
muscles (Bauhin, 1605), the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle
was called ‘fletentius & inferior’ in the text, and the
ordinal terms by previous authors were listed in the
side note for comparison (Fig. 6). The descriptive
terms in the Latin texts including Bauhin’s books
were written with declension depending on the con-
text (Table 3).
The readers in the Bauhin era were able to identify
the ‘fletentius & inferior’ muscle by consulting table VIII
(Fig. 7) referred to in the text. The anatomical illustrations
of muscles in Theatrum anatomicum were cut out from
the illustrations of the muscle man in Vesalius’ Fabrica.
In Bauhin’s Fabrica, which included no illustrations,
Bauhin referred to the illustrations of Vesalius’ Fabrica,
which the readers were requested to consult.
The descriptive terminology of Sylvius was not
accepted by anatomists before Bauhin, because Sylvius
did not correlate the descriptive terms with the individual
muscles pictorially described in Vesalius’ Fabrica.
Bauhin (1590, 1605) revived interest in the descriptive
terminology by connecting them to the pictorial iden-
tification of the anatomical illustrations. Furthermore
Bauhin added a new type of descriptive term for
muscles. The new terms introduced by Bauhin indicated
the origin and insertion of the muscles, and thus may
be called origin–termination type. The origin–termination
terminology was informative in the anatomy of the
muscles, because the action of muscles can be
deduced from their origin and termination. For example,
Baunin coined the name ‘coracohyoideos’ indicating
the muscle from the coracoid process to the hyoid
bone and ‘sacrolumbus’ indicating the muscle from
the sacrum to the lumbar vertebrae.
The weak descriptive terminology of the muscles
of Galen and Vesalius (1543a) was expanded signif-
icantly by Sylvius (1555). Bauhin (1590, 1605) further
coined new terms for the muscles to complete the
basic framework of the muscular terminology, which
is used in modern anatomy today.
The influence of Bauhin’s descriptive terminology
was immediate and widespread. Laurentius, who used
 History of anatomical terminology
Figure 7. Table VIII of Bauhin’s Theatrum anatomicum Book 4
showing four figures of the arm. From Bauhin (1605).
the ordinal terminology in Opera anatomica (Laurentius,
1593), adopted the descriptive terminology in Historia
anatomica (Anatomical history) (Laurentius, 1600)
obviously after reading Bauhin’s Fabrica (Bauhin, 1590).
Bauhin’s Theatrum anatomicum and Laurentius’ Historia
anatomica were printed several times, and became
the most influential anatomical books in the early 17th
centuries, although they were different in concept and
content from each other. Bauhin’s Theatrum anatomicum
mainly dealt with the various anatomical structures
and their terminology in the previous anatomical works,
whereas Laurentius’ Historia anatomica discussed the
various descriptions and interpretations in the previous
anatomical works (Sawai & Sakai, 2005). Both works
were very popular among later students and doctors
because they provided copious information on anatomy
accumulated by previous authors since Galen and
Vesalius in compact form. The descriptive terminology
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
73
by Bauhin (1590, 1605) was also transmitted widely
through Laurentius’ Historia anatomica.
Anatomical terminology in the 17th, 18th and
19th centuries
In the 17th century and thereafter, the Vesalian ordinal
terminology disappeared from anatomical books, and
the descriptive terminology was widely used. However,
delicate or substantial differences of the anatomical
terms appeared among various authors in these periods.
The confusion of terminology among the authors was
exacerbated by the use of different languages for
writing the anatomical books in the 18th and 19th
centuries. Anatomical books in the 17th century were
written mainly in Latin, whereas those in the 18th and
19th centuries were in modern languages, as exemplified
by the 81 anatomical books surveyed that were pub-
lished in this period (Table 4).
Modern anatomical terms distinguish five carpal
muscles by combinations of three pairs of epithets,
namely, flexor/extensor, radialis/ulnaris and longus/
brevis. The descriptive terms for the carpal muscles
in the 17th−19th centuries more or less contained
these paired epithets, and can be classified into
five types based on the preference of epithets
(Table 5).
Type 1 consisted of the flexor/extensor pair and
employs in addition either the superior/inferior or
externus/internus pair. This type was used in the early
17th century especially by anatomists related to the
Padua school.
Types 2 and 3 preferred the radial/ulnar pair, but
were distinguished by different forms of the epithets.
Type 2 involved the radieus/cubiteus pair, which was
combined with the internus/externus pair. This type
was first found in Riolan (1608) and was widely used
by various authors until the early 18th century. Type
3 involved the radialis/ulnaris pair and was combined
with the internus/externus pair. This type was used
in the splendid atlas of Albinus (1747) and was
widely used thereafter until the later 19th century. The
German form of this type was represented by ‘innerer/
äusserer Speichenmuskel/Ellenbogenmuskel’. The
German form appeared first in 1783 (Leveling, 1783;
Mayer, 1783–1794) and was used until the later 19th
century. A French variant of type 3 was combined with
anterior/posterior pair, and was used in the 19th century
throughout. The French authors tended to preserve
nicknames such as ‘grand palmaire’ for the flexor
carpi radialis muscle.
Type 4 used both the flexor/extensor and radialis/
ulnaris pairs. This form appeared first in the textbook
by Cheselden (1713), and gradually became popular
and dominant among German and English authors
in the 19th century.
 Table 4 Anatomical Books in the 17th–19th centuries surveyed in the present study

