Report: Load Flow Analysis

Course: Industrial Power System Analysis

Submitted By: Balamurugan Marimuthu Date: 04-12-2023

LOAD FLOW IN POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Table of Contents
1. Introduction To Power System Analysis: ......................................................................................... 4
What: - ............................................................................................................................................ 4
Why: - .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Steady State Analysis: ..................................................................................................................... 5
2. Introduction To Load/Power Flow:.................................................................................................. 5
What: - ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Why: - .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Swing Bus Concept: ......................................................................................................................... 5
Components or Circuit or Equipment Loading: - ............................................................................ 6
Available Transfer Capacity (ATC) of T/L: ....................................................................................... 8
Basic Things To know Before Going to do the LFA: ...................................................................... 10
3. Introduction To the Etap Software and Basics: ............................................................................. 12
4. Modelling Of Transmission Line: ................................................................................................... 15
5. Load Flow Study Wizard Case: ...................................................................................................... 18
Load Diversity Factor: ................................................................................................................... 25
Operating P, Q, V: ......................................................................................................................... 26
Branch Connection in Load Flow report: ...................................................................................... 29
6. Configuration Manager and Base Editor: ..................................................................................... 30
7. Modelling Of Transformer (IEC 60076): ........................................................................................ 33
What:............................................................................................................................................. 33
Applications: ................................................................................................................................. 33
Voltage Tolerance in Transformer: ............................................................................................... 35
Types of transformers: .................................................................................................................. 36
Altitude Derating/uprating: .......................................................................................................... 36
Transformer Paralleling: ............................................................................................................... 41
OLTC modelling: ............................................................................................................................ 49
8. Generator Modelling: .................................................................................................................... 51
Selection of Generators: ............................................................................................................... 51
Voltage Control/PV controlled mode: .......................................................................................... 52
MVAr Control/Load Bus/PQ Bus Mode:........................................................................................ 55
Swing Mode: ................................................................................................................................. 55
Power Factor control/Load Bus mode: ......................................................................................... 56
Isochronous Load Sharing Mode: ................................................................................................. 57
9. Modelling Of Load: ........................................................................................................................ 60
 What Is Load?................................................................................................................................ 60
Types: ............................................................................................................................................ 60
Constant Impedance(Z): ................................................................................................................ 60
Constant Current Load(I): ............................................................................................................. 61
Constant Power Load (P)............................................................................................................... 62
10. Modelling of motor: .................................................................................................................. 65
VFD Modelling for a motor: .......................................................................................................... 67
11. Modelling Of Solar Inverter: ...................................................................................................... 68
12. Modelling of Wind Turbine Generator: ..................................................................................... 71
Type-1 WTG: ................................................................................................................................. 73
Type-2 WTG: ................................................................................................................................. 74
Type-3 WTG: ................................................................................................................................. 74
Type-4 WTG: ................................................................................................................................. 75
Important facts about reactive power consumption/injection: ................................................... 76
13. Etap example and simulations: ................................................................................................. 76
14. Important notes we must know at LFA: .................................................................................... 79
 1. Introduction To Power System Analysis:
What: -
Power system analysis is a study which is conducted in the power system to check the normal condition
and abnormal condition. It includes varies studies and analysis but mainly classified into two types.
I. Steady state analysis – ability of system to regain & maintain system stability after even small
disturbance in system.
II. Transient Analysis - ability of system to regain & maintain system stability after even large
disturbance in system (ex- loss of generator, variation in power gen)

Why: -
A power system study will ensure that the power system is robust and dependable, with any flaws or
safety risks identified and rectified under all operating conditions.

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Steady State Analysis Transient or Dynamic Analysis

 Load Flow  RMS
 Short circuit o Angular Stability
 Motor Acc. Studies o Grid Islanding
o Load Shedding
 Relay coordination o LVRT (Low Voltage Right Through
 Arc Flash Capability Studies)
 Harmonic  EMT (IEC 60071)
o SFO (Slow Front O/V) – switching of
trafo,gen,cable,reactor.
Tools used for Steady State/RMS: o FFO (Fast Front O/V) – Lightning
ETAP, PSS/E, DIGSILENT, CYME, SKM, EASY POWER, EA PSM, study around 8/20 µsec or 1.2/50 µsec.
ASPEN. This are also Used in RMS Study. o VFFO (Very Fast Front O/V) – Which
o PSS/E By Siemens can perform only Load Flow, Short Circuit, RMS – is performed in GIS S/S.
mainly in large scale power system.
o TRV (Transient Recovery Voltage) –
o ETAP used in Industrial Power System Studies.
o Digsilent Power Factory – renewables. voltage which occurs shortly after
current interruption.
o Ferro resonance – happens in CVT due
to trapped charges in Capacitance and
after breaker opens VT inductance
creates unnecessary O/V.

Tools used for EMT:

PSCAD, EMTP-RV.
Steady State Analysis:
What: -
An ability of system to regain & maintain system stability after even small disturbance in system.

Why: -
 Power system is the most dynamic system in the world. The rate at which process of
converting any form of energy to electrical is same instant of converting electrical energy
to other forms. If it is not obtained, then the system may get collapsed.
 To Initialise the transient study.
 Equipment rating is suitable for normal operating conditions.
 Equipment rating is suitable for abnormal operating conditions with specified time.
 As we said earlier, power system is the most dynamic system, we need to find
365*24*60*60(Days*Hours*Minutes*Seconds) 31536000 sec/yr. possible combinations
which may occurs in the year. But practically it is not possible to run all the combinations
so that we can go for worst case conditions (Max/Min/Normal) with few operating
instants.

For reference we can go with below possible combinations.

Max Voltage Max Load

Normal Voltage Normal Load

Minimum Voltage Minimum Load

2. Introduction To Load/Power Flow:

What: -
LF Gives the power consumption at all buses with known system configuration (elements which are
in Service Mode), Power Generation at Generators, Power Flow through Transformer/Bus/Node, Voltage
Magnitude and Phase angle at different buses.

Why: -
 Equipment loading or Circuit Loading – To know the margin available for future. */ explained below /*
 Real/Reactive Power Flow. */ explained below /*
 Transformer Tap Settings – To find out OLTC/OCTC requirements with Min/Max tap settings.
 Steady State Bus Voltage/Angle. */ explained below /*
 System Losses – To find out configuration with minimum losses.
 Generator Voltage set point – Study about generator set point to improve P.F at PCC.
 Performance under Emergency/critical cases.

Swing Bus Concept:

The most suitable concept for strong transmission system feeding a week one. It is assumed that it has
the capability to provide us infinite real/reactive power. However, this is not suitable for large-scale
interconnected system.

Swing bus concept assumes that whatever the load demands, it can be compensated by the source. All
the simulation software uses swing/slack bus concept.

All the generators in power system should only supply the real/reactive power within its given
Max/Min range and we need to ensure that one.

Methodologies Used: Gauss Siedel / Newton Rapson / Fast Decoupled.

 Types: -
Conventional Load Flow
a) Swing Bus
b) Freq. Dep LF
c) Forward reverse
sweep algorithm
Unbalanced Load Flow
Time Domain Load Flow
(Quasi Dynamic Study)
Time Domain Unbalanced
Load Flow
Distributed Slack/Swing
Bus
Secondary Controllers
Optimal Power Flow
Components or Circuit or Equipment Loading: -
Various Type of electrical systems are,
 Radial System
 Closed Ring
 Weak Mesh
 Interconnected system.
It assumes that source, load and network are balanced. It obeys
Swing/Slack bus concept. We can run all the possible combinations.
Forward reverse sweep algorithm mainly used in weakly distributed
system or less X/R system.
Like 3*1 ph transformers with different impedance, Traction
connected with two phases, etc.
At each and every 15 min interval the load and supply are seldom
concept. LF will be simulated for 365*24*4 = 35040/yr.
It is based on angular difference. Having more than one swing bus in
power system. Nuclear power plants power generation remains
constant through interval but renewable and gas, thermal plants are
generating power based on availability/demand. So, they are
considered as swing buses.
Can be done in Digsilent Power Factory
To Optimize the Load flow/losses/reactive power compensation.
Radial System:
Each buses are connected to other bus through only
one path.
The power flow can be calculated easily through
vectorial method as the power flows through only one
path. So, load flow for radial system is not required.
Closed Ring:
It is same as the radial system except all the buses are
connected to other in ring form.
If anyone circuit open means it will be become open
circuit system.
 Open ring or Weak Mesh:
It is same as the radial system.
If anyone circuit open means it will be become open
circuit system/weak mesh system as the power flow is
interrupted.

Interconnected System:
The most reliable network system.
Each bus/source are connected by more than one path.
So, if the one path breaks, it will continue by other
paths.

Load Flow can used to determine

1. Continuous Rating – Normal Operating Condition
 Generation Planning 2. Long Time Emergency Rating - Long time interruption
 Transmission Planning 3. Short Time Emergency Rating - Less Time interruption
 Distribution Planning 4. Short time withstand – Go through faults/interruption

The above-mentioned conditions have to be checked for Short/Medium/Long Time intervals because our utility
demand scale varies day by day.
These studies need to be performed precisely for Load Flow and Analysis and Load Forecasting.
If the Load Forecasting is not accurate then the outcome of Load Flow is also not accurate. It is depending upon
Power system engineer who’s performing the Load flow and accuracy of Load forecasting.
These studies are not covered in IEE 399 because that is only for industrial power system and not for
conventional systems.
Available Transfer Capacity (ATC) of T/L:
It plays critical role in Transmission line planning. It is defined as

ATC = TTC-CBM-TRM-Ex TC

Were,

ATC – Available Transfer Capacity

TTC – Total Transfer Capacity

CBM – Capacity Benefit Margin

TRM – Transmission Reliability Margin

Ex TC – Existing Transmission Commitments

For ex., TTC – 1000 MW; Ex TC – 600 MW; Then the remaining ATC will be 400 MW. But we need to think
about CBM and TRM so we will allocate 50 MW each.

ATC=1000-50-50-600

ATC=300MW.

