Physics 30 – Ch 15.

1 – Atomic Physics – Lesson 1 – The Discovery of the Electron Notes pg 194

From some of the earliest surviving written documents, scientists have been attempting to understand the
building blocks that constitute what we know as “matter”. There have been numerous atomic theories
proposed, but to date, we still do not have a complete understanding.

The earliest atomic theory, from the Greeks and Babylonians, indicated that there were four elements;
Earth, Wind, Fire, and Water. Since then, Bohr, Thompson, Rutherford, Mendeleev and others have
made progress toward the currently accepted Standard Model of Particle Physics, but our understanding
remains incomplete, as physicists Vera Rubin and Margaret Burbidge help advance the study of dark
matter, and dark energy, both of which are not yet understood, and do not fit within the Standard Model.

Describing individual particles that cannot be seen, such as protons, neutrons and electrons, is a
challenging aspect of Physics. First, it took a while to discover and understand the concept of electric
charge and electric and magnetic fields. Later, with the understanding of energy quanta (photons), and
the interference of EMR and charged particles, quantum mechanics was born.

Chemistry and Physics – not so different

English chemist John Dalton (1766–1844) developed an atomic theory to

explain the ratios in which elements combine to form compounds. His theory
indicated that matter had constituent particles with mass (atoms). He imagined
atoms were like indivisible billiard balls. However, in the late 1800's with
experiments with cathode ray tubes made from different elements that each
produce electrons with identical properties, Dalton's model is incorrect.

One of the earliest tools for studying charge was the cathode ray tube.

Scientists discovered that connecting a high voltage across the

electrodes at opposite ends of a glass tube caused rays to flow
from the negative electrode (the cathode) toward the positive
electrode (anode). Scientists, at the time, were uncertain what
these beams were. To prove that cathode rays were charged, it
had to be proven they would respond to both electric and
magnetic fields.

In 1885, after experiments with improved vacuum tubes, William Crookes in England discovered, that
• cathode rays travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode
• cause pinwheels in their path to spin indicating they have mass and momentum
• impart a negative charge to objects they strike (they are negatively charged)
• cause glass to fluoresce and glow (they have energy)

In 1897, Joseph John Thomson demonstrated that cathode rays respond to electric fields just as
negatively charged particles would, and they also responded to magnetic fields, just as negative charges
do. This was the conclusive evidence needed that cathode rays were streams of negatively charged
particles, and these particles seem to be identical.

Thus, JJ Thomson is given credit for the discovery of the electron.

194
Determining the properties of the electron

Below is a reproduction of Thomson’s diagram of his apparatus. He evacuated the air, and by
manipulating the voltage between the plates, could deflect the electron up or down.

– – – – –

+++++

Thomson then added an electromagnet beside the parallel plates, and this could also deflect the cathode
ray. He added a phosphorescent patch and a scale pasted on the outside of the tube to measure the
deflection of the rays.

– – – – – – –

+++++++

Fm

e−
N

Given the electron has a negative charge, the electron force is downward. By directing North out of the
page, the magnetic force is upward. The force of gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental forces,
and its effect is negligible compared to the electric and magnetic forces.

By varying the voltage between the plates, and by manipulating the electro-magnet, and the measuring
the deflection, (or lack thereof) Thompson measured the net force acting on the electron, Fnet = Fe + Fm

First, he manipulated the electric and magnetic fields so there was no deflection of the cathode rays.
Let Fnet = 0
thus, Fe = Fm
E The speed of the cathode rays is a function of the
E q = B qv ⊥ v= strength of the perpendicular electric and magnetic
B fields, when no deflection occurs.
E = B v⊥

JJ Thompson was able to measure the speed of the cathode rays

195
Ex) A beam of electrons passes un–deflected through a 0.50-T magnetic field combined with an electric
field of magnitude 50000 N/C electric field. The electric field, the magnetic field, and the velocity of
the electrons are all perpendicular to each other. How fast are the electrons travelling?

|𝐸⃑ | either memorize, or derive,

𝑉= ⃑| by letting Fe = Fm
|𝐵

50000 N/C
V= = 100000 m
s
0.50T
Ex) What magnitude of electric field will keep cathode rays from being deflected while they move at a
speed of 3.0 × 104 m/s through a 0.15-T magnetic field?

|𝐸⃑ |
𝑉= ⃑ | = (𝑉)(|𝐵
→ |𝐸 ⃑ |)
|𝐵⃑|
= (3.0 × 104 m/s)(0.15 T)
= 4500 N/C
From the formula, above, the speed of the cathode rays can be determined without knowing either the
charge, or mass, of the cathode rays themselves. Thompson's next goal was to determine these two
quantities.

In order for Thompson's apparatus to work, the cathode rays need to have a sufficient velocity to avoid
being overly attracted to the oppositely charged plate, and sufficiently deflected by the magnetic force.

F m = qvB To calculate the magnetic force, he needed the charge of the cathode ray particles,
which he did not know.

He knew the magnetic force caused the cathode rays to assume uniform circular motion, thus the
magnetic force provided the centripetal force,

mv 2
F m = Fc = To calculate the Fc, he needed the mass of the cathode rays, which he didn't know
r

mv2 q v
but , qv B = which can be re–arranged to =
r m Br

Thomson could measure v, B, and r, and he was able to use these measurements to calculate the ratio of
the two unknowns, charge per unit mass. Since Thompson found reasonably consistent values for the
charge–to–mass ratio of cathode rays, Thomson concluded that all cathode rays consist of identical
particles with exactly the same negative charge, (now known as the electron).

qe
Thomson concluded that = 1011 C/kg (the charge to mass ratio of the electron)
me

Thomson then began to experiment with rays of hydrogen ions, positively charged, and found that the
electron had significantly less mass than hydrogen, or any other element.
196
Thomson knew that cathode rays emanated from various elements' surfaces, and regardless of the
element, had the same charge–to–mass ratio. Thus, the electron had to come from the atoms within the
metals, themselves. Thus, an electron is a sub–atomic particle of an atom. Thomson put forward the
daring theory that atoms were divisible, and the tiny particles in cathode rays were “the substance from
which all the chemical elements are built up.” Although he was wrong about electrons being the only
constituent part of atoms, recognizing that electrons are subatomic particles was a major advance in
atomic physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906.

Atomic Theories Through History

(Dalton) (Thompson) (Rutherford) (Standard Model)

Relating magnetic force, and centripetal force, to calculate the charge–to–mass ratio

Thomson measured the deflection of cathode rays, Newton's laws of motion, and Faraday's magnetic
forces to determine the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron. A charged particle moving perpendicular to
a uniform magnetic field follows a circular path, with the magnetic force acting as the centripetal force.
In another lesson, we will learn how the individual charge and mass of an electron were measured.

Ex) A beam of electrons, accelerated to a speed of 5.93 × 105 m/s, is directed perpendicular to a uniform
1.00 × 10–4 T magnetic field (directed into the page). The electrons travel in a circular path with a
radius of 0.0337 m. Calculate the charge-to-mass ratio for an electron, using these measures.

Let F m = F c
2
mv
qvB =
r
q v
=
m Br
5.93  10 m/s
5
= –4
(1.00  10 T · 0.0337 m)

= 1.76  10
11 C
kg

Assignment: Read Text pg 751 – 760

Text pg 756: 1 – 3 pg 758: 1 – 3 pg 760: 1, 3, 4, 5, 9*

197