74
Author Year Title and publisher Language

Laurentius A 1623 [1600] Historia anatomica, humani corporis partes singulas uberrimè enodans, novisque controversiis, & Latin
observationibus illustrata. Iacobi Cardon & Petri Cavellat, Lyon
Bauhin C 1605 Theatrum anatomical novis figuris aenis illustratum. Johan Theodor de Bry & Johan Israel Latin
de Bry, Frankfurt
Riolan J 1608 Schola anatomica novis et raris observationibus illustrata. Adrianum Perier, Paris Latin
Bartholin T 1651 [1641] Anatomia, ex Caspari Bartholini parentis institutionibus, omniumque recentiorum & propriis Latin
observationibus tertium ad sanguinis circulationem reformata. Franciscum Hackium, Lyon
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists

Vesling J 1647 [1641] Syntagma anatomicum. Pauli Frambotti Bibliopolae, Padua Latin
Riolan J 1663 [1648] Encheiridium anatomicum et pathologicum, in quo, ex naturali constitutione partium, recessus a Latin
naturali statu demonstratur: ad usum theatri anatomici adornatum. Casparum Meturas, Paris
Vesling J, Culpeper N 1653 The anatomy of the body of man. Peter Cole, London English [Latin]
Bartholin T 1668 [1662] Bartholinus anatomy; made from the precepts of his father, and from the observations of all English [Latin]
modern anatomists, together with his own. Nich. Culpeper and Abdiah Cole, London
Diemerbroeck I 1679 [1672] Anatome corporis humani. Joan. Antonij Huguetan, Lyon Latin
Gibson T 1682 The anatomy of humane bodies epitomized. T. Flesher, London English
Bidloo G 1685 Anatomia humani corporis, centum & quinque Tabulis. Joannis à Someren, Amsterdam Latin
© 2007 The Author

Diemerbroeck I, Salmon W 1694 [1689] The anatomy of human bodies; comprehending the most modern discoveries and curiosities in English [Latin]
that art. W. Whitwood, London

T. Sakai
Dionis P 1698 [1690] L’anatomie de l’homme, suivant la circulation du sang, & les dernieres découvertes. 3rd edn, French
Laurend d’Houry, Paris
Blancardus S, Peucerum T 1691 Reformirte Anatomie/oder Zerlegung des menschlichen Leibes/Gebauet auff die wahrhafftigsten German [Latin]
und neuesten Erfindungen dieser Zeit. Moritz Georg Weidmann, Leipzig
Verheyen P 1708 [1693] Anatomie oder Zerlegung des menschlichen Leibes. Thomas Fritschen, Leipzig German [Latin]
Browne J 1697 Myographia nova: or, a graphical description of all the muscles in humane body, as they arise in Latin
dissection. London
Munnicks J 1697 De re anatomica liber. Antonium Schouten, Utrecht Latin
Keill J 1698 The anatomy of the humane body abridges; or a short and full view of all the parts of the body. English
(1st edn, William Keblewhite, London, 1698)
Tauvry D 1701 A new rational anatomy, containing an explication of the uses of the structure of the body of man English
and some other animals, according to the rules of mechanicks. D. Midwinter, London
Dionis P 1703 The anatomy of humane bodies improv’d, according to the circulation of the blood, and all the English [French]
modern discoveries. Translated from the third edition, corrected and enlarged by the author, with an
ample dissertation upon the nature of generation; and several new systems. H. Bonwicke, London
Cheselden W 1713 The anatomy of the humane body. N. Cliff, and D. Jackson, London English
Lancisi JM 1714 Tabulae anatomicae clarissimi viri Bartholomaei Eustachii. Francisci Gonzagae, Rome Latin
Heister L 1719 [1717] Compendium anatomicum totam rem anatomicam brevissime complectens. 2nd edn. Bibliopolio Latin
Kohlesiano et Adolphiano, Altdorf and Nurnberg
Heister L 1752 [1721] A compendium of anatomy. In which all the parts of the human body are succinctly and clearly English [Latin]
described; and their uses explained. W. Innys and J. Richardson, London
Kulmus JA 1759 [1722] Anatomische Tabellen, nebst dazu gehörigen Anmerkungen und Kupfern. Caspar Fritschischen German
Handlung, Leipzig
 Table 4. Continued

