HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
REVIEWER
A. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY
& PHYSIOLOGY
I. An Overview of Anatomy
 Anatomy - The study of the structure of the
human body
 Physiology - The study of body function
II. Branches of Anatomy
 Surface anatomy - (also
called superficial anatomy and visual anatomy)
is the study of the external features of the body
of an animal.
 Gross anatomy -
customarily refers to the study of those body
structures large enough to be examined without
the help of magnifying devices
 Microscopic anatomy
(histology) -tissues - concerned with the study
of structural units small enough to be seen only
with a light microscope.
III. Structural Organization
 Chemical level – atoms form molecules
 Cellular level – cells and their subunits
 Tissue level – a group of cells performing a
common function
 Organ level – a discrete structure made up
of more than one tissue
 Organ system – organs working together
for a common purpose
 Organism – the result of all simpler levels
working together
IV. Systemic v. Regional Anatomy
 Systemic – study of anatomy by system
 Regional – study of anatomy by region
Side Note: Regional anatomy focuses on specific
external and internal regions of the body (such as
the head or chest) and how different systems work
together in that region. Systemic anatomy focuses
on the anatomy of different organ systems, such as
the respiratory or nervous system.
V. Gross Anatomy
Anatomical position – a common visual reference
point
Person stands erect with feet together and eyes
forward Palms face forward with the thumbs
pointed away from the body
Regional terms – names of specific body areas
 Axial region – the main axis of the
body
 Appendicular region – the limbs
Directional terminology - Refers to the body in
anatomical position
 Standardized terms of directions are
paired terms
VI. Orientation and Directional Terms
(See the table in page 2 & 3)
VII. Regional Terms
(See in picture in page 3 & 4)
Key Terms
 Regional terms describe the different parts
of the body by the structures and functions
of a specific region. The most basic regional
terms are the axial and appendicular regions.
  Axes use directional terms to describe the
location and orientation of a specific region.
 The directional term lateral is used to
describe structures divided by a left-to-right
axis.
 ventral: On the front side of the human
body or the corresponding surface of an
animal, usually the lower surface.
 posterior: Nearer the caudal end of the body
in quadrupeds or the dorsal end in bipeds.
 axis: A line between two points that is used
to give direction to an anatomical region.
Regional Terms in Anatomy
Regional terms describe anatomy by dividing the
parts of the body into different regions that contain
structures that are involved in similar functions.
Two primary terms are used to describe the main
regions of the body:
 The Axial Region makes up the main axis
of the human body and includes the head,
neck, chest, and trunk.
 The Appendicular Region makes up the
parts of the human body that connect to the
axial region. This includes the limbs and
appendages.
Axes Describe Relative Positions
Another method for describing region An axis uses
a straight line between two parts of the body to
describe a region of the body with linear direction.
For example, blood can be said to flow
in a proximal or distal direction through a region
marked by that axis. The X, Y, and Z axes of the
Cartesian coordinate system are used describe the
specific location of an axis in standard anatomical
position.
Many types of axes can give regional direction. Any
pair of corresponding directional terms can be
combined to form an axis (such as proximal-distal
for an appendage).
 The Dorsoventral axis (DV axis) is formed
by the connection of the dorsal and ventral
points of a region. The region between the
belly (ventral) and back (dorsal) is often
described by a DV axis.
 The Anterioposterior axis (AP axis) is the
axis formed by the connection of the
anterior (top) and posterior (bottom) ends of
a region. The AP axis of a region is by
definition perpendicular to the DV axis and
vice-versa.
 The Left-to-right axis is the axis
connecting the left and right hand sides of a
region. It is used to describe the lateral sides
of a region, which in humans are often
symmetrical around the center of the body.
It is perpendicular to both the DV and AP
axes.
VII. Body Planes and Sections
 Coronal (frontal) plane - Lies vertically
and divides body into anterior and posterior
parts
 Median (midsagittal) plane - Specific
sagittal plane that lies vertically in the
midline
 Transverse plane - runs horizontally and
divides body into superior and inferior parts
 Oblique plane- divides the body at an
angle; Oblique section through the trunk
VIII. Body Cavities and Membrane
(See picture in page 4 & 5)
 Dorsal body cavity
 Cavity subdivided into the cranial cavity and
the vertebral cavity.
 Cranial cavity houses the brain.
 Vertebral cavity runs through the vertebral
column and encloses the spinal cord
Other Body Cavities
 Oral cavity
 Nasal cavity
  Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities
 Synovial cavities
IX. Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
(See picture in page 5)
 Abdominal regions divide the abdomen
into nine regions.
Abdominal Quadrants
 Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen
into four quadrants
 Right upper and left upper quadrants
 Right lower and left lower quadrants
B. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
I. Carbon Cycle
All living things contain carbon in some form.
• Carbon is the primary component of