1) Steady State Bus Voltage/Angle:

For radial system it is not necessary to do load flow because it is connected through single bus. But
for interconnected systems it is mandatory to check power flow/voltage level at each bus to ensure
that they are within the tolerance or not.

Angle stability in Bus – The angle difference between one bus to another bus must be within 90º and
if it goes beyond that value, it is not stable itself. In India it is permissible up-to 23º and in other
countries it may goes up-to 30º

If the angle difference goes beyond the limits, we can go for alternative solutions like adding
additional circuit for power flow, other transmission lines if required. If no more extension ways
available due to constraints, then we may use Series Compensation devices like FSC, TCSC, etc.

P= (EV Sin Delta)/X; it is derived with assumption of R=0.

Sin Delta = Delta1-Delta2

2) Real/Reactive Power Flow

Real power always flows from higher angle to lower angle bus.

Reactive power flows from higher voltage to lower voltage.

This study includes power factor compensation and reactive power compensation by using capacitor
and inductor.

It also gives information about loop flow system means if the two generators are connected in same
bus with one generating reactive power and other one consumes reactive power. It increases system
losses and rise in temperature around generators.

For Reactive Power Compensation, capacitor bank size needs to be calculated. For example, in the
metro/traction railways during the train running time it consumes more power so thus the power
factor will become lagging and capacitor is required. And if the station is at no load condition the
OHL/Cables inject reactive power to the system so thus it becomes leading and inductor is required to
mitigate it.
Basic Things To know Before Going to do the LFA:
1.Impendance Triangle

2.Power Triangle

3.Types of Bus

4.Actual Value/Base Value – etap assumes base value as 100

5.Why Per Unit (PU) – (Actual Value/Base Value)

6.Zpu new vs Zpu Old

1. Impedance Triangle:

From the above diagram we can derive - R=Zcosϕ; X=Zsinϕ; Z=√(R2+X2)

R-Resistance
X-Reactance (Induct/Capacitive or both (XL-XC)
Z-Impedance
Cosϕ-Power Factor
Φ-Phase angle Z&R
If any two-parameter known from the above, then we can find out the remaining.

2. Power Triangle:

Power Triangle is obtained by multiplying the Impedance

triangle by square root of voltage.
Sinϴ = Opposite/hypotenuse

Cosϴ = Adjacent/hypotenuse

Tanϴ = Opposite/Adjacent
 3. Types of Bus:
Based on Real/Reactive Power (Pg, Pd and Qg, Qd) & Voltage/Angle

Types Known Qty Unknown Qty

Load Bus or PQ Bus Pg, Pd and Qg, Qd V and ϕ
PV or Voltage Controlled or Generator Bus Pg, Pd, Qd and V Qg and ϕ
Swing or Slack or Reference Bus Pd, Qd and V, ϕ Pg and Qg

In a simple, If Voltage is not known then it is typically a Load Bus.

If any reactive power control source like generator, FSC, TCSC and that bus voltage is fixed by
means of regulating reactive power, it is then PV or Voltage Controlled or Generator Bus.

There is no physical bus is available as swing/slack or reference bus. The assumption we make one
bus as swing bus in a system if one or more generating bus available. This bus having capability to
inject or consume infinite amount of real/reactive power in a strong transmission system feeding
weak distribution system.

3. Introduction To the Etap Software and Basics:

Step-1: Always beware of file saving location while creating new project in etap.

Step-2: After creation of new project enter information like project name, contract number, location, engineer
name and standards (IEC/ANSI), Frequency, Unit system in the Project Menu.
 IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission

ANSI – American National Standard Institute

Step-3: After above steps, go to the View Gridlines option in the menu and enable it so that we can draw or
insert components with uniformity. After that enable check circuit continuity option that helps us to check all the
components are connected to others. If any component left not connected to the system it shows that particular
element in a dull colour which differs from other elements.

Step-4: System Dumpster option is available nothing

but recycle bin which stores the elements that are
deleted previously. So, if required we can restore them
from system dumpster.

Step-5: If we want to know about elements quantity

like how many buses, generators, circuit breakers or
any elements which are used in one line diagram,
then we can get them in System manager 
Components.

Here, we can identify that 15nos bus are used

currently with 1no HV circuit breaker used till now.
If we click in those particular elements, which will
redirect us to where it is exactly used.

So, system manager used to identify the quantity of

components and also to identify where it is.

System Manager not only count whatever the

components used in one line diagram; it also counts
components which are kept in system dumpster also.

Step-6: Enabling One Line Auto Build which helps us to draw one line diagram more precisely without adding
components one by one manually. Go to enable one line auto build option  open auto build rule book editor 
Describe the system voltage levels and standard  Enter the spacing options between bus and nodes and
branches.

After that we just need to insert the very first component only. For example, first insert power grid and after that
all we need to do is just select the next component like bus and it will automatically draw/connect next to power
grid.
And we need to do alignment like some of the components are not connected properly or slightly away from
vertical/horizontal position, bus and branches are not in proper place. In that stage alignment tab, which
available next to the one-line auto build option helps us to solve all the alignment related issues.

These basic things are useful for modelling of system with basic requirements.
 4. Modelling Of Transmission Line:
CATEGORY LINE LENGTH METHODOLOGY
Short ≤ 80 kms Neglected Capacitance (RL)
Medium 80 – 160 kms Nominal Pi/Nominal T/End Condenser
Long ≥ 160 kms Integrated Nominal Pi or Distributed parameters
Let’s find-out Transmission line P loss and Q loss for a 200km long length transmission line having 400kV as a
rated voltage.

The Transmission line having following parameters:

Resistance (R) = 0.02339 ꭥ/km

Reactance (X) = 0.39671 ꭥ/km

Admittance (Y) = 2.99052 µʊ/km

Line Length = 200 kms

Rated Line Voltage = 400kV

Here, R X Y values given for per km. So, we need to convert it

for over-all transmission line length.

R = 0.02339*200 = 4.678 ꭥ

X = 0.39671*200 = 79.342 ꭥ

Y = 2.99052*200 = 598.102 µʊ

Now we need one more resistance value means the above given resistance is for 20º and etap will evaluate
resistance value at 75º and etap itself gives us the resistance value at 75º in parameter section or we can find-out
it by using below formula.

R = R0 + [1+αT]; Here α is (T-T0]

Logically using Admittance is not right methodology. Admittance is nothing but reciprocal of Impedance means
it is how easily a circuit or device will allow current to flow through it.

Y = 1/Z

Y = 1/(R+jX)

Y = (1/R) + (1/jX)

Y = G + jB;

Here, G - Conductance means reciprocal of R

B – Susceptance means reciprocal of X

We assume R=0 so Y=B

And kindly note that etap itself gives admittance value in micro mho but it won’t explain it exclusively to us.

Now we will run a Load Flow for the above-mentioned circuit.

From this we can see that receiving end voltage is

increased due to Ferranti effect.

Now we need to check this P-loss and Q-loss manually

to verify if the system values are accurate or not.

P-loss = 3*I2*R

Q-loss = V2*BC

R – Resistance

Bc – Capacitive Susceptance

To find:

P-loss =?

Q-loss =? (Qab + Qcd)

I value at receiving end Iab =?

Qab = V2*BC

= 409.7*409.7*(598.102/2) {Here, Y=B hence B = 598.102}

= 50196933.468 VAr

= 50.1969 MVAr (1)

 Qcd = 400*400*(598.102/2)

= 47848160 VAr

= 47.848 MVAr (2)

Q-loss = Qab + Qcd

= 50.1969 + 47.848

Q-loss = 98.04 MVAr which matches the Q-loss we simulated in etap.

Iab = Qab/ [square root (3) *V} Q = √3*V*I*Sin(ø)

Iab = 50.1969 MVAr / [√3*409.7]
Q = √3*V*I*Sin (90)
= 0.070737 * 1000
Q = √3*V*I*(1)
= 70.7376
Therefore, I = Q/[√3*V]
P-loss = 3*I2*R

= 3*(70.7376)2*4.678

= 70223.4422

As we already know that etap will simulate resistance value at 75º but the resistance value we used in
calculation is measured at 20º.

P-loss = 3*(70.7376)2*5.6 {Resistance value at 75º for over-all transmission line}

= 84063.9753 W

P-loss = 84.063 kW which matches the P-loss we simulated in etap.

5. Load Flow Study Wizard Case:

 In a load flow study case, we can create or edit multiple generation/loading categories and so we can
simulate/compare more output files in a same time.
 And before going into study case we need to edit/create generation categories. For that select
Project SettingsLoading and Generation categories.
 Here we added Maximum Voltage/Normal Voltage/Minimum Voltage in Generation Category. And
the same will be appear in the grid rating menu. Go-to Power Grid in the SLD and select it. From
below pictures we can see that the Generation Categories are changed with respect to the names we
entered in the project menu

 Now we only created the naming for the different generation category and it doesn’t make any
change in the simulation. For create/editing different generation range select edit study case option
(small red briefcase symbol) in the menu bar and create new three different study case as the same
we named earlier.
  And change the generation categories parallelly with respect to the study case (Max/Min/Normal)

 For run/generating different output files at the same time add the same three different
categories we seen earlier in output file option. Select output reportsclick promptrun
the load flow and it will as be naming for output file. Repeat the steps again to create
three output files. And we can compare this output files in load flow analyser option.

Methods Used in Study Case:

 Adaptive Newton Rapson  Both are having same accuracy and less speed.
 Newton Rapson
 Fast decoupled – Fast but less accurate
 This also exports results in Excel format and it gives us to choose whatever the output data
that needed in excel sheet. And Load flow report also available in pdf format also in report
manager menu.