Author Year Title and publisher Language

Cowper W 1724 Myotomia reformata or an anaotmical treatise on the muscles of the human body. Robert Knaplok, Latin
and William and John Innys, London
Winslow JB, Douglas G 1734 [1732] An anatomical exposition of the structure of the human body. London English [French]
Cowper W 1739 Anatomia corporum humanorum centum et quatuordecim tabulis. Joannem Arnoldum Langerak, Latin
Leiden
Baccheton HL 1740 Anatomia medicinae theoreticae et practicae ministra, cautelisque in praxi observandis illustrata. Latin
Ioannis Iacobi Cremeri, Nurnberg
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists

Petrioli G 1741 Tabulae anatomicae a celeberrimo pictore Petro Berrettino Cortonensi delineatae. Antonio de Latin
Rubeis, Rome
Albinus BS 1747 Tabulae sceleti et musculorum corporis humani. J. & H. Verbeek, Leiden Latin
Douglas J 1750 Myographiae comparatae specimen: or, a comparative description of all the muscles in a man, English
and in a quadruped. A. Kincaid and G. Crawfurd, Edinburgh
Leber F 1778 [1772] Praelectiones anatomicae. Editio nova, ex Germanico traducta, correcta et aucta. Rudolphum Latin
Graeffer, Vienna

History of anatomical terminology

Sabatier M 1791 [1775] Traité complet d’anatomie, ou description de toutes les paties du corps humain. 3rd edn in 3 vols., French
Théophile Barrois, Paris
© 2007 The Author

Leveling HP 1783 Anatomische Erklärung der Original-Figuren von Andreas Vesal. Anton Attenthouer, Ingolstadt German
Mayer JCA 1783 –1784 Beschreibung des ganzen menschlichen Körpers, mit den wichtigsten neuren anatomische German
Entdeckungen bereichert, nebst physiologischen Erläuterungen. in 3 vols. Georg Jacob
Decker, Berlin
Chaussier F 1789 Exposition sommaire des muscles du corps humain. Dijon French
Hildebrandt F, Weber EH 1830 –1832 [1789] Handbuch der Anatomie des Menschen. 4th edn in 4 vols. Schulbuchhandlung, Braunschweig German
Soemmering ST 1796 –1800 [1791] Vom Baue des menschlichen Körpers. 2nd edn, in 5 vols., Barrentrapp und Wenner, Frankfurt German
am Main
Vaughan W 1791 An exposition of the principles of anatomy and physiology. In 2 vols., G. G. J and J. Robinson, English
London
Wiedemann CRW 1812 [1796] Handbuch der Anatomie. 3rd edn, Bandenhoeck und Ruprecht, Göttingen German
Bell J, Bell C 1809 [1797] The anatomy of the human body. In 4 vols. Collins and Perkins, New York English
Mayer AM 1820 [1799] Anatomische Beschreibung des ganzen menschlichen Körpers. 4th edn, Carl Ferdinand, Wien, German
Bichat X 1801–1803 Traité d’anatomie descriptive. In 5 vols., Carbon and Brosson, Paris French
Portal A 1804 Cours d’anatomie médicale, ou élémens de l’anatomie de l’homme. In 5 vols., Baudouin, Laporte, French
Arthus Bertrand, Paris
Monro A 1813 Outlines of the anatomy of the human body, in its sound and diseased state. In 3 vols., Archibald English
Constable and Longman, Edinburgh
Meckel JF 1815 –1820 Handbuch der menschlichen Anatomie. In 4 vols., Hallische Waisenhauses, Halle German
Wistar C 1817 A system of anatomy for the use of students of medicine. In 2 vols. Thomas Dobson, Philadelphia English
Bock C 1842–1843 [1820] Handbuch der Anatomie des Menschen mit Berücksichtigung der neueseten Physiologie und German
chirurgischen Anatomie. In 2 vols., 3rd edn, Friedrich Volckmar, Leipzig
Horner WE 1823 Lessons in practical anatomy, for the use of dissectors. Edward Parker, Philadelphia English
Cloquet JG 1998–1999 [1825] Manuel d’anatomie descriptive du corps humain. In 5 vols. Louis Pariente, Paris French