macromolecules, including proteins, lipids,
nucleic acids, and carbohydrates.
• Carbon’s molecular structure allows it to bond in
many different ways and with many different
elements.
• The carbon cycle shows how carbon moves
through the living and non-living parts of the
environment.
0ctet rule
• A rule stating that atoms lose, gain or share
electrons in order to have a full valence shell of
8 electrons (has some exceptions).
The Cycle
 the physical cycle of carbon through the
earth’s biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere,
and atmosphere; includes such processes as
photosynthesis, decomposition, respiration,
and carbonification
 Carbon is the fourth most abundant element
in the universe and is the building block of
life on earth. On earth, carbon circulates
through the land, ocean, and atmosphere,
creating what is known as the Carbon
Cycle.
 The carbon cycle has two components: the
fast carbon cycle and the slow carbon
cycle. The fast cycle involves biological
processes, such as photosynthesis and
decomposition, while the slow cycle
involves transitions of inorganic carbon,
such as the weathering of rocks and soils.
The slow cycle is implicated in governing
climate change on a timescale of millions
of years, while the fast cycle participates in
decadal to millennial climate changes.
Note: All living things contain carbon in some
form, and carbon is the primary component of
macromolecules, including proteins, lipids, nucleic
acids, and carbohydrates. Carbon exists in many
forms in this leaf, including in the cellulose to form
the leaf’s structure and in chlorophyll, the pigment
which makes the leaf green.
II. Organic and Inorganic Substance
Chemicals that enter into metabolic reactions or are
produced by them can be divided into two large
groups:
 Organic substance
 Inorganic substance
Organic substance
 Can dissolve in water, but are most likely to
dissolve in organic liquids like ether or
alcohol -
 They are non-electrolytes because they
usually do not release ions
Common Organic Substance in Cells
 Water
This is the most abundant compound in living
material and accounts for roughly 2/3 of the weight
of an adult human. It is a major component of blood
and other body fluids (including those within cells)
It is an important solvent, allowing for most
biochemical reactions to occur in water. Plays a key
role in moving chemicals within the body. The
aqueous portion of blood.
Has a high specific heat. It helps to regulate body
temperature by absorbing and transporting heat.
When sweat evaporates, it takes heat with it. Blood
moves heat around the body. - All the special
properties of water are due to the H-bonds between
water molecules
 Oxygen
Molecules of oxygen enter the body through the
respiratory organs and are transported throughout
the body by the blood. Cellular organelles use
oxygen to release energy from sugar glucose and
other nutrients. The released energy drives the cell’s
metabolic activities.
 Carbon dioxide
It is produced as a waste product when cellular
respiration releases energy. Exhaled from the lungs.
Reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
 Salt
Salts are actually a group of inorganic compounds.
Provide many ions for important metabolic
processes, including transport of substances into
and out of the cell, muscle contractions, and nerve
impulses.
Organic Substance 4 Macromolecules of Life
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic Acids
Inorganic Substance
 Dissolve in water or react with water to
release ions
 They are electrolytes
 Sodium
 Chlorine
 Magnesium
 Potassium
 Calcium
C. CELLS
I. Discovery of Cells
Robert Hooke (mid-1600s)
 Observed sliver of cork
 Saw “row of empty boxes” Coined
the term cell.
 In 1665, Robert Hooke was the first
to observe cork cells and their
characteristic hexagonal shape, using
the first optical microscope, which
was invented by him at that time.
With the evolution of imaging
techniques, the structure of cork has
been analyzed with greater accuracy
over time.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
 Discovered the bacteria and other
microscopic organisms in rainwater
 Van Leeuwenhoek was the first
scientist ever to give a detailed
description of red blood cells (1675)
and human spermatozoa (1677) or to
see single-celled bacteria and
protozoa. In 1683 he scraped some
 tartar off of his own teeth, looked at
it under a microscope, and found
living organisms
Robert Brown
 Was responsible for discovering the
nucleus of a cell
 He is perhaps best known for his
discovery of the random movement
of microscopic particles in a
surrounding solution, later referred
to as "Brownian motion." He also
developed alternative plant
classification systems.
Johannes Purkinje
 Best known for his discovery of
large nerve cells with many
branching extensions found in the
cortex of the cerebellum of the brain
(Purkinje cells; 1837) and of the
fibrous tissue that conducts the
pacemaker stimulus along the inside
walls of the ventricles to all parts of
the heart
 In describing young animal embryos,
he introduced protoplasm as a
scientific term.
Louise Pasteur
 Prove of Virchow’s Theory of
Biogenesis.
 Contributed to the cell theory by
disproving spontaneous generation.
He was the first scientist to prove
that cells can only form from pre-
existing cells. He did this by creating
an experiment that showed cells
would only grow in broth if air was
exposed.
II. Principle of Cell Theory
1. All living things are made of cells.
-Mathias Scheliden, Theodor Schwann
2. Smallest living unit of structure and
function of all organisms is the cell
-Henry Dutrochet
3. All cells arise from preexisting cells.