 All the output files/excel sheets are stored in Etap system path which we installed it(Disk
C/D).
 Select Local Disk CEtap 19.01Load Flow (Project name) and we can find all the files
which we simulated in the project name load flow.
 As far we saw above conditions are meant for generation category (voltage variation) but
we need to simulate the voltage with different types of loading category. For that we can
go for below mentioned 9 possible combinations.
 Let assume 100MVA load with UPF at 95%/100%/105% voltage levels.
1 Max Load (100 MVA) Max Voltage (105%) We can run all these 9
2 Average Load (70 MVA) Max Voltage (105%) combinations but
3 Minimum Load (40MVA) Max Voltage (105%) logically case 3 and 7 is
4 Max Load (100 MVA) Normal Voltage (100%) more than enough and
5 Average Load (70 MVA) Normal Voltage (100%) it will cover all the
6 Minimum Load (40MVA) Normal Voltage (100%) remaining cases also.
7 Max Load (100 MVA) Minimum Voltage (95%)
8 Average Load (70 MVA) Minimum Voltage (95%) We can go for case 5 if
9 Minimum Load (40MVA) Minimum Voltage (95%) required for end user.

 From output report option we have to run each case one by one to get this output. But if
we are going to do 9 combinations means it will take much more time and for that we
have an alternate option called scenario wizard and study wizard.
In Scenario wizard we have to create 9 scenario
total for all cases.

Now we have to do simple click on Run option and

it will run the selected scenario. But what if we
need to run and compare all the scenario at a same
time without doing it one by one.

For that we need to use Study Wizard

 In Study Wizard add the 9 cases

which created in scenario wizard and click
the run option.
 It automatically run all the cases
which we give to it and displays the output
in load flow analyser menu.
Load Diversity Factor:
 Load Factor  Average load/Peak Load and max value of L.F is 1.
For example, 30MW constant load running 24*7 and 365 days so the average value is 30MW and peak
also 30MW.
Higher the Load Factor is good for the system.
 Diversity FactorSum of individual peak/System peak and min value of D.F is 1.
For example-A, B, C having 10MW peak demand at different intervals means A, B and C not
coinherence. So, let consider sum of all three consumer went up-to 24MW at one interval then the D.F
will be 0.8 and it have less chance that three of them having peak demand at a same time and even it
happens we will get D.F as 1.
Higher the Diversity Factor is good for the system.

 Select a Bus and we can get LDF range which is given as 80% minimum to 125% maximum. If we
set LDF value minimum in study case editor the overall load is multiplied by 80% and if we select
maximum then it will be multiplied by 125%

For example, study case type is maximum load 100MVA and nominal voltage 400kV
LDF @ None = 100MVA
LDF @ Bus minimum = 100MVA*80% = 80MVA
LDF @ Bus maximum = 100MVA*125% = 125MVA
For LDF at Global we need to give
manual value based on Z , I, P load types.
LDF @ Global = 100*10% = 10MVA
Operating P, Q, V:
 This Option is available in study case editor under loading section.
 Apart from the Gen/Loading category which we used/assigned for load flow what if we needed some
other loading/generating values and in that case this option will be helpful.
 So first we have to enable this option in Edit Study CaseLoadingclick Operating P, Q, V.
 And then go to the lumped load/generatorNameplate and enter values whatever the additional
load/generation required correspondingly.

After entering load/generation values in operating P Q V section run the load flow and we will get the output as
the same we entered in those P, Q, V values.
  Now we will run load flow at two different conditions.
1 – Normal Voltage(400kV)/Max Load(100MW) without Operating P/Q/V option.
2 – Normal Voltage(400kV)/Max Load(100MW) with Operating P/Q/V as 40MW/10MVAr in motor
load and 15MW/5MVAr as static load in Lumped load editor.

1 2

 From here we can understand that operating P/Q/V will give output despite of whatever loading
category we simulated in Loading/Generating category.
Adjustment in study case editor:
 This option is used to add some parameters which we already used in load flow. For example, if we
are having trans. Line length of 200 kms and if we need to add or reduce some changes mean we
will put that tolerance level about 10 or 20% whatever required.
 Except short circuit study all other remaining studies will consider positive tolerance and short
circuit will take negative tolerance because lesser impedance means higher short circuit current.

 After manually entering tolerance value make sure that the tolerance adjustment is enabled in study
case editor. If it is not enabled, then we won’t get any changes in output.

 This option is used during construction phase of projects. Because after commissioning/charging of
Trans. Line or transformer their parameters can’t be changeable means impedance or line length
remains same after project execution.
Branch Connection in Load Flow report:

 In the Load Flow Report, we may have seen a page that contains a topic named Branch Connection.
 It’s nothing but etap internally calculate and gives us the parameters value in terms of %Z.

 Let do an example for resistance value which etap shown as 0.35

Resistance given at Trans. Line Parameter at 75º = 0.02843 ꭥ/km

Trans. Line length is 200kms so the R = 0.02843*200 = 5.686 ZACT

ZPU = ZACT/ZBASE

ZBASE = KV2/MVAb = (400*400)/100 {etap consider MVAb as 100 always}

= 1600 ꭥ

ZPU = 5.686/1600 = 0.00355; %Z = 0.00355*100 = 0.355

How to calculate Reactive power generated by capacitor:

Let consider 2MVAr, 12.1kV rated capacitor connected to 11kV system. What will be the capacitor generated
reactive power when capacitor terminal voltage is 10.75kV

Given: C = 2MVAr; 12.1kV Vo Q = Qo*(V/Vo)2

Vr = 11kV Q = 2*(10.75/12.1)2

V = 10.75kV Q = 1.5786 MVAr

6. Configuration Manager and Base Editor:

 These options are used in the following conditions

(1) The configuration manager is used when the load transfer or Bus transfer required or Circuit
open and close conditions by using Circuit Breaker by creating new one in menu.
(2) Base editor is used for simulation of existing project without any permissions for adding or
editing the power system elements. That means we can edit the element parameters with
restrictions for adding or editing power system elements like CT, Transformer, Grid, Bus, etc.

 From the above picture we can see the configuration manager mode is in normal condition
means CB1 is in open condition with lump load 5 is out if service
 By using configuration editor option now, we can transfer the lump load 3 directly to lump
load 5 by closing CB1 which is shown in following steps.
 By using the base editor option, we can change the parameters of elements but we are not
allowed to add or edit the parameters in existing project. To create a new, click on the data
manager option besides Base menu and create a new one.

Now new base is created as rev-1.

Now we can use the rev-1

whether if we really no need to
add or delete any elements but
only need to edit the parameters
which we entered earlier.

As soon as we click rev-1 we can

observe that all the power system
elements are hidden.
Revision-1(Base) Mode:

Elements appears here are hidden

Normal Mode:
 7. Modelling Of Transformer (IEC 60076):
What:
A transformer is a device which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit through
the process of electromagnetic induction method. It is most commonly used to step up or step down voltage
levels.

Applications:
 Step up or step down
 Isolation
 Inverter transformers
 Conversion of 3 phase 3 wire to 3 phase 4 wire system
 To limit a short circuit current (Unit ratio and lighting transformers)
 Phase shifting to control the power flow
 To supress few harmonics (3rd harmonics and multiples of 3rd harmonic)
 Impedance matching transformers
 To convert ungrounded system to grounded system
 Instrumentation transformers
 12 pulse rectifier application (Two different winding configuration
 Centre tapped transformers (single phase full wave rectifier)
 Cathodic protection

There are so many IEC standards available for transformer study. But few important topics are given below

 IEC 60076-1 – General

 IEC 60076-5 – Ability to withstand short circuit study.
 IEC 60076-7 – Load studies on oil immersed transformer
 IEC 60076-12 – Load studies on dry type transformer
 For IEC it will consider Higher MVA for Zbase while ANSI considers lower MVA rating.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer:

 Here, R1 and X1 represents Primary resistance and reactance while I1 is the current flow through the
primary. Similarly, R2 and X2 are secondary winding resistance and reactance respectively with I 2
current flow in it.
 Primary winding having magnetizing components Rc and Xm and Rc core loss or hysteresis loss or eddy
current loss resistance or iron loss and Xm is the magnetizing reactance.
 During no load condition Ic is the working current or core loss current and Im is the magnetizing current
flowing through Rc and Xm respectively. The vectorial sum of this current will give us the no load
current(Io) value.
I1’ = I1 + I0
 No load loss current(I0) is chiefly inductive and this is not inclusive in etap and so the output results of
etap may not exactly match with field values.
 Transformer rated value given in MVA is the full load value including losses that occurs during energy
transfer. So, we need to consider the losses also during transformer load study.
 The transformer load study not only depends on real power but we need to evaluate the load flow with
respect to current capacity also.
 For example, let consider a Two winding transformer with following parameters.

Rating in MVA 50
Primary Voltage in kV 220 and 131.2 FLA
Secondary Voltage in kV 33 and 874.8
%Impedance 12.5
X/R ratio 45
Vector Group Dyn11
 Now it is connected to a load which has a capacity of 50MVA through Bus 5.
 We run a load flow and results will shows that a 50MVA load is flowing through the transformer. It
may be a full load (100%) with respect to real power (MVA) rating even though if we look into it by
a current rating, we will get another scenario shown below.

 From picture 1 we can identify that the transformer is in full load condition not over loaded but still
it shown red alert (overload caution) in SLD. Because the transformer full load current (FLA) is
reached out of its max value 131.2A in HV and 874.8A in LV side shown in picture 2 and that’s the
reason behind transformer over loading caution in SLD. So, logically current value determines the
loading/thermal capacity of equipment.
Voltage Tolerance in Transformer:
 Voltage tolerance value of a transformer will be provided in a transformer data sheet. If it is not
provided, we need to ensure that if it is designed at 0% from the end client.
 For example, transformer tolerance is given as 0% it is only managed by current rating 131.2A in
HV and 874.8A in LV.

Rating of Transformer = 50 MVA

Voltage rating = 220/33kV with 0% Voltage Tolerance

Primary Current rating = 131.2 A

Secondary Current rating = 874.8A

P = √3*V*I

P = √3*220*131.2

P = 49993.91 = 49.993 MVA @ 220kV (normal)

 If the grid voltage is reduced by 10% (198kV)

P = √3*198*131.2

P = 44994.523 = 44.994 MVA @ 198kV (-10% voltage level)

 In case of voltage tolerance (±10%) provided then the transformer has a capability to transfer more
current (additional 10%) to compensate the voltage drop. Let consider grid voltage increased by 5%
and we have voltage tolerance of ±10% in transformer.
P = √3*231*131.2
P = 52493.61 = 52.493 MVA @ 231kV (+5% voltage level)

Things to remember:
 We can conclude that the current rating of transformer plays vital role in power rating and losses and
also in thermal characteristics also.
 The thermal losses of a transformer depend on ambient temperature and heat generated inside
transformer or I2 R losses mainly caused by current flow. And temperature rating of transformer
varies with different class.

