Soil Structure and Clay

Minerals
Chapter‐4
Introduction
• In case of coarse‐grained soils, the mineralogical composition of the
grains hardly affects the engineering properties of the soils. In such
soils, Interparticle forces due to force of gravity become more
significant. Example, weights, mass, unit weight, relative density, etc.
• But when particles are finer, the forces associated with surface area
of grains are more significant. Example, specific surface (ratio of
surface area to volume). Such particles are known as colloid particles.
• For any cube of length ‘l’, specific surface = Surface area/Volume
=6l2/l3 = 6/l
• Thus, smaller the length, larger is the specific surface.
Introduction
• Thus, when a given volume of material is made up of smaller
particles, the surface area of the material increases. Hence clay
particles have very large surface area compared to same volume of
sand particles.
• Example: The quantity of water needed to just wet the surface of
smaller particles in a given volume of soil is many times more than
that needed in the case of larger particles. This also means that for
same void ratio, water contents are more for fine‐grained soils than
for coarse‐grained soils for saturation.
Clay Mineral
• Clay: It is defined as the fine‐grained soil whose grains are mainly
composed of clay minerals and have plasticity and cohesion.
• The ingredient in clay soil which provides cohesion to it are Clay
Minerals.
• Clay minerals have crystalline arrangement, and on the basis of this
arrangement they can be classified into three main groups:
1. Kaolinite
2. Montmorillonite
3. Illite
Clay Mineral
• The basic structural unit of clay consists of two units:
1. Silica Tetrahedron : Oxygen atom placed at tips of a tetrahedron enclosing a silicon atom.
The silica tetrahedron units combine together to form tetrahedral sheets also known as Silica
Sheets, which are symbolically represented as shown in figure in the right.
Each tetrahedral unit has a net charge of ‐1.

Tetrahedral sheet representation

Clay Mineral
2. Aluminium Octahedron : 6 Hydroxyl ions placed at tips of a octahedron enclosing an
aluminium atom (or magnesium or some other metallic atoms).
The aluminium octahedron units combine together to form Octahedral sheets also known as
Gibbsite sheet (Al) or Brucite sheets (Mg), which are symbolically represented as shown in
figure in the right.
Each octahedral gibbsite unit has a net charge of +1.

Octahedral sheet representation

Clay Mineral
Isomorphous substitution: The substitution of one kind of metallic
atom in a clay mineral lattice by other metallic atom of lower valence,
is known as isomorphous substitution.
Example: one silicon in a tetrahedral unit may be substituted by an
aluminium ion, which could happen when aluminium ions are more
readily available in water. Aluminium ion has 3 + charges, and silicon
has 4 + charges. Therefore, such substitution will cause decrease in
positive charge, or increase in the net negative charge in the unit.
Clay Mineral
Cation Exchange Capacity: Due to the result of isomorphic substitution,
the surface of clay crystals are negatively charged. Positive ions or
cations in the water are thus attracted to these surfaces.
The ability of a clay particle to adsorb ions on its surface or edges is
called its cation exchange capacity. Lower valence cations on the
surfaces or edges are exchanged with equal valence or higher valence
cations.
Application: Soil stabilization using admixtures ( Example: lime
stabilization)
 Types of Clay Mineral
1. Kaolinite:
• The structural unit consists of one layer of
silica tetrahedral with the tip embedded in
one layer of alumina octahedral sheets. It is
also known as 1:1 clay mineral.
• The structural units are held together by
hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl of
octahedral sheet and oxygens of tetrahedral
sheet.
• The hydrogen bond results in good strength
and stability between layers, and thus have
only little tendency to allow water in
between the layers and swell.
 Types of Clay Mineral
2. Montmorillonite:
• The structural unit consists of one
octahedral sheet sandwiched between two
silica tetrahedral sheets with the tip of the
tetrahedral combining with the hydroxyl of
the octahedral sheet. It is also known as 2:1
clay mineral.
• The interlayer bonding between the silica
sheets of two layers is mainly due to Van der
Waals forces, and is thus weak.
• Isomorphic substitution of Al3+ for Si4+ in
tetrahedral sheet and Mg2+ for Al3+ in the
octahedral sheet can also take place, which
causes greater net negative charge.
 Types of Clay Mineral
2. Montmorillonite:
• Montmorillonite has the largest specific
surface among all clay minerals.
• Thus, clay soils with montmorillonite are
susceptible to substantial volume
changes when mixed with water.
• They swell as the water enters into the
lattice structure and shrink if the water is
removed.
• Example: Black cotton soil, Bentonite,
etc. (Bentonite has LL > 300%)
 Types of Clay Mineral
3. Illite:
• Same arrangement of sheets as that of
montmorillonite, i.e. 2:1 mineral with
sandwiched gibbsite sheet by two silica
sheets along with some isomorphic
substitution of silicon ions by aluminium
ions.
• But, potassium ions bond the two layers
together more strongly than in the case
of montmorillonite.
• Thus, illite does not swell as much in the
presence of water as montmorillonite,
but swells more than kaolinite.
meq/ 100g means
milligram equivalent of
hydrogen that can be
held on 100 g of dry soil
material

CEC= Cation exchange

capacity
 Clay Particle Interaction (Interaction with water)
Water is attracted to the negatively charged surface of clay particle by three
possible ways:
1. Water molecule being a dipole is attracted to the negatively charged
surface of the crystal.
2. Water is adsorbed by hydrogen bonding, i.e. H atom of water is attracted
to O‐ or OH‐ on the surface of clay crystal
3. Other cations present in water get attracted to negatively charged surface
of clay particles, and water dipoles are attracted to these cations.
 Clay Particle Interaction (Interaction with water)
The natural attraction of water to the clay particle surface is very strong near
the surface and decreases off with distance.
Immediately next to the clay particle surface, there is a very strongly
adsorbed thin layer of water about 10A° thick (1A°= 10‐10 m). And beyond
this, there is an outer layer of water which is attracted to a lesser degree and
is more mobile.
The strongly attracted water immediate to the particle surface is also called
as diffuse‐double layer or adsorbed water.
Clay Particle Interaction (Interaction with water)
 Clay Particle Interaction
• The clay particles interact through the adsorbed
water layers.
• Force of repulsion between two clay particles is due
to similar charge on the particle surfaces.
• Force of attraction between particles may be due to
van der Waals force, H‐bond and other linkages.
• Net force between adjacent clay particles is the
algebraic sum of the repulsive and attractive force
acting in between their distance.
• This net force or potential decreases with increase in
distance from the clay surface.
• This net force governs the clay particle arrangement
(clay structure).
 Clay Structures
• If the net force is of attraction, then particles
approach each other and they form
Flocculated structure with particularly edge‐
to‐face orientation. The flocculated structure
have a lower degree of parallelism and a
higher void ratio.
• If the net force is of repulsion, then particles
repel each other and form Dispersed
structure, with particularly face‐to‐face
orientation. The dispersed structure of clay (b) Dispersed structure
have a lower void ratio.
Possible theoretical questions in exam:
• Describe the types of clay minerals. 5 marks
• Write short notes on Clay particle interaction with water. 5 marks
• Differentiate between Kaolinite and Illite 4 marks