-Rudolf Virchow
Characteristics of all Cells
 A surrounding membrane
 Protoplasm – cell contents in thick
fluid.
 Organelles – structures for cell
function
 Control center with DNA
III. Cell Types
Prokaryotic Cell
 Prokaryotes
 Comprise bacteria and archaea. Their
genetic material isn’t stored within a
membranebound nucleus. Instead, it
is stored in a nucleoid that floats in
the cell’s cytoplasm. Prokaryotic
cells are normally smaller than
eukaryotic cells, with a typical size
range of 0.1 to 5 μm in diameter.
Eukaryotic Cell
 Eukaryotes
 Any cell or organism that possesses a
clearly defined nucleus. The
eukaryotic cell has a nuclear
membrane that surrounds the
nucleus, in which the well-defined
chromosomes (bodies containing the
hereditary material) are located.
Eukaryotic cells also contain
organelles, including mitochondria
 (cellular energy exchangers), a Golgi
apparatus (secretory device), an
endoplasmic reticulum (a canal-like
system of membranes within the
cell), and lysosomes (digestive
apparatus within many cell types).
IV. Forms of Cell
Animal Cell
Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells.
Another defining characteristic is its irregular
shape. This is due to the absence of a cell wall. But
animal cells share other cellular organelles with
plant cells as both have evolved from eukaryotic
cells.
A typical animal cell comprises the following cell
organelles:
Cell Membrane
A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and
proteins surrounding the cell. Its primary role is to
protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it
controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other
microscopic entities into the cell. For this reason,
cell membranes are known as semi-permeable or
selectively permeable membranes.
Nucleus
It is an organelle that contains several other sub-
organelles such as nucleolus, nucleosomes and
chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic
materials.
Nuclear Membrane
It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the
nucleus. It is also referred to as the nuclear
envelope.
Centrosome
It is a small organelle found near the nucleus, which
has a thick centre with radiating tubules. The
centrosomes are where microtubules are produced.
Lysosome
They are round organelles surrounded by a
membrane and comprising digestive enzymes which
help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal
process.
Cytoplasm
A jelly-like material which contains all the cell
organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane. The
substance found within the cell nucleus, contained
by the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus
A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is
located near the nucleus and involved in
manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting
the particles throughout the cell.
Mitochondrion
They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a
double membrane. They are the powerhouse of a
cell as they play an important role in releasing
energy.
Ribosome
They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich
cytoplasmic granules, and they are the sites of
protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
This cellular organelle is composed of a thin,
winding network of membranous sacs originating
from the nucleus.
Vacuole
A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell
involved in maintaining shape and storing water,
food, wastes, etc.
Nucleopore
They are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane
which are involved in the movement of nucleic
acids and proteins across the nuclear membrane.
Plant Cell
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several
fundamental factors from other eukaryotic
organisms. Both plant and animal cells contain a
nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the
distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of a
cell wall outside the cell membrane.
Cell Wall
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect
and provide structural support to the cell. The plant
cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell
against mechanical stress and providing form and
structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules
passing in and out of it.
Cell membrane
The cell membrane plays an important role in
regulating the entry and exit of specific substances
within the cell.
For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from
entering inside, while nutrients and essential
minerals are transported across.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is
present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function
of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary
information required for cell division, metabolism
and growth.
1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ protein-
producing structures and ribosomes.
2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is
perforated with holes called nucleopore that
allow proteins and nucleic acids to pass
through.
Chloroplasts
Each chloroplast contains a green coloured pigment
called chlorophyll required for the process of
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light
energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon
dioxide and water into glucose.
Central Vacuole
It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a
mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that
surrounds the central vacuole. The vital function of
the central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain
turgor pressure against the cell wall. The central
vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts,
enzymes and other substances.
Golgi Apparatus