At normal rating Heat loss = I2 R

let consider transformer with class A

insulation level(105°C). Here temperature
tends to rises from it ambient value
approx.30°C and at some point lets say 110°C
its remain almost constant because heat loss
is equal to I2 R loss.
The more difference in ambient
temperature vs transformer temperature, the
lesser heat dissipation loss.
Harmonic curve is based on rms value of
harmonic currents (2nd, 3rd, 5th, etc.) and to
mitigate the harmonics we need to include k
factor in transformer library.
Types of transformers:
Step up/Down
3 phase or 1 phase transformers
Three 1 phase transformers
Shell or core type.
Core type – winding encircles the core
Shell type – core encircles the winding

Data required for load flow:

 MVA/kVA rating
 HV/LV voltage rating
 %impedance at normal tap and other taps
 X/R ratio

Data we need to ask end user in datasheet:

 Winding configuration
 Ambient temperature
 Voltage tolerance
 Cooling type
 Altitude
 Winding material – Cu/AL

Altitude Derating/uprating:
The rating of equipment affected by some external factors like altitude, ambient temperature, wind
velocity, etc. is known as derating.
Transformer derating level is same up-to 1000m mean sea level. And after 1000m it will increase 2%
for every 100m altitude variation.

Transformer derating/uprating is also decided by ambient temperature. If the temperature goes

below/above it rated value(30°C) then rating of transformer will increase/decrease accordingly.
 For every 1°C change in temperature the transformer derating/uprating also changes 1%.

If the ambient temperature is 31°C then the transformer is derated by 1% and if it goes down to 29°C
then transformer is uprated by 1% and normally we don’t change temperature in etap.

Types of Cooling:
i. Liquid Fill  
ii. Dry type

Cooling Types (Classes) in Liquid fill Transformers:

i. ONAN  recommended for <10 MVA
ii. ONAN/ONAF  recommended for >10 MVA but <100 MVA
iii. ONAN/ONAF/OFAF  recommended for >100 MVA
iv. ONAN/ONAF/ODAF  recommended for >100MVA

ODAF – Oil Direct Air Forced  Transformer construction itself direct the oil towards the hotspot.
By using anyone method we can go up-to 20-33% of rated MVA.

Typical temp value(°C) Fan Status Pump Status

<70 X X
>70 but <80  X
>90  
Around <85  X
How to Find New Impedance Value from existing one?

 Let consider a 220/33kV Transformer with rating of 75/100 MVA ONAN/ONAF and impedance given
as 12.1% on ONAN.
 Now we have an impedance value for ONAN (75 MVA) but not for 100 MVA. But regrettably etap
will consider highest value as Zbase and we need to find out impedance value at ONAF (100 MVA).

Zpu new = ZPU OLD * (kVOLD/kVNEW)2 * (MVAbNEW / MVAbOLD)

= 12.1*(220/220)2 * (100/75)

= 16.133

 But the increase in the impedance results in a huge power loss across transformer and if the power
factor is rated around 0.85. So, we can load the transformer maximum by 80-82% when the power
factor is 0.85.

 The transformer impedance has the huge impact on effective loading of transformer.

 Increase in impedance increases the X/R ratio and reduction in RMS short circuit current. But the Peak
short circuit will be high due to increased X/R ratio.

If FAT is completed

Use impedance from FAT report or name plate – Don’t use it from data sheet.
No optimisation is possible because its already manufactured and FAT completed.

If FAT is not done but manufacturer clearance is given

Use impedance from data sheet

Impedance tolerance is to be considered
And consider Transformer tolerance.
No optimisation is possible
If Transformer yet to be procured
Optimisation is possible
Consider the impedance tolerance

Tolerance of Transformer Impedance @ normal tap

 ±10% if the transformer impedance is < 10%

 ±7.5% if the transformer impedance is >10%

Tolerance of Transformer Impedance @ other taps

 ±10% if the transformer impedance is ≥ 10%

 ±15% if the transformer impedance is < 10%

Difference between %Z variation and Z tolerance

 Z tolerance is used for accounting the tolerance in transformer impedance only when the transformer
is not FAT tested and it is yet to procured.
 While %Z variation used for accounting impedance adjustment at different tap position of
transformer because impedance will vary for every tap increases or decreases from normal tap.
 %Z variation is used all the studies except short circuit because we already considering C factor and
Kt factor for impedance variation at short circuit.
Importance of %Z variation:
 Let consider two transformers with same parameters except that one transformer(T3) having %Z
variation and other one(T2) has no %Z variation.
 And before running load flow ensure that the LTC upgrade is enabled in Load Flow Study case
editor to showcase the tap value in SLD.

Trafo 2

Trafo 3
  At grid voltage 100% and full load condition, both the transformers are having 229kW+10.3MVAr
load losses. 220kV and 33kV Bus voltages are within the limits.
 In picture-2 we intentionally reduced the grid voltage to 90% so thus the bus voltage level went
down to 90% at 220kV level. To accommodate the voltage reduction both the transformer reduces
the tap level and it helped to maintain the voltage level at 33kV within the margin. But if we look
into the transformer load losses, Transformer T2 is having more losses( comparing with
T3.(229kW+10.3MVAr) comparing with T3 (173kW+7.78MVAr).
 Because T2 is having %Z variation as zero and we didn’t consider the tolerance. So, whenever the
tap increases or decreases impedance remains the same i.e., 12.5%
 We assigned %Z variation as ±12% for T3 so it automatically adjusts the impedance level depends
on tap setting.

Transformer Paralleling:
i.) Why?
 Now we consider a transformer which connected to a 50MW load on LV side and after few
months the load demand on feeder increases and that time, we can segregate the load flow
equally by adding one more transformer in parallel or we can go of higher rating of
transformer to replace the existing one.
 Redundancy purpose – consider two transformers are in parallel and connected as 2*100%
or 3*50% load and in that case bus coupler is in open. If any one transformer went out of
service the other transformer can transfer the load using bus coupler.

ii.) Conditions?
 Vector group
 Transformer impedance
 Voltage
 Tap ratio and X/R ratio
 Transformer rating
 Before simulating parallel operation make sure that the transformer phase shift
option is enabled in study case editor option. Otherwise, if we run a load flow it
won’t consider phase shift or vector group mismatch in transformer.
 Both HV and LV winding transformers must be connected to a common bus

I.) Vector Group:

 We have a 3*100MVA transformers (T5, T6, T7) with identical parameters and are connected
by a common load of 100MVA on LV side.
 In case (1) we will consider no load condition and the bus voltage on HV/LV remains 100%
with -30º phase shift on LV side since the transformers are Dyn1.

Case 1
 In case (2) change the vector group of T6 by Dyn11(HV lags LV) and T5, T7 remains the
same vector group i.e., Dyn1(LV leads HV).

Case 2

 Transformer T6 LV current went to huge that almost made a short circuit current due to that
Bus 18 also got overloaded even in no load condition (load is still out of service).
 The amount of current generated by T6 is equally distributed to T5 and T7 also so the all
three transformers went to unbalanced condition.
 It is mainly happened due to the phase shift difference in T6 (-30º) to T5 and T7 (30º) so the
overall phase shift of 60º in R phase led to the short circuit. So, connecting two or more
transformers with a contradictory vector group is not possible.
 What happens (case 3) if we parallelly connects two or more transformer with the same
phase shift means Dyn0 with Ynyn0 or Dd0 (at load in service).

Case 3
  The three transformers are sharing load equally without any discrepancy because as long as
voltage, phase angle and frequency remains same at circled points there will be no impact on
power flow but the issue may arise due to the one-point earthing on transformers.
 We may have one more option (case 4) as the T5 having Dyn1 and T6 is Ynd1 and T7 is Dd1
and still the transformers can share the loads equally irrespective of different HV/LV
configuration but the most important thing is phase shift of all three transformers are same
(LV leads HV).

Case 4

 From the above cases we can conclude that transformer paralleling with different vector groups
can’t possible unless the voltage, phase angle and frequency matches irrespective of HV/LV
configuration.

II.) Impedance:

 It is practically not possible to make transformers with same impedance. If we insist the
transformer manufacturer to make three transformers with same impedance from the same
manufacturer still there will be some marginal variations.
 Now we will change the T6 impedance value within marginal variation of 7.5% by IEC
60076.

HV Rating 100 MVA

LV Rating 100 MVA
%Impedance 12.5 -----> 0.125

Marginal tolerance 7.50% -----> 0.009375

+ve seq impedance = 0.134375

= 13.4375 %
-ve seq impedance = 0.115625
= 11.5625 %
 At no load

With load

 If we compare the impedance of all three transformers, T6 having more impedance than T5
and T7 due to that Power flow through the T6 is lesser than T5 & T7.
 We can check this by applying current
division rule

Power Flow at T6 = (100*12.5) / (12.5+13.4+12.5)

= 32.55 MVA
  So, we can’t really design/procure transformers with same impedance and instead of that we
can reduce the marginal difference to a tiny variation so that all transformers can be loaded
almost equal.

III.) Voltage:
 In this case the transformer T6 LV voltage differs from T5 & T7.
 Let consider T6 having 220/33.5kV and T5 & T7 has 220/3kV.

T5 – 220/33kV
T6 – 220/33.5kV
T7 – 220/33kV

 There is a circulating current flow between T6 & T5 & T7 because T6 is connected with
33.5kV LV while T5 & T7 are trying to maintain 33kV LV voltage. Due to this there is a
reactive power flow to T5 & T7 from T6 because it flows from higher voltage (T6) to the
lower voltage (T5 & T7).
 So, we can’t connect transformers with different voltage level if it so then there may be a
huge current circulation and reactive power flow in-between them.
 What if we have same rated transformers but in different tap positions?