75
Horner WE 1830 [1826] A treatise on special and general anatomy. 2nd edn in 2 vols., Carey & Lea, Philadelphia English
Cloquet H, Knox R 1828 A system of human anatomy. MacLachlan and Stewart, Edinburgh English [French]
 Table 4. Continued

76
Author Year Title and publisher Language

Quain J 1828 Elements of descriptive and practical anatomy: for the use of students. W. Simpkin and English
R. Marshall, London
Lauth EA 1837 [1829] Nouveau manuel de l’anatomiste. 2nd edn, Société Belge de Librairie, Brussels French
Römer A 1831 Handbuch der Anatomie des menschlichen Körpers. In 2 vols., J. G. Heubner, Wien German
Cruveilhier, J 1851–1852 [1834] Traité d’anatomie descriptive. 3rd edn, in 4 vols., Labé, Paris French
Meckel JF, Jourdan AJL, Breschet G 1839 Manual of descriptive and pathological anatomy. In 2 vols., G. Henderson, London English [German]
Krause CFT 1841–1843 Handbuch der menschlichen Anatomie. 2nd edn, Hahn’schen Hofbuchhandlung, Hannover Geran
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists

Wilson E, Goddard PB 1844 A system of human anatomy, general and special. 2nd American edn, Lea and Blanchard, English
Philadelphia
Hyrtl J 1863 [1846] Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen mit Rücksicht auf physiologische Begründung und German
praktische Anwendung. 8th edn, Wilhelm Braumüller, Wien
Hyrtl J 1847 Handbuch der topographischen Anatomie, und ihrer praktisch medizinisch = chirurgischen German
Anwendungen. J. B. Wallishausser, Wien
Bock C 1850 Hand-Atlas der Anatomie des Menschen. 3rd edn, Renger’schen Buchhandlung, Leipzig German
Froriep R 1852 Atlas anatomicus partium corporis humani per strata dispositarum imagines in tabulis XXX. 4th Latin
© 2007 The Author

edn Voigt & Günther, Leipzig

Sappey PC 1876 –1879 [1853] Traité d’anatomie descriptive avec figures intercalées dans le texte. 3rd edn, in 3 vols., Adrien French
Delahaye, Paris

T. Sakai
Henle J 1855 –1871 Handbuch der systematischen Anatomie des Menschen. In 3 vols. Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, German
Braunschweig
Meyer, GH 1856 Lehrbuch der physiologischen Anatomie des Menschen. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig German
Quain J, Sharpey W, Ellis GV 1856 Elements of anatomy. 6th edn, in 3 vols. Walton and Marberly English
Quain J, Wilson WJE 1856 A series of anatomical plates; with references and physiological comments, illustrating the English
structure of the different parts of the human body. 4th edn, Samuel and William Wood, New York
Gray H 1858 Anatomy descriptive and surgical, J. W. Parker and Son, London English
Hilles MW 1860 The pocket anatomist: being a complete description of the anatomy of the human body, for the use English
of students. Lindsay and Blakiston, Philadelphia
Leidy J 1861 An elementary treatise on human anatomy. Lippincott, Philadelphia, English
Heitzmann C 1870 –1875 Die descriptive und topographische Anatomie des Menschen. In 2 vols. Wilhelm Braumüller, Wien German
Hollstein L 1873 Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen. 5th edn, E. H. Schroeder, Berlin German
Pansch A 1886 [1881] Grundriss der Anatomie des Menschen. 2nd edn, Robert Oppenheim, Berlin German
Gegenbaur C 1883 Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig German
Henke W 1888 Handatlas und Anleitung zum Studium der Anatmoie des Menschen im Präpariersaale. In 2 vols. German
August Hirschwald, Berlin
Testut L 1899 –1901 Traité d’anatomie humaine. 4th edn, in 4 vols., Octave Doin, Paris French
Poirier P 1892 Traité d’anatomie humaine. In 5 vols., Battaille, Paris French
Rauber A 1892–1894 Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen. 4th edn, in 2 vols. Eduard Besold, Leipzig German
Schäfer EA, Thane GD 1894 –1899 Quain’s elements of anatomy. 10th edn, in 3 vols. Longmans, Green, and Co., London English

Language, square brackets indicate the language of original publication; year, square brackets indicate the year of first edition.
 History of anatomical terminology 77

Table 5. Various descriptive terms for the carpal muscles in the 17–19th centuries