They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which are
involved in distributing synthesised
macromolecules to various parts of the cell.
Ribosomes
They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles
which comprise RNA and protein. They are the
sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as
the protein factories of the cell.
Mitochondria
They are the double-membraned organelles found in
the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They provide
energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar
molecules, hence they are also referred to as the
“Powerhouse of the cell.”
Lysosome
Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold
digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They
perform the function of cellular waste disposal by
digesting worn-out organelles, food particles and
foreign bodies in the cell. In plants, the role of
lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles.
V. Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Why do cells divide?
 growth
 repair
 reproduction
Cell Cycle
 To divide, a cell must complete several
important tasks: it must grow, copy its
genetic material (DNA), and physically split
into two daughter cells. Cells perform these
tasks in an organized, predictable series of
steps that make up the cell cycle. The cell
cycle is a cycle, rather than a linear pathway,
because at the end of each go-round, the two
daughter cells can start the exact same
process over again from the beginning.
Interphase
 G1 phase. During G1 phase, also called the
first gap phase, the cell grows physically
larger, copies organelles, and makes the
molecular building blocks it will need in
later steps.
 S phase. In S phase, the cell synthesizes a
complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It
also duplicates a microtubule-organizing
structure called the centrosome. The
centrosomes help separate DNA during M
phase.
 G2 phase. During the second gap phase, or
G2 phase, the cell grows more, makes
proteins and organelles, and begins to
reorganize its contents in preparation for
mitosis. G2 phase ends when mitosis begins.
M phase / Mitotic Phase
 During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell
divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm to
make two new cells. M phase involves two
distinct division-related processes: mitosis
and cytokinesis.
Mitosis
 It is the process of forming identical
daughter, cells by replicating and dividing
the original chromosomes
 In mitosis, the nuclear DNA of the cell
condenses, into visible chromosomes and is
pulled apart by the mitotic spindle, a
specialized structure made out of
microtubules.
 Mitosis takes place in four stages: prophase
(sometimes divided into early prophase and
prometaphase), metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.
Meiosis
 A division of the nucleus that reduces
chromosome number by half
 Important in sexual reproduction.
 Involves combining the genetic information
of one, parent with that of the other parent to
produce a genetically distinct individual
Stages: From PMAT I to PMAT II
Meiosis II
 Daughter cells undergo a second division;
much like mitosis
 NO ADDITIONAL REPLICATION
OCCURS.
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis
 Takes place with in somatic cells
  One single division, of the of the mother cell
result in two daughter cell
 Mitotic mother cell, can either be
haploid/diploid
 The number of chromosomes per nucleus
remains the same after division
Meiosis
 Takes place within gamete cells (sex cells)
 Two division of the, mother cell result in 4
meiotic products
 Meiotic mother cell is, always diploid
 The meiotic products contain a haploid (n)
number of chromosomes in contrast to the
(2n) number of chromosomes in mother cell
D. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
I. The System
 Integumentary system functions to guard the
body, providing a barrier to infection and
shielding the body
 The integumentary system has many
specific roles in its involvement in helping
to protect and regulate the body ’ s internal
functions.
II. Parts & Function
Skin- The skin is the body ' s largest and heaviest
organ.
 The skin protects the tissues of the body
from mechanical damage and from bacteria.
 The skin also functions as a sense organ.
 The skin is one of the four major excretory
organs of the body.
 Produces Vitamin D
 Regulates temperature in the body
Hair- Thin thread like structure.
 Hair is distributed over the body ' s surface
except for the lips, palms of hands, soles of
feet, nipples, and external genital parts. Hair
that is on the skin ' s surface is composed of
dead cells.
Nails - Nails are hard, grow from the bones of the
nail bed.
 The role that fingernails and toenails play in
the integumentary system is that they simply
protect our fingers and toes. Fingers
experience lots of trauma during day to day
life so it is important the we have fingernails
to protect our fingers from anything very
severe.
Glands - Glands are functional units of cells
 Glands are functional units of cellsTrusted
Source that work in unison to release a
substance, such as oil or sweat.
III. Diseases & Treatment
Acne (Acne Vulgaris)
 Acne, is the most common skin disorder. It
can be a source of anxiety for every people.
Treatment: Usually the first choice for treating
acne is a tetracycline (minocycline, doxycycline) or
a macrolide (erythromycin, azithromycin). A
macrolide might be an option for people who can't
take tetracyclines, including pregnant women and
children under 8 years old.
Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)
 One of the types of eczema seen in children.