T5 – 0% tap
T6 – 5% tap
T7 – 0% tap
  Due to the increased tap position in T6 the power flow through the transformer becomes
comparatively low with T5 & T7.
 This can be avoided by using AVR in all three transformers but it must be a master-slave
combination. If all AVR’s are working independently then it results to uncontrollable
reactive power flow in the system.

IV.) Different X/R Ratio:

 If the X/R ratio of any one transformer within T5, T6 & T7 changed and all other parameters
remains same.

 Here T5 having 0.278 %R and 12.497 %X while we changed the T6 values as 0.50 %R and
12.49 %X.
 The lesser X value (in T6) more amount of real power flowing and on other hand lesser R value
(in T5) more reactive power will flow.
 V.) Transformer rating:

 Paralleling transformer with different rating like T5 is 50 MVA, T6 is 70 MVA and T7 is

90 MVA and all other parameters are same.

 From the picture we can see that the load is equally balanced to all transformers depends on
rating of individuals.
 But in practical we can’t model a 90MVA transformer and 50MVA transformer with same
parameters.
 IEC 60076 allows to make paralleling of transformer more than 30% of its rating.

Can we parallel two transformer which connected to different grid system? (Answer – NO)

 Consider two transformers with a rating of 50 MVA at 220/33kV and connected to two
different grids on HV and 50 MVA load on LV with a common bus.

The HV winding of transformers are

connected to different sources and LV
windings are connected to the same
bus.
This category is not belonged to
paralleling because transformer
paralleling come into picture only
when both HV and LV windings are
connected at a common bus.
Both are fed from different sources
and we need HV to be connected in a
same source and a common bus.
It’s not sure that both grid voltage
angles are same. If both having
different angles will results in
uncontrolled or unbalanced power
flow which may leads to grid failure.
  At normal condition the power flow in two grids is same (17.5 MW) while we change the angle to
5º from 0º for grid U13, the power flow get unbalanced in U13 (around 51.9 MW) and excess
amount of power is flowing back to grid U14(real power flow - higher angle to lower angle).

Where to we need three phase transformers?

 Generator – stepping up to the grid and feeding auxiliary supply also (HV/MV/LV)
 If your LV winding current rating is too high then we can use three winding transformer
(HV/LV1/LV2) and we can go for multi windings also up-to n-number of LV windings based on
rating.
 Two different generators using common transformer.
 Two LV windings with different voltage rating.
OLTC modelling:
 Ideal device used to regulate voltage during fluctuations.
 But not an alternate for SVC/STATCOM/FACTS.
 23% failures in power transformers occurred due to OLTC.
 Used In Load centre and power plant.

 Consider a 100MVA rated 220/33kV power transformer having grid fluctuations around
+12.5% to -17.5% and the load varies from 10 MW to 35 MW.
 Now we need to identify OLTC range to regulate voltage within ±5%
 Let assume two different conditions namely higher grid voltage with minimum load and lower
voltage with maximum load.

 Here we need to improve grid voltage within a limit of ±5% from normal value.

In first case the voltage has been

maintained by varying tap position to -15%
minimum value so that the bus voltage is
bought back to ±5% limit.
In second case the voltage has been
reduced by increasing tap by 6.5% from
normal tap.
But having tap position of -15% to 6.5%
may increase cost and create tap changing
constraints and instead of that we can add
capacitor bank at LV to boost up the voltage.

 No of taps = (Max tap – Min tap) +1

Step

 Ex – tap range given as -10 to 10%

with a step of 1.25
 No of tap = (10-(-10)/1.25) +1
 No of tap = 17
  In order to reduce OLTC tap range
we added 20MVar capacitor bank in the
LV side.
 Now capacitor bank is injecting
reactive power to system so the bus
voltage got increased in -11% tap.
Previously it was -15.85% tap needed to
achieve ±5% voltage limit.
 And whatever we have seen so-far is
a fixed tap or Off load tap changer
 To regulate the voltage by OLTC we
need to click and select AVR/LTC option
in tap changer menu at power
transformer editor.
 We already know the min/max tap
values and step value.
 So directly enter the values in LTC
menu and it’ll automatically adjust tap
according to voltage level.

Off load tap change On-Load Tap Change

 8. Generator Modelling:
 A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy for domestic,
commercial and industrial usage (voltage tolerance ±5%).
 There are four operating modes available in generator
 Swing
 Voltage control
 Power factor control
 MVAr control

Selection of Generators:
 In-case of selecting generators, always go to the low power
factor.
 Because if motor or any other load higher power factor is better because lower the power factor,
they will consume more reactive power which is no use – higher the power factor lowers the
reactive power (reactive power demand by end equipment is less).
 In this generator case – we need to evacuate higher reactive power which required for regulating
voltage at generator terminal – higher the power factor generates less reactive power and may
leads to loess access to regulate voltage at generator terminal.

Full load current

Rating (MW) Power factor Voltage rating (kV) (FLA) MVA Qmax
800 0.95 28 17363.918 842.105 262.9473
800 0.9 28 18328.580 888.889 387.4577
800 0.85 28 19406.732 941.176 495.7955
800 0.8 28 20619.652 1000.000 600

 So technically low power factor generator helps us to regulate the voltage more precisely by
injecting or consuming more reactive power.
 But commercially higher power factor generators are cheaper around 85% cost of low power
factor generators. If we think to optimize the cost of generator, we may go for higher power factor
one but it has less reactive power capability.
 Technically diesel generators are designed in lower power factor to maintain the reactive power
requirements of load which connected to the system during stand-alone operation or grid failure.
 It is possible to go for DG with power factor <0.8 likely 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 but standard design not
allowed to go below 0.8 P.F.
 On other hand Synchronous condenser which having 0 P.F only capable of generating reactive
power not real power.
 Whenever a Small capacity generator <50 MW (5,10,15 MW) are connected to LV or MV voltage
level (11,33,66 kV) where the power factor of system is low or peak, it is advised to go with power
factor of 0.8 generator.
 When high-capacity generator from 50-500 MW which are connected to MV or HV voltage range
(110-400 kV) where the system is very strong and low voltage fluctuations with loess reactive
power requirements. This case we can move up to higher power factor generators like 0.85 or 0.9
PF range where low reactive power capability required. It is fully based on study where the
generator is used and voltage fluctuations around that point which is sufficient to regulate
generator terminal voltage and supports an inter-connected grid in a state or country transmission
line not for momentarily but for the next 10-12 years.
 In selection of suitable voltage range for generator – it is recommended to go for higher rating to
reduce the full load current rating. For example, let consider 500 MW generator connected at
different voltage levels
Rating (MW) Power factor Voltage rating (kV) Full load current (FLA) MVA Qmax
500 0.8 11 32803.993 625.000 375
500 0.8 33 10934.664 625.000 375
500 0.8 66 5467.332 625.000 375
500 0.8 220 1640.200 625.000 375
500 0.8 400 902.110 625.000 375

 Low voltage (11kV) – less insulation cost; high current & more conductor size results higher cost.
High voltage (400kV) – more insulation cost; reduced current results lower conductor cost.
 Load flow won’t tell us how much real power generator generates. The amount of real power
generation required is given as input to the load flow.
 Only one exemption if we have only one generator feeding loads in islanded system and in these
case load flow will tell how much real power is generated.
 Consider a 250 MW generator connected to a system through 400/28kV Generator Step-up
Transformer and a power factor 0.80

Voltage Control/PV controlled mode:

 Now operation mode of generator is selected as Voltage Control

 The generator generates 250 MW real power because we insisted to generate 250MW and it gives
250 MW with 7.48 MVAr also. This is because generator is set at voltage control mode and thus it
requires some amount of reactive power to maintain 100% voltage at generator terminal point.
 The reactive power 7.48 MVAr is depends on various factors includes amount of real power
generated, transformer impedance, grid voltage, etc.
 All three cases are explained below and one thing is common that generator is continuously
regulating the bus voltage at 100% as we given input V as 100%.
Change in Real Power generation Change in Transformer Impedance Change in Grid Voltage

 The important one is generator terminal set voltage – if we change the voltage then the reactive
power generation also varies with it.
 The changes in generator voltage terminal also affects the voltage at grid side also because grid is
connected to a swing/slack bus through trans. line and we are insisting the generator to maintain
the voltage level which we given as input.

V = 98% V = 105% V = 100%

  If the grid system is strong (more short circuit current/low source impedance), reactive power
variation won’t make much effect on Grid side Bus 11, 21, 25.
 If the grid system is weak (low short circuit current/high source impedance), reactive power will
make strong effect on grid side bus 11, 21, 25.
 Consider generator runs on 0.80, 0.85, 0.95 PF and the lower power factor generator has the
capability to supply more reactive power than higher power factor one.

 Here grid voltage is down to 92% and all the remaining parameters are same except generator
power factor namely 0.80, 0.85, 0.95.
 The generator with low P.F produces more reactive power (187.5 MVAr) hence the generator
terminal voltage almost near to 100% even if grid voltage dropped to 92%. On other hand the
same generator with 0.95 capability produces less reactive power (82.2 MVAr) and due to that it
unable to maintain generator terminal voltage (only 95.23%).
 Hence if we keep the operating mode in voltage control it automatically adjusts reactive power as
per requirement to regulate terminal voltage at 100%.
 To avoid unnecessary frequent change of reactive power, we can set a voltage dead-band around
0.3, 0.4 or 0.5%. For example, if dead-band is ±0.5% and then the reactive power won’t change
unless voltage variation goes beyond 99.5 to 100.5. If voltage goes beyond 100.5 then the
generator will adjust reactive power to regulate terminal voltage at 100%.

Rating (MW) Power factor Voltage rating (kV) Full load current (FLA) MVA Qmax
250 0.95 28 5426.224 263.158 82.17103
250 0.9 28 5727.681 277.778 121.0805
250 0.85 28 6064.604 294.118 154.9361
250 0.8 28 6443.641 312.500 187.5
MVAr Control/Load Bus/PQ Bus Mode:
 Consider three generators are operating in MVAr mode and reactive power as same as above case.
 Drop down the grid voltage namely from 95, 100, 105%.