Type 1 Flexor/Extensor
Type 1a Flexor/extensor; superior/inferior
Latin Laurentius, 1623 [1600], Bauhin, 1605; Whitteridge, 1964 [Harvey’s manuscript 1616]
Type 1b Flexor/extensor; externus/internus
Latin: Casserio, 1627; Vesling, 1647 [1641]; Browne, 1697
English: Vesling, Culpeper, 1653
German: (Bock, 1842 [1820])

Type 2 Radieus/cubiteus
Type 2a Radieus/cubiteus; internus/externus
Latin: Riolan, 1608; Bartholin, 1651 [1641]; Riolan, 1663 [1648]; Bartholin, 1668 [1662]; Diemerbroeck, 1679
[1672]; Gibson, 1682; Bidloo, 1685; Blancardus and Peucerum, 1691; Munnicks, 1697; Keill, 1698; Tauvry,
1701; Lancisi, 1714; Heister, 1719 [1717]; Heister, 1752 [1721]; Kulmus, 1759 [1722]; Baccheton, 1740;
Petrioli, 1741
French: Dionis, 1698 [1690]; Sabatier, 1791 [1775]; Portal, 1804; Sappey, 1876–1879 (1st edn 1853)
English: Diemerbroeck and Salmon, 1694 [1689]
Type 2a-1 Radieus/cubiteus; internus/externus; longus/brevis
Latin: Dionis, 1703; Verheyen, 1708 [1693]
Type 2a-2 Radieus/cubiteus; internus/externus; longior/brevior
Latin: (Leidy, 1861)

Type 3 Radialis/ulnaris
Type 3a Radialis/ulnaris; internus/externus
Latin: Winslow & Douglas, 1734 [1732]; (Meckel, Jourdan & Breschet, 1839)
German: Leveling, 1783; Mayer, 1783 –1874; Meckel, 1815 –1820; Mayer, 1820 [1799]; (Bock, 1842 [1820]); Römer,
1831; (Krause, 1841–1843); Hyrtl (1863) [1846]; (Heitzmann, 1870 –1875)
Type 3a-1 Radialis/ulnaris; internus/externus; longus/brevis
Latin: Verheyen, 1708 [1693]; Vaughan, 1791; (Meckel, 1815 –1820); (Bock, 1842 [1820]); (Römer, 1831); Krause,
1841–1843; (Hyrtl, 1863 [1846]); Hyrtl, 1847; (Bock, 1850); Henle, 1855 –1871; Heitzmann, 1870 –1875;
(Gegenbaur, 1883); (Poirier, 1892–1904)
Type 3a-2 Radialis/ulnaris; internus/externus; longior/brevior
Latin: Albinus (1747); Leber, 1778 [1772]; Soemmering, 1796 –1800 [1791–1796]; (Mayer, 1820 [1799]); (Cloquet
& Knox, 1828); (Quain, Sharpey & Ellis, 1856); (Leidy, 1861)
Type 3b Radial/ulnar; anterior/posterior
French: Bichat, 1801–1803; Cloquet, 1998–1999 [1825]; Lauth (1837) [1829]; Cruveilhier, 1851–1852 [1834];
Poirier, 1892–1904; Testut, 1899 –1901 [1889 –1892]

Type 4 Flexor/extensor; radialis/ulnaris

Latin: Cheselden (1713); Cowper, 1724; Cowper, 1739
German: (Römer, 1831)
Type 4–1 Flexor/extensor; radialis/ulnaris; longus/brevis
Latin: Douglas, 1750; (Wiedemann, 1812 [1796]); (Meckel, 1815 –1820); Bock (1842) [1820]; (Römer, 1831);
Hildebrandt F Weber, 1830 –1832; Krause, 1841–1843; (Hyrtl, 1863 [1846]); Bock, 1850; Froriep, 1852;
Meyer, 1856; (Heitzmann, 1870 –1875); Hollstein, 1873; Gegenbaur, 1883; Pansch, 1886 [1881]; Henke,
1888–1889; (Poirier, 1892–1904); Rauber, 1892–1894
Type 4–2 Flexor/extensor; radialis/ulnaris; longior/brevior
Latin: Bell & Bell, 1809 [1797–1804]; (Monro, 1813); Wistar, 1817; Horner, 1823; Horner, 1830 [1826]; Quain,
1828; Cloquet & Knox, 1828; Meckel, Jourdan & Breschet, 1839; Wilson & Goddard, 1844; Quain & Wilson,
1856; Quain, Sharpey & Ellis, 1856; Hilles, 1860; Schäfer & Thane, 1894 –1899

Type 5 Irregular
Latin: Monro, 1813; (Meckel, Jourdan & Breschet, 1839)
French: Chaussier, 1789; (Poirier, 1892–1904)
German: Soemmering, 1796–1800 [1791–1796]
English: Leidy, 1861

Nickname
‘bicornis’: Bauhin, 1605; Riolan, 1608; Whitteridge, 1964 [Harvey’s manuscript 1616]; Riolan, 1663 [1648]; Browne,
1697; Gibson, 1682; Keill, 1698; Dionis, 1703
‘grand palmaire’: Bichat, 1801–1803; Cloquet, 1998–1999 [1825]; (Lauth, 1837 [1829]); Sappey, 1876–1879 [1853]; Testut,
1899 –1901 [1889 –1892]; Poirier (1892–1904)

*Literature in parentheses indicates the terms that were presented as alternatives, and not as main terms.