Treatment:
 Avoid scratching the rash or skin.
 Relieve the itch by using a moisturizer or topical
steroids.
 Keep your fingernails cut short. ...
 Lubricate or moisturize the skin two to three times a
day using ointments such as petroleum jelly. ...
 Avoid anything that worsens symptoms, including.
Shingles (Herpes Zoster)
 It’ s a virus that results in a red blistered rash
that may appear anywhere in the body. It
can cause fatigue, fever, & Headache too.
Treatment: Several antiviral medicines—acyclovir,
valacyclovir, and famciclovir—are available to treat
shingles and shorten the length and severity of the
illness. These medicines are most effective if you
start taking them as soon as possible after the rash
appears.
Hives (Urticaria)
 Raised, red, itchy areas that can occur
anywhere in the skin.
Treatment: If the itchiness is causing you
discomfort, antihistamines can help. Antihistamines
are available over the counter at pharmacies – speak
to your pharmacist for advice. A short course of
steroid tablets (oral corticosteroids) may
occasionally be needed for more severe cases of
urticaria.
Athletes Foot (Tinea Pedis)
 It’ s unfortunate fact, but your feet are prone
to fungal too.
Treatment: After washing and drying your
feet, apply an antifungal product. The antifungal
terbinafine (Lamisil AT) has been shown to be very
effective. Another option is clotrimazole (Lotrimin
AF). You may need to experiment to find the
product and formulation — ointment, gel, cream,
lotion, powder or spray — that work for you.
Psoriasis
 Is a long lasting non-contiguous
autoimmune disease characterized by raised
areas of abnormal skin.
Treatment: Steroid creams or ointments (topical
corticosteroids) are commonly used to treat mild to
moderate psoriasis in most areas of the body. The
treatment works by reducing inflammation. This
slows the production of skin cells and reduces
itching. Topical corticosteroids range in strength
from mild to very strong.
E. SKELETAL SYSTEM
I. The System
The skeletal system is your body's central
framework. It consists of bones and connective
tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
It's also called the musculoskeletal system
II. Parts & Function
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the
longitudinal axis of the body, It can be divided into
three parts— the skull, the vertebral column, and
the thoracic cage.
 Skull/ Cranium – protects the brain
 Facial bones – forms face structure / protect
organs
 Vertebral column – supports the skull, and
transmits the weight of the body to the hips
33 separate bones, 9 are fused
 Thoracic cage – forms the thorax (chest)
consists of ribs, sternum
Appendicular Skeleton: The primary function is
movement, it includes bones of the upper and lower
limbs, girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton
 Pectoral girdle: comprised with the clavicle
(collar bone), scapula (shoulder blade)
 Upper limb: arm, forearm, hand
 The wrist is made of 8 short bones called
carpals (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum,
pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate,
hamate)
 The palm is made up of 5 bones called
metacarpals (labeled or named 1-5)
 phalanges: bones that make up the fingers
(14 per hand, 3 per finger) THE THUMB
 ONL HAS 2 PHALANGES (NO MIDDLE
PHALANX)
 PELVIC GIRDLE: attaches the lower limbs
to the axial skeleton, it starts with the
sacrum and continues with 2 hip bones
 Lower limb: thigh, leg, foot: allows us to run
and jump effectively
III. Diseases & Treatment
Scoliosis
 an abnormal curvature of the spine resulting
in an S or C shape
Treatment: Casting, bracing, surgery
Osteoporosis
 is a disease that weakens bones to the point
where they break easily
Treatment: Get enough vitamin D, exercise, eat a
well balanced diet, avoid smoking, limit alcohol
intake
Osteoarthritis
 occurs when the cartilage that cushions the
ends of bones in your joints gradually
deteriorates
Treatment: Topical/ oral pain reliever, physical
therapy, exercise, weight loss (if overweight),
healthy diet
Paget’s disease of bone
 it is a disorder of the bone remodeling
process, in which the body absorbs old
bones and forms abnormal new bone
Treatment: Bisphosphonates, vitamin d and
calcium supplements, surgery if necessary
F. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
I. The System
Permits movement of the body, maintains posture,
and circulates blood throughout the body.
II. Parts & Function
Cardiac Muscle
 Cardiac muscle, or myocardium, is a
specialized type of muscle tissue that forms
and only exists in the heart.
 And Unlike skeletal muscle tissue, such as
that which is present in the arms and legs,
the movements that cardiac muscle tissue
produces are involuntary. This means that
they are automatic, and that a person cannot
control them.
Skeletal Muscle
 Skeletal muscle, also called voluntary
muscle, is the tissue most commonly
associated with the muscular system.
 Skeletal muscles enable humans to move
and perform daily activities. They play an
essential role in respiratory mechanics and
help in maintaining posture and balance.
They also protect the vital organs in the
body.
Smooth Muscle
 Smooth muscle can found throughout the
body where it serves a variety of
functions.. It is in the stomach and intestines
where it helps with digestion and nutrient
collection. It is found throughout the urinary
system where it functions to help rid the
body of toxins and works in electrolyte
balance.
 Smooth muscle differs from skeletal muscle
in a variety of ways, perhaps the most
important being its ability to be contracted
and controlled involuntarily.
III. Diseases & Treatment
Polymyositis  Physical Therapy