 The above-mentioned case already simulated in voltage control mode. In that mode generator tried
to regulate terminal voltage by means of automatically adjusting reactive power.
 But when we change the mode to MVAr – it starts to inject the reactive power (Qmax) and not
really looks to regulate the terminal voltage whatever it may be.
 Is it suggested to keep generator in MVAr mode and the answer is no because generator will go out
of step and it nor generates output power if it goes out of fail/failure to run.
 Generators are ideally designed to operate voltage tolerance of ±5% only.

Swing Mode:
 The swing mode only contribute when the generator is left stand-alone or island system.
 Consider a 50MW load is fed by generator and grid where both of them contributes parallelly.
 When the grid fails then the generator must contribute the load requirement means voltage and
frequency because the demand is not going to be constant and it changes time to time. So, the
generator must adjust its output power regarding to change in load demand and this mode is also
known as isochronous mode or V/F mode.
 In normal condition grid supplies the load demand and generator will be in out of service and we
can bring generator to service if we need to met the requirement of demand by adjusting output
power of generator.
 Normally generators with isochronous mode are not connected to grid because load variation
momentarily changes in power system and generators are not capable to switch that much respect
to load variation
 But I practical the cost of grid supply is much lower than the cost of generator supply and that’s
why generators are used in emergency cases to meet the load demand and in-terms of cost
reduction.
 parallel
Gen alone

Power Factor control/Load Bus mode:

 MVAr control and power factor control are almost same unless the power factor is not unity and
change in real power.

Case 1 Case 2
  In case-1, the load demand is 250MW and generators are running on MVAr and PF mode. The
both generators are not regulating terminal voltage and instead of that they’re regulating reactive
power and PF given as input to them.

 In case-2, the demand reduced to 150MW and all other parameters are same. Now generator 4 still
gives 187.5 MVAr reactive power output even at 150 MW and it overlooked about terminal
voltage and real power output.
 On other hand generator-5 reduces its real power and reactive power output also to maintain the
PF setpoint of 0.80.
 The important cons of this mode is it failed to regulate terminal voltage within ±5% which is
mandatory for high capacity generators.
 This mode is useful only when power grid or utility insist us to inject reactive power in system.

Generator mainly having two devices namely AVR and Governor.

 AVR – To control Field Voltage (Ef)/Field Current (If)/Reactive Power generation (Q)/ Terminal
Voltage (Vt).
It has three modes – Voltage Control/MVAr Control/Power Factor Control.
 Governor – A device used to limit fuel flow to an engine to a maximum safe speed when
unloaded and maintain constant speed despite changes in loading.
It has different modes – Constant power mode/Droop/Constant Frequency mode

(*) Constant power mode – Generates constant output power despite of change in frequency.

(*) Droop mode – Change in % frequency makes the output power change by 100%. In other
terms – the power output of generator reduces as the line frequency increases.
So, Droop is a phenomenon helps whenever a reduction in terminal frequency it increases power
output and on other hand whenever a terminal frequency increases it reduces the power output.
A stand-alone generator can’t be operated at droop mode because the load and frequency changes
momentarily and generator should adjust its output load and frequency.
Droop is typically maintained at 4-5%

Example for Droop:

A 500MW generator running in full load 100% at 50 HZ and it reduces the output to 0% (0 MW) hence
frequency increased to 52 HZ.

Droop  Change in power output 100% (500 MW – 0 MW)

Change in frequency (50 HZ – 52 HZ)  (2/50)  4% Droop

Isochronous Load Sharing Mode:

 It is same as the isochronous mode but not a single generator and parallel combination of more
generators to contribute load sharing equally.
 Let consider four generators each rated as 3 MW and connected to load of 4 MW through a cable
length having 10m and all are connected in isochronous mode.
 All generators having same parameters with swing operating mode
 A total load demand of 4 MW is equally shared by all generators around 0.9 MW each.
 Here all four generators are connected by a cable having same length means 10m each. But in
practical it’s not applicable because generator’s location may vary from one to another and so the
cable length.
 Let consider having this same system connected with different cable length namely 10m, 15m,
20m, 30m.
 The generators are equally sharing load demand until the cable length is equal and the moment we
changed the length, it is not distributing loads equally with others. To avoid this, we will put
manually real power 0.8 MW for generator-6,7,8 and operating mode as voltage control.

 Now all generators are generating equal real power but not same reactive power. Lets change the
operating mode into reactive power for gen-6,7,8 and set MW as 0.8 with 0.6 MVAr reactive
power and gen-5 as swing source.
 This mode also works well until changes in load demand. If we increase the load demand to 7 MW
and after increase in demand, the all generators are still generating 0.8MW with 0.6MVAr because
we insisted it to do it and gen-5 is generating 3.2MW with 2.4MVAr because it is operating in a
swing mode.
 So, if a swing source generator (Isochronous mode) connected with other generators with different
operating modes or droop mode results in an unequal load sharing. This can be eliminated by use
of secondary controllers which gives continuous feedback to AVR and Governor about load
demand but it can’t be modelled in etap.
 9. Modelling Of Load:
What Is Load?
 Load – Device which converts electrical energy to some other form of energy is a Load.
 Source – Device which converts some other form of energy to electrical energy is a Source.

Types:
Based on power consumption changes respect to voltage:

 Constant Impedance(Z)
 Constant Current(I)
 Constant Power(P)

@etap:

Lumped load – combination of both static and motor load.

Static Load – pure static load doesn’t have an inductive or motor load.

Constant Impedance(Z):
To understand better let have a system rated voltage of 11/0.415kV having 1.5MVA transformer. Now we will
connect a static load of 1MVA with same parameters on each HV and LV buses of transformer.

As we said earlier, both loads having same parameters but the consumption of load is varying from load-1 to
load-2 in picture-1. What happens if we change the voltage on grid from 100% to 95% then the load
consumption also gets deviated shown in picture-2.

Voltage 230 200  Load imp. remains constant irrespective of voltage.

Current  Current flow through load is directly proportional to
voltage (ohm’s law).
Resistance 10 10
 Power consumption of load is proportional to square of
P=V*V/R 5290 W 4000 W the voltage (V*V/R).
I=V/R 23 A 20 A  Ex- Heater, Incandescent lamp, RLC load.
Ex. For constant Impedance(R) load
  In our case load-1 connected to 0.415 V and load-2 connected to 11kV and power consumption as
follows:

Rated Power (P0) 1000 W Rated Power (P0) 1000 W

Rated Voltage(V0) 0.415 V Rated Voltage(V0) 11000 V
Instant or applied Instant or applied
voltage (V) 0.412 V voltage (V) 11000 V

P = P0*(V/V0)^2 P = P0*(V/V0)^2
@LV BUS side = 985.595 W @HV BUS side = 1000 W

Constant Current Load(I):

 Load Current remains same irrespective of applied voltage.
 Power consumption of load is proportional to voltage (P=VI).
 Ex- Mobile charger, UPS, Power Electronic devices.
 To design a constant current load, we have to select Lumped load option at etap
 Drag a lumped load from tool bar and make the following changes in name plate under editor option.
Here Model type should be changed to
exponential for creating current load.
The “a, b” denotes exponent value. If it is “1”
constant current load and if “2” then it’s a
constant impedance load.

P = P0*(V/V0) ^a
a-"1" P = P0*(V/V0) ^1
a-"2" P = P0*(V/V0) ^2

Note:

Ohm’s law is applicable only when the system is

linear and the temperature is constant.
So, power electronic devices which follows constant
current load concept alter itself a “n” number of times
within a 20ms cycle to maintain output and it also
converts the applied sinusoidal (linear) voltage into
non-sinusoidal (non-linear) which derelicts ohm’s law.
 Constant Power Load (P)
 Load Power remains same irrespective of applied voltage.
 Current flow through load is inversely proportional to voltage (I=P/V).
 Ex- Motor

If we put “a” value as “0” then whatever the

P = P0*(V/V0) ^a Load Type
changes in rated/instant voltage, there is no
a-"0" P = P0*(V/V0) ^0 Constant Power change in output means our load is constant and
a-"1" P = P0*(V/V0) ^1 Constant Current not varies with voltage.
a-“2” P = P0*(V/V0) ^2 Constant Imp.

For all the load types we only considered the

“P” real power and not reactive or apparent
powers.

Because in a power system it is not mandatory

that real power and reactive power in a load must
be the same type.

All the above-mentioned calculations and

procedures are same applicable for reactive
power.

By finding out real and reactive power, we can

calculate apparent power by applying vectorial
summation.

Exponential loads are nothing but parental load

category of Z/I/P type.

Polynomial loads are also same as Z/I/P and we

have to allocate quantities for p1,p2,p3 which
finally brings summation to “1”.

Kpf value in Exponential/Polynomial loads:

 This is known as frequency dependant factor which used to simulate load with different frequency. As
we know if the frequency changes it will affect the power also and power also change linearly.
 But etap is not capable/convertible the frequency dependant function. Because etap uses a swing bus
concept which connects strong feed system with a weak feed system and the power flow in the swing
or slack bus will vary and it adjusts the voltage and frequency level with requirement of power flow.
 So if we need to simulate frequency dependant factor we have to use transient stability which simulates
different frequencies with respect to change in power.

Equation to remember at load modelling:

 To find P: To Find Q:
P = P0*(V/V0) ^a Q = Q0*(V/V0) ^b
  For Polynomial loads
𝑉 1 𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑃0 ∗ {𝐴 + 𝐵 ∗ ( ) + 𝐶 ∗ ( )2 } were, A  Constant power load
𝑉0 𝑉0
B Constant Current load
𝑉 1 𝑉
𝑄 = 𝑄0 ∗ {𝐴 + 𝐵 ∗ ( ) + 𝐶 ∗ ( )2 } C Constant Impedance load
𝑉0 𝑉0

So, for the polynomial loads, power consumption calculation will be vectorial summation of P and Q
values.