© 2007 The Author

Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
78 T. Sakai
The extensor carpi radialis muscles were not re-
cognized as two distinct muscles, but as a single muscle
with two terminations by early authors since Fabrica
(Vesalius, 1543a) in which the muscle was described
as ‘divided into two horns (bicornis)’. The nickname
‘bicornis’ for the extensor carpi radialis muscles was
widely used by authors in the early 17th century and
later by some English authors. In the 19th century the
two extensor carpi radialis muscles were distinguished
either by the longus/brevis pair or by its comparative
form longior/brevior. The longus/brevis pair was used
mainly by German authors and the longior/brevior
pair was used by English authors.
A few authors in this period proposed quite different
types of terms for the muscles. Chaussier (1789)
invented origin–termination terminology for all the
muscles in the body. The five carpal muscles were
called ‘épitroklo-métacarpien’, ‘cubito-carpien’, ‘huméro-
sus-métacarpien’, ‘épicondylo-sus-métacarpien’ and
‘cubito-sus-métacarpien’. Monro (1813) proposed
English forms of this terminology. The proposals were
not accepted by other authors surely because of the
heavy burden to memory. It was obvious that without
precise knowledge of the origin and termination of
the individual muscles one could not determine the
names of the muscles.
Another adventure in the terminology of muscles
is found in Leidy (1861). This American author truncated
the multiple epithets into one. The five carpal muscles
were written as ‘radio-carpal flexor’, ‘ulno-carpal
flexor’, ‘longer radio-carpal extensor’, ‘shorter radio-
carpal extensor’ and ‘ulno-carpal extensor’. This type
of truncated terminology was later proposed by
another American anatomist when the international
anatomical terminology was being planned by the
commission of the Anatomische Gesellschaft in the
1890s.
It is sufficient here to provide a tiny example of the
tremendously diverse terminology after Bauhin at the
beginning of 17th century and before the international
anatomical terminology at the end of the 19th century.
Another example of diverse terminology in this period
may be given for the terms of pineal gland. Eycleshymer
(1917) enumerated 16 synonyms of the organ including
pineal body, parietal eye, epiphysis cerebri and penis
cerebri, and estimated the total number at 50 including
the French and German synonyms.
From these examples it would be obvious that the
confusing diversity of anatomical terminology was
immense at the end of the 19th century, when the
international anatomical terminology was planned by
German anatomists in cooperation with anatomists in
other European countries. The actual extent of the
diversity of the anatomical terminology in these periods
has yet to be systematically investigated, and is far
beyond the scope of the present study.
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
International anatomical terminology
In the face of diverse terminology in numerous anatomical
books, anatomists in the late 19th century became aware
that anatomical terms should be logically consistent,
intelligible by themselves, clear in meaning and
compact in form. Otherwise the diverse terminology
would be difficult to teach and cumbersome to use
in research. Several authors of influential anatomical
books in the late 19th century, including Henle (1855–
1871) and Gegenbaur (1883) in Germany (1876–1879)
and Testut (1899–1901) in France and Quain (1828)
in England, tried to make the anatomical terms
logically consistent, intelligible, and uniform in style.
Through these efforts it became apparent that a
systematic list of terminology should be produced
by the cooperation of anatomists rather than by
individual efforts. The sequence of events leading up
to the establishment of Nomina anatomica in 1895
was documented in detail in the preface of Die
anatomische Nomenclatur: Nomina anatomica (His,
1895).
The cooperative plan of the anatomical terminology
was first outlined by Anatomische Gesellschaft of
Germany at its first meeting in Leipzig in 1887. After
preliminary work headed by His for 2 years, a Com-
mission was appointed for preparation of uniform
anatomical terms with von Kölliker as chairman, and
Hertwig, His, Kollmann, Merkel, Schwalbe, Toldt, Waldyer
and von Bardeleben as members. As editor of the
Commission, Krause worked diligently to compile the
manuscript, while taking into account the many demands
that were placed on the Commission from many indi-
viduals. The Commission estimated the necessary funds
at 10 000 marks. The keiserische/königliche Akademie
der Wissenschaft in Berlin, München, Wien, Budapest,
and the königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft in
Leipzig assisted the project.
During the project, the Anatomische Gesellschaft
made contact with anatomical societies of other nations.
The Anatomical Society of Great Britain appointed a
special commission in 1893 for the purpose of adapting