 An uncommon inflammatory disease that Myasthenia gravis

causes muscle weakness affecting both sides
of your body. Having this condition can  is a chronic autoimmune, neuromuscular
make it difficult to climb stairs, rise from a disease that causes weakness in the skeletal
seated position, lift objects or reach muscles that worsens after periods of
overhead. activity and improves after periods of rest.
These muscles are responsible for functions
Treatment: involving breathing and moving parts of the
body, including the arms and legs.
 No Cure
 Methotrexate
 ACTH gel
 Exercise
 Physical Therapy
Treatment:
Dermatomyositis
 Immunosuppressant
 is a rare disease that causes muscle
weakness and skin rash. Symptoms include  Surgery
a red or purple rash on sun exposed skin and
eyelids, calcium deposits under the skin, Multiple sclerosis (MS)
muscle weakness, and trouble talking or
swallowing.  is a condition that can affect the brain and
spinal cord, causing a wide range of
Treatment: potential symptoms, including problems
with vision, arm or leg movement, sensation
 No Cure or balance. It's a lifelong condition that can
sometimes cause serious disability, although
 Sunscreens it can occasionally be mild.

 Rituximab Treatment:

 Exercise  Corticosteroids

 Physical Therapy  Plasmapheresis or Plasma Exchange

Muscular dystrophies

 are a group of muscle diseases caused by

mutations in a person's genes. Over time,
muscle weakness decreases mobility,
making everyday tasks difficult.

Treatment:

 No Cure

 Glucocorticoids