𝑉 1 𝑉 𝑉 1 𝑉
𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑃0 ∗ {𝐴 + 𝐵 ∗ ( ) + 𝐶 ∗ ( )2 } + 𝑄0 ∗ {𝐴 + 𝐵 ∗ ( ) + 𝐶 ∗ ( )2 }
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0

Const. Imp load– Light load (V2 *R)

Const. Current load – current drawn
by load is constant (mobile charger)
Const. Power load – output power of
load remains constant irrespective of
voltage (motors).

Some of problems for different type of loads:

a) Constant Impedance Load:

An incandescent lamp of 100W running at 230 V. Find the power consumption of lamp at 210V.

An incandescent lamp of 100W running at 230 V. Find the power consumption of lamp at 210V.

Given Data To find Formula

P0 100 W P0 at 210V = ?
V0 230 V P = P0*(V/V0) ^a
V 210 V a=0 P load
Power consumption at 210 V = 83.365 W a=1 I load
a=2 Z load
b) Constant Current Load:
An UPS have a rated power of 80kW at 230V. Find out power consumption at 210 V

Solution:
 We know that constant current sources (ex- mobile charger) internally alter resistance itself to
achieve constant current regardless of voltage which is fed to it and so the power will vary.
 In other words, it will draw same amount of current despite of change in voltage or other
impedance in circuit.
 An incandescent lamp of 100W running at 230 V. Find the power consumption of lamp at 210V.

Given Data To find Formula

P0 800 kW P0 at 210V = ?
V0 230 V P = P0*(V/V0) ^a
V 210 V a=0 P load
Power consumption at 210 V = 730.435 W a=1 I load
a=2 Z load
c) Constant Power Load:
 An incandescent lamp of 100W running at 230 V. Find the power consumption of lamp at 210V.

Solution:
 Constant power load means it will maintain constant power irrespective of voltage.

An incandescent lamp of 100W running at 230 V. Find the power consumption of lamp at 210V.

Given Data To find Formula

P0 100 W P0 at 210V = ?
V0 230 V P = P0*(V/V0) ^a
V 210 V a=0 P load
Power consumption at 210 V = 100.000 W a=1 I load
a=2 Z load
d) Polynomial load:
 Consider a 1000kW / 11kV of load out of which 25% is constant impedance load, 30% is constant
power load and remaining 45% are constant current load. The P.U of voltage is 0.93 what will be the
power consumption.

Given Data To find Formula

P0 1000 kW
Vpu 0.93 pu power consum. = ? P = { A + B*(V/V0) + C*(V/V0)^2 }
V0 1 pu A P load
A 0.3 B I load
B 0.25 C Z load
C 0.45 power consum. 921.705 kW
10. Modelling of motor:
 Modelling of motor includes the three different standards namely National Electrical Code (NEC),
Manufacturer (MFR) and Existing standard.
 The output of motor is always higher than the rated power of motor.
Output Power = Rated Power/Efficiency
 All parameters are internally calculated by library itself but in a rare case it might be not right.
 For example, Power factor of motor will vary with load and sometimes library parameters will
calculate same parameters for all kind of load.
 Figure shows relation between PF and load at
different levels.
 It is transparent that PF is gradually increasing
with increase in load. But at no load condition
means 0% load PF is not zero likely a lower
value.
 It is because even at no load condition there could
be a minimal system loss persists which due to
the PF is having less value and not zero.
 It is always suggested to neglect the mildly
loaded motor usage in power system because they
will be the main cause for draws huge amount of
power losses.
 Consider a 2nos of motor having 90kW follows
main and stand-by method. So, one motor will
run at full load and if any breakdown or problem
occurs in the motor automatically the next motor
will start to run and will consume around 96.77 kW (P) and 31.80 kVAR (Q).
 Consider the same scenario but this case both motors are sharing load equally (50-50%) at 0.85 PF.
 These two motors loaded with 50% load will consume comparatively more real power and reactive
power than 100% loaded motor.
 Induction machine – without excitation ; sync machine – with excitation.
 Consider a 100kW induction motor-1 and same parameters we will use it as a induction
generator (motor-2 in picture).

 Now we run a load flow and results as follows.

Motor-1 running as induction motor consumes

120.1kW and 52.8 kVAr respectively.
On other hand motor-2 which act as induction
generator generates 83.2kW and consumes
36.6kVAr reactive power.
In both cases it is consuming reactive power
because it don’t have an excitation system and in
order to generate flux, it is consuming reactive
power.
To overcome consumption of reactive
power, synchronous motors have introduced.
They have own excitation system which
helps to consume/produce reactive power if
needed so it useful for islanded system where
we wont get reactive power support from grid.
  If we use induction motor in an islanded system, it consumes reactive power and if we have only one
generator for voltage control at island system then it might be difficult to maintain voltage and reactive
power because generator also limited for certain amount of reactive power consumption/generation.
 Synchronous motors can be used where voltage balance is poor/power factor is not good/could not
maintain power factor at unity.

VFD Modelling for a motor:

 The output of the VFD must be higher than output power of the motor.
 During the calculation of reactive power in a system, we have to consider motor consumption and
reactive power losses in cable which used in induction motor.
 Normally VFD has unity power factor mode only. But in order to maintain reactive power we need to
step down the power factor from 100% to 80-85%.
 For that purpose, we can increase the apparent power value in VFD above the rated value.

Here the kVA value is 120kVA only not 150kVA

because power factor was 100%.
We insisted to step down the power factor from
100% to 80% so that we increased the apparent power
from 120kVA to 150kVA as a result the power factor
also went down to 80%.
Output values of VFD should met the power
requirement of motor and losses of the cable.
All kind of VFD’s is not capable of controlling the
power factor.
there are two major categories namely uncontrolled
or diode front end type VFD and Active Front end
VFD.
Uncontrolled VFD or Diode front VFD (pic-1) are
simply a diode which ae not capable of controlling
power factor.
Active front VFD (pic-2) have IGBT’s so they can
stabilize the power factor.
 Similar advantages of VFD are:
Process of speed control
Improves power factor
Energy efficient
Reduce the losses
Support voltage stabilization
Reduce the sizing of upstream equipment’s by cutting off power requirement and power factor
control.

11. Modelling Of Solar Inverter:

 Inverter is a device which converts DC into AC where DC source is taken from Solar panels.
 Normally inverters are not capable of delivering high voltages. So, we need to use Inverter Duty
Transformer before giving converted AC to Switchgear/Distribution feeder.
 Some popular manufacturers of solar inverter are given below

Sungrow - China
SMA – Germany
FIMER (Formerly ABB) – Italy
Huawei – China
Eaton
Growatt – China
Power Electronics – Spain
Sineng
 Inverters are mainly classified as String and Central Inverters.

String inverters are efficient

comparing with central inverters.
They have capable of
extracting more power than
central inverters.
String inverters have MPPT
(Max Power Point Tracking)
range from 1-12 while central
inverters have only 2.
MPPT is used to extract more
power based on conditions and
adjusting load characteristics as if
the condition changes.

During no load, current is

zero and voltage (Voc) is
present up-to DC switching
point.

When the current increases

with constant voltage we will
not achieve maximum energy.

If the current and voltage

both increases with respect to
available irradiation then we
can extract more energy and
this is how MPPT works.

DC Voltage in inverter can

be controlled by switching
devices.

 The power output of solar panel is based on irradiation level.

 For example, consider 500W solar panel rating of 1000W/m. If the irradiation is 1000W/m2 then it will
produce 500W and this will get decrease when the irradiation level decreases.
 We will consider an inverter rating of 250kVA

 Inverter data are available in data sheet of corresponding manufacturer and model. Also, we need to
ensure that the given PV array/PV panel output with inverter input to minimize the overloading of
inverter.
 Inverter have a capable of controlling the output power by controlling DC output voltage.
 There is an always slight mismatch between inverter output and etap simulated results because
irradiation level changes time to time.
 From above SLD, we can see that inverter is generating 248.3kVA power only though PV array rated
output is 254.8kVA.
 This mismatch is due to irradiation level occurs in PV panels.
 All the inverter must obey IEEE-1547 Anti Islanding standard.
 This anti-islanding is nothing but if grid supply fails then the inverter must cut-off its output power and
goes to inhibit mode to prevent continuous injection of power into grid connected system.
 Due to this inhibit mode we can’t run solar inverters on swing/slack mode because voltage and phase
angle can’t be set as a reference value in inverter. It always needs reference voltage from grid.
 For Voltage Control mode – Solar inverter load flow didn’t get converge if the irradiation level is
100%. It is due to that 100% irradiation will deliver full load with zero reactive power. So, if we need
to run the solar inverter in voltage control, we must reduce the irradiation level of inverter. Reduction
in irradiation will help to reduce real power generation and increase reactive power generation.
 And solar inverter is not like synchronous generators. For example, if we set Qmax and Qmin value in
the generator it generates only whatever the possible P, Q power within given limits. But in solar
inverter it doesn’t obey the Qmax and Qmin criteria and it continue to generate P, Q that are not in
limit. So, it is our responsibility to ensure the outcome of solar inverter is matching the real time
values.
 During Case study and simulation of solar power plants – it is suggested to do it with Digsilent Power-
factory which have secondary controller option because etap doesn’t have or support secondary
controllers (PPC) and we may face severe issue if we need to adjust power output/irradiation level at
inverter point for a power plant which have hundreds of inverters.

12. Modelling of Wind Turbine Generator:

 It a machine which converts aero-dynamical energy into electrical energy.

 WTG consists of rotor, blades, gear box, nacelle, tower and generator.