suggestions by German anatomists to English needs.
The Society of American Anatomists made another
proposal to use mononymous terminology such as
‘Medipedunculus’ for Pedunculus cerebellaris medius.
The German commission adopted a part of the pro-
posals, but rejected the principle of mononymous
terminology. As the project advanced, international
cooperation became enhanced with English, Italian
and Belgian anatomists, but not so with French ana-
tomists. Then the German commission officially invited
Duval and Testut to cooperate on the terminology.
However, Duval did not reply, and Testut demanded
official appointment and invitation by the French
Minister of Public Instruction to take part in the work
 History of anatomical terminology
of terminology. The German Commission gave up
cooperation with French anatomists.
At the Munich conference in June 1891, the Com-
mission published a pamphlet containing approximately
300 terms of myology. At the Vienna conference 1892,
the Commission appointed special committees for
individual subdivision of the terminology such as that
for the vascular system (Merkel, Thene and Toldt),
regional anatomy (Merkel, Rüdinger and Toldt), and
syndesmology (Toldt). A special editorial committee
to supervise the terminology as a whole was appointed
(His, Krause, Waldyer) to provide uniform character to
the terms of the different subdivisions. The Commission
worked for another 3 years, and the manuscripts were
revised and voted on by the members of Commission
to determine the final proposal to the Anatomische
Gesellschaft at the conference in Basel in 1894.
In the 6 years needed to prepare the terminology,
the Commission and the editorial committee arrived
at a number of fundamental editorial guidelines, which
are still valuable to those interested in the anatomical
terminology today: (i) each part to be named shall
have only one name; (ii) the names must be in Latin
and must be grammatically correct; (iii) the names
shall be simply mnemonic devices and need not be
explanations of speculative interpretations; (iv) related
terms, as far as possible, shall be similar (e.g. Femur,
A. femoralis, V. femoralis, N. femoralis); and (v) adjectives,
in general, shall be arranged with their antonyms (e.g.
dexter, sinister; major, minor; superficialis, profundus).
The use of personal names in terminology evoked
much discussion during the process. The committee
reached a compromise to give objective names to
all parts and add thereto, within brackets, the widely
used personal names.
The anatomical terminology ‘Nomina anatomica’
was authorized at the ninth conference of Anatomische
Gesellschaft held at Basel. The terminology was pub-
lished as a supplement of Archiv für Anatomie und
Physiologie (His, 1895), and called generally Basle
Nomina Anatomica (BNA). As medical science pro-
gressed dramatically in the 20th century, the international
anatomical terminology was augmented and repeatedly
revised thereafter (Table 6).
The Jena Nomina Anatomica (JNA) incorporated
proposals of German, English and American anatomists
(Anatomische Gesellschaft, Anatomical Society of Great
Britain and Ireland, and American Association of
Anatomists), and was determined at the conference
of Anatomische Gesellschaft at Jena in 1936. Further
revisions of the terminology were edited by the Inter-
national Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (IANC)
after 1950. The revised terminology was approved
by the 7th International Congress of Anatomists at Paris
in 1955 as Nomina Anatomica (PNA). The committee
continued to revise the terminology until the 6th edition
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
79
Table 6. International anatomical terminology
Basle Nomina Anatomica (BNA) 1895
Birmingham Revision (BR) 1933
Jena Nomina Anatomica (JNA) 1936
Nomina Anatomica, 1st edn, Paris (PNA) 1955
Nomina Anatomica, 2nd edn 1961
Nomina Anatomica, 3rd edn 1966
Nomina Anatomica, 4th edn 1977
Nomina Anatomica, 5th edn 1983
Nomina Anatomica, 6th edn 1989
Terminologia Anatomica 1998
in 1989. At the 10th International Congress of Anatomists
at Tokyo in 1975, Nomina Histologica and Nomina Embry-
ologica in addition to the fourth edition of Nomina
Anatomica were approved, and published as Nomina
Anatomica, fourth edition in 1977.
As the IANC declined gradually and ceased to be
active, the Federative Committee on Anatomical
Terminology (FCAT) began to create new terminology
in conjunction with the International Federation of
Associations of Anatomists (IFAA). The members of
FCAT were elected at the conference of Federative
World Congress of Anatomy in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
in August 1989, and held several meetings until 1998
when the new terminology entitled Terminologia
anatomica was published. The new terminology listed
anatomical terms both in Latin and English. After that
FCAT compiled and edited Terminologia Histologica
(2006).
Anatomical terminology in Latin and English forms
is not sufficient in Japan, nor in some other Asian
countries, where medical and scientific education is
carried out in the national language. In Japan, the first
anatomical terminology was published as Kaibogaku-
Meii (Anatomical vocabulary) by Suzuki (1895), which
conformed to the BNA. The Nomina anatomica japonica,
an official terminology of the Japanese Association
of Anatomists (JAA), first appeared in 1944 possibly
as a private document. The Nomina anatomica japonica
has been revised repeatedly until the 12th edition
published in 1982. After publication of Terminologia
anatomica, JAA revised the terminology in order to
produce Anatomical terms in Japanese which was
offered through the home page of JAA. The printed
form of a new anatomical terminology with Japanese,
Latin and English forms is published in 2007 as
Terminologia anatomica japonica.
In other Asian countries, a Chinese version of Nomina
anatomica in five languages, including Latin, English,
French, Esperanto and Chinese, was published (Huang,
1989). In Korea, medical and scientific education was
carried out under Japanese influence before 1945, and
anatomical terms were written with Chinese characters
80 T. Sakai
of Japanese style until the 1980s. The first Korean
anatomical terminology was published in 1978 in
Japanese style. In 1987, the Korean Association of
Anatomists commenced transforming the terminology
into native Korean words, and published a new edition
of the terminology in 1990. The newest edition published
in 2005 incorporated English and Latin terminology
in accordance with Terminologia anatomica.
Veterinary science also required an anatomical
terminology that was in part incompatible with that
in the human anatomy. In particular, the terms indicating
directions such as superior/inferior and anterior/posterior
have different meanings between human beings in
an upright position and animals in quadruped postures.
The first attempt to establish the Nomina anatomica
veterinaria began at the seventh International Veterinary
Congress at Baden Baden in 1899 just after publication
of the BNA. In the JNA in 1936, the terms for directions
were related to the parts of the body such as cranial/
caudal and ventral/dorsal, and were therefore accept-
able to veterinary anatomists. However, since the
PNA in 1955 reintroduced the old terms of direction
related to the human standing position, the veterinary
anatomists began to prepare a terminology of veterinary
anatomy. The International Committee on Veterinary
Anatomical Nomenclature (ICVAN) was established
in 1957, and published the first edition of Nomina
anatomica veterinaria in 1968. The current fifth edition
of Nomina anatomica veterinaria is offered through
the home page of the World Association of Veterinary
Anatomists (WAVA).
Conclusion
Anatomical terms are invaluable tools for dealing with
structures of the human body, in the medical sciences.
The usefulness of the anatomical terms is obvious when
one reads the anatomical texts by Galen (129–216)
in the Roman Empire. Galen wrote logically consistent
and precise descriptions of the anatomical structures
without specific terminology, and therefore his anatomical
texts required sufficient anatomical knowledge on the
part of the readers and much effort to identify the
anatomical structures and relations.
Anatomical illustrations greatly improved the re-
cognition of anatomical structures. The precise artistic
illustrations in Fabrica (1543) by Vesalius of Brussels
(1514–1564) stimulated investigations on the human
body. In contrast, it soon became obvious that the
ordinal terminology by Vesalius was insufficient, and
Sylvius in Paris (1478–1555) and Bauhin in Basel (1560–
1624) developed the descriptive terminology for the
muscles, blood vessels and peripheral nerves. In the
17th, 18th and 19th centuries, many anatomists wrote
anatomical texts using different terms in Latin as well
as in modern languages. To prevent confusion caused
© 2007 The Author
Journal compilation © 2007 Japanese Association of Anatomists
by the different terms and to facilitate communication
of anatomical information, the international anatomical
terminology was established in Latin at the end of the
19th century by German anatomists. The current edition
of international anatomical terminology is written both
in Latin and English, and in addition national anatomical
terminologies have been published in some countries
including Japan, Korea and China.
Anatomical terms are very convenient tools for
describing and identifying anatomical structures but
they have several disadvantages. Medical students
frequently feel that anatomical terms are a heavy burden
to their memory. The imaginative power of researchers
desiring to uncover new significance in anatomical
structures may be restricted by the specific terms
themselves. I hope that the current review will help
readers to appreciate both the advantages and short-
comings of our anatomical terminology, which is the
product of continual efforts of previous generations
of anatomists.
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