Efficiency of Power Plants:

- Thermal  <40%
- Hydro  85%
- Gas  40%
- Combined Cycle  65%
[waste heat recovery method from gas turbine]
- Solar  25%
- Nuclear  33-37%
- Wind  35.4%
[According to betz law, no turbine can capture
more than 16/27 (59.3%) of kinetic energy in wind.
 Capital cost of Power Plants:
- Thermal  6 crore/MW
- Hydro  8-12 crore/MW
- Gas  6 crore/MW
- Combined Cycle  6 crore/MW
- Solar  4 crore/MW
- Nuclear  Not known
- Wind  5.5-6 crore/MW

Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE):

- Thermal  2.5-3.75 Rs/kWh
- Hydro 
- Gas  7 Rs/kWh
- Combined Cycle  6 Rs/kWh
- Solar  <2 Rs/kWh
- Nuclear  2 Rs/kWh
- Wind  2..5-3.5 Rs/kWh

 Cut-in wind speed  Minimum wind speed required to generate power. And below cut-in speed
generator won’t be able to generate any power and instead it will act as a motor. So, below cut-in speed
we must turn off the generator (Approx.2-3.5m/seconds).
 Anemo-meter  Used in WTG to determine speed of wind and helps to identify cut-in speed level so
we can turn on the generator.
 Wind vane  Used to identify direction of wind.
 Yaw motor/drive  Used to rotate the WTG nacelle to face against direction of wind that helps to
generate more power.
 Pitch factor  Important thing in WTG which controls the speed of blade rotation. When the wind
speed goes beyond the limit that time it senses the value and adjust the position of blades into slightly
horizontal level so the impact of wind speed towards blade will get reduced.
 Power output of wind turbine is proportional to cube of wind velocity (V 3 ).
 Cut-out wind speed  After some range of wind speed (typically rated wind speed is 12-14m/seconds)
the safety of WTG is highly concerned. So, to ensure the safety of WTG cut-out speed has required to
automatically cut-off rotation to prevent damages. Cut-off wind speed will be approx. 25m/seconds.
 The most important thing is Wind Turbine Generator and Synchronous Generator are not the
same. Practically we can control the input to the generator in Thermal, Hydro plants but WTG
input is not controllable.
 So, the input to the WTG is not controllable because it is designed to extract as much as power from
Wind speed.
 Speed and Frequency of the WTG will vary time to time so Ns=120f/P won’t be applicable for WTG
that’s why we can’t use synchronous generator here.
 Squirrel cage Induction Motor are used in Type 1 & 2 WTG. Normally it’s start as a Squirrel Cage
Induction motor but after reaching cut-in speed it will extract power from and works as a Generator.
If its working as a squirrel cage induction motor, it consumes real and reactive power from grid.
 Types of WTG:

Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4

Type-1 WTG:
 These are also called as Squirrel Cage Induction Motor.
 It normally starts as a motor and after reaching cut-in speed it starts to extract power and
becomes a generator.
 During motor position it consumes real and reactive power from grid. And after turns into a
generator it extracts real power from wind speed but still consumes reactive power from the grid
because it requires flux to rotate as why consuming reactive power.

 Maximum Capacity of type1 WTG is 250kW and it is obsolete now (no longer used in market
due to drawbacks).
 Reactive power consumption of type1 WTG varies with slip and speed of Induction Generator.
 In squirrel cage induction motor, it is not possible to add any external resistance. But in slip ring
induction motor we can add external resistance basically known as type-2 WTG.
Type-2 WTG:
 It is a slip/wound ring type induction motor cum generator which allows us to add external
resistance to increase the starting torque.
 It is also having a maximum capacity around 250kW and obsolete in the market (no longer used
due to its drawbacks).
 This is also called semi controllable WTG because we can adjust the speed slightly using
external resistance.

Type-3 WTG:
 Its commonly known as doubly fed induction generator.
 It generates electricity from stator (70%) and also from rotor (30%)
 The maximum rated capacity available is 15MW offshore and 7.5MW onshore.

 This WTG can be operated in four different modes.

Sub-synchronous motor
Sub-synchronous generator (below rated rpm it can also operate as generator)
Super-synchronous motor
Super-synchronous generator (above rated rpm it can also operate as generator)

 This type WTG can be operated in voltage control and MVAr control mode.
 But MVAr control mode is limited up-to ±0.95 PF value.
 Crow bar circuit is provided in WTG to protect the rotor after fault and fault recovery by shorting
the rotor windings.
 The following simulation shows the working principle of WTG-3 model
  When grid voltage is 100%, it consumes reactive power in order to maintain voltage at point of
connection (bus voltage where the WTG is connected).
 When grid voltage reduced to 95%, it generates reactive power to maintain voltage at point of
connection (bus voltage where the WTG is connected).

Type-4 WTG:

 It is also known as Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator.

 The arrangements of this type are exactly as same as type-3 except it have full AC-DC-AC
(VSC)converter.
 The frequency of WTG-4 is not dependent on grid frequency because WTG-4 is completely
isolated from grid system by AC-DC-AC (VSC) converter.

 And major difference is the maximum real and reactive power extraction from WTG is 100%
where type-3 only offers about 30% by using rotor.
 All the 4 types of WTG are capable of running approximately ±10% voltage tolerance.
Important facts about reactive power consumption/injection:

 Depends on the grid code of country – The injection/consumption of reactive power is scaled
around 33% which will vary based on county code requirements.
 If Grid voltage is 100% - the system must capable of injecting or consuming ±33% reactive
power to maintain power factor and voltage.
 If grid voltage is 110% - the system should not inject more reactive power but allowed to
consume reactive power to reduce the voltage level.
 If grid voltage is 90% - the system must inject reactive power in order to increase voltage and
maintain power factor but consumption of reactive power is not advisable.

13. Etap example and simulations:

 Consider a 220/33kV 25MVA rated transformer connected to a grid with 0.8 pf

The load bus voltage is below the permissible range due to

poor power factor set in load. And grid side power factor also
went below the range due to transformer branch losses.
Now we try to change power factor 85%,90% and 95% in the
below picture.
As the power factor improves in load side, bus voltage and
losses in transformer also saw a significant changes accordingly.

To improve bus voltage and reduce losses further let’s add a

capacitor bank on load side and so we can

clarify some conclusions.
 Now run the above model as same for different criteria’s as following
Increased Trafo LV [from 33kV to 33.5kV]
Reduced Grid voltage [from 100% to 90%]
No load condition/load out of service

Case-1, the transformer LV is increased from 220/33kV to 220/33.5kV

When the LV side bus voltage
increases from 100.1% to 101.8% due to
increase in transformer LV rating,
reactive power produced by capacitor
bank also increased {Q α V2 }.

For Generator Step-up Transformer,

LV rating of transformer normally
designed slightly higher than nominal
bus voltage to avoid unwanted
fluctuations/over excitation in generator
terminal because generators are
normally designed at ±5% voltage
tolerance.
Case-2, grid voltage is reduced to 90% from 100%.

Due to reduction in voltage, capacitor bank

generates less reactive power 12.3/11.8 MVAr
namely {Q α V2 }.
As the voltage reduces in grid side, 33kV
based bus voltage dropped to 88.87% but
33.5kV based bus voltage is somehow
maintained at 90.37% because of increased LV
rating.
Before designing capacitor bank kindly note
that they are not capable of controlling/providing
desired output reactive power in low voltage
level or voltage dip cases because generation of
reactive power in capacitor bank is fully depends
on voltage level across where it is
connected/targeted.

Case-3, No load condition/load out of service.

Both the loads are out of service and 33.5kV

bus is connected with switchable and continuous
capacitor banks namely.
As we noticed that switchable capacitor banks
are injecting reactive power based on voltage
level given input as 2.5% step. So, after 102.5%
voltage they will switch out or below 97.5%
voltage they will switch in depend on criteria.
But continuous capacitor banks are not
designed as switch In/out so they continue to
inject reactive power whatever the voltage level
maintained in bus.
14. Important notes we must know at LFA:
 Swing Bus concept is the most suitable concept for strong transmission system feeding a week one. It is
assumed that it has the capability to provide us infinite real/reactive power. However, this is not
suitable for large-scale interconnected system.
Swing bus concept assumes that whatever the load demands, it can be compensated by the source. All
the simulation software uses swing/slack bus concept.
There is no physical bus is available as swing/slack or reference bus. The assumption we make one
bus as swing bus in a system if one or more generating bus available. This bus having capability to
inject or consume infinite amount of real/reactive power in a strong transmission system feeding weak
distribution system.
 Angle stability in Bus – The angle difference between one bus to another bus must be within 90º and if
it goes beyond that value, it is not stable itself. In India it is permissible up-to 23º and in other countries
it may goes up-to 30º
Real power always flows from higher angle to lower angle bus.
Reactive power flows from higher voltage to lower voltage.

1 Max Load (100 MVA) Max Voltage (105%) We can run all these 9
2 Average Load (70 MVA) Max Voltage (105%) combinations but
3 Minimum Load (40MVA) Max Voltage (105%) logically case 3 and 7 is
4 Max Load (100 MVA) Normal Voltage (100%) more than enough and
5 Average Load (70 MVA) Normal Voltage (100%) it will cover all the
6 Minimum Load (40MVA) Normal Voltage (100%) remaining cases also.
7 Max Load (100 MVA) Minimum Voltage (95%)
8 Average Load (70 MVA) Minimum Voltage (95%) We can go for case 5 if
9 Minimum Load (40MVA) Minimum Voltage (95%) required for end user.
 Operating P/Q/V will give output despite of whatever loading category we simulated in
Loading/Generating category.
 For IEC it will consider Higher MVA for Zbase while ANSI considers lower MVA rating in transformer
modelling.
 We can conclude that the current rating of transformer plays vital role in power rating and losses and
also in thermal characteristics also.
 Increase in impedance increases the X/R ratio and reduction in RMS short circuit current. But the Peak
short circuit will be high due to increased X/R ratio
 Z tolerance is used for accounting the tolerance in transformer impedance only when the transformer is
not FAT tested and it is yet to procured.
 While %Z variation used for accounting impedance adjustment at different tap position of transformer
because impedance will vary for every tap increases or decreases from normal tap.
 In-case of selecting generators, always go to the low power factor.
Because if motor or any other load higher power factor is better because lower the power factor, they
will consume more reactive power which is no use – higher the power factor lowers the reactive power
(reactive power demand by end equipment is less).
In this generator case – we need to evacuate higher reactive power which required for regulating
voltage at generator terminal – higher the power factor generates less reactive power and may leads to
loess access to regulate voltage at generator terminal.
 The most important thing is Wind Turbine Generator and Synchronous Generator are not the
same. Practically we can control the input to the generator in Thermal, Hydro plants but WTG
input is not controllable.