Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2013: Turbine Technical Conference and Exposition

GT2013
June 3-7, 2013, San Antonio, Texas, USA

GT2013-94667
EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION OF
THERMAL EFFECTIVENESS IN MULTI-PERFORATED PLATES FOR
COMBUSTOR LINER EFFUSION COOLING

Antonio Andreini, Bruno Facchini, Alessio Picchi, Lorenzo Tarchi
Energy Engineering Department “S.Stecco”
University of Florence
50139, via S.Marta 3, Firenze, Italy
Tel: (+39) 055 4796439, Fax: (+39) 055 4796342
Email: antonio.andreini@htc.de.unifi.it
Fabio Turrini
AVIO S.p.A.
Engineering, Combustion Systems Office
Rivalta di Torino (TO), Italy
Email: Fabio.Turrini@aviogroup.com

NOMENCLATURE
ABSTRACT A Area [m2 ]
BR Blowing Ratio [−]
C Concentration (mass fraction) [−]
State-of-the-art liner cooling technology for modern com- d Holes diameter [m]
bustors is represented by effusion cooling (or full-coverage film DR Density ratio [−]
cooling). Effusion is a very efficient cooling strategy based on H, HTC Heat transfer coefficient [W /(m2 K)]
the use of multi-perforated liners, where metal temperature is k Thermal conductivity [W /(mK)]
lowered by the combined protective effect of coolant film and l Hole length [m]
heat removal through forced convection inside each hole. The L Perforation Length [m]
aim of this experimental campaign is the evaluation of the ther- m Mass flow rate [kg/s]
mal performance of multi-perforated liners with geometrical and PO2 Partial pressure of Oxygen [Pa]
fluid-dynamic parameters ranging among typical combustor en- Re Reynolds number [−]
gine values. Results were obtained as adiabatic film effective- S Hole array pitch [m]
ness following the mass transfer analogy by the use of Pres- T Temperature [K]
sure Sensitive Paint, while local values of overall effectiveness Tu Turbulunce intensity level [−]
were obtained by eight thermocouples housed in as many dead VR Velocity Ratio [−]
holes about 2 mm below the investigated surface. Concerning
the tested geometries, different porosity levels were considered:
Greeks
such values were obtained both increasing the hole diameter and
α Hole inclination angle [deg]
pattern spacing. Then the effect of hole inclination and aspect
ηad Adiabatic effectiveness [−]
ratio pattern shape were tested to assess the impact of typical
ηov Overall effectiveness [−]
cooling system features. Seven multi perforated planar plates,
ρ Density [kg/m3 ]
reproducing the effusion arrays of real combustor liners, were
σ Porosity [%]
tested imposing 6 blowing ratios in the range 0.5-5. Test sam-
ξ HTC augmentation [−]
ples were made of stainless steel (AISI304) in order to achieve
Biot number similitude for overall effectiveness tests.
To extend the validity of the survey a correlative analysis
was performed to point out, in an indirect way, the augmentation
of hot side heat transfer coefficient due to effusion jets. Finally,
to address the thermal behaviour of the different geometries in
presence of gas side radiation, additional simulations were per-
formed considering different levels of radiative heat flux.

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 Subscripts
cool Cooling flow
dark Image without excitation
ef f Effusion flow
fg Foreign gas
re f Reference condition
main Mainstream
w Wall
x Streamwise direction
y Spanwise direction
Acronyms
ACARE Advisory Council for Aeronautics
Research in Europe
CAEP Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
KIAI Knowledge for Ignition Acoustics and Instabilities
NOx Nitrogen oxides
OT DF Outlet Temperature Distribution Factor
PMMA Poly-Methyl Methacrylate
PSP Pressure Sensitive Paint
TC Thermocouple
UV Ultraviolet
INTRODUCTION
In new generation combustors, the reduction of pollutant
emissions is a primary goal to meet the strict environmental
legislations aimed at mitigating climate changes. Regulations
concerning NOx from civil aero-engines (ACARE Vision 2020
objectives and future ICAO-CAEP standards) have forced in
the last ten years huge research investments to introduce new
combustion systems. Even though classical Rich-Quench-Lean
(RQL) technology has still relevant improvement potentials,
with the expected next NOx reduction targets (up to 80% with
respect to CAEP/2 standards) lean combustion will probably
be adopted by manufacturers in the near future as the most
attractive technique. Whatever detailed design will be selected,
combustor liner walls have to be cooled by the air not used in
the primary zone which is far lower the quantity employed in
the conventional combustor. Therefore the liner cooling system
must be designed in order to optimize the coolant consumption
and guarantee an effective wall protection. In addition, further
goals need to be taken into account: reaction quenching due to
a sudden mixing with cooling air should be accurately avoided,
whilst temperature distribution has to reach the desired levels in
terms of OTDF.
Among available liner cooling approaches, effusion cooling
or full coverage film cooling is one of the most effective; it is
based on the use of a large number of holes, manufactured by
means of laser beam drilling [1], that provide an air film layer
with a temperature noticeably lower than the burnt mixture.
Even if this solution still relies on film cooling generation,
it permits to lower the wall temperature with low coolant
consumption thanks to the so called “heat sink effect” [2], which
is the wall cooling due to the heat removed by the passage of the
coolant through the holes. From this point of view, effusion can
be seen as an approximation of transpiration cooling by porous
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wall means, with a slight decrease in performances but without
the same structural disadvantages. If accurately designed, an
effusion cooling scheme guarantees a significant improvement
in lowering wall temperature, despite a slight reduction of the
wall protection at least in the first part of the liner.
Beyond that, acoustic damping capabilities of multi-
perforated liner, well-known in literature [3, 4], makes the
effusion cooling schemes possible passive devices to mitigate
combustion instabilities generally referred to as thermoacoustic
phenomena [5, 6, 7], which typically onset on lean combustion
systems. Nowadays, the prevention and control of combustion
instabilities are one of the most challenging goals to improve
safety and reliability of engines.
The main part of full coverage film cooling studies
have been focused on the effectiveness of the protection due
to the injection of coolant. Studies on effusion cooling, or on
multi-row holes injection, have been performed since the late
60’s.
Sasaki et al. [8] presented film cooling adiabatic effec-
tiveness results while Mayle and Camarata [9] proposed a
correlation for that parameter. Andrews et al. [10, 11] investi-
gated the effects of various factors on full-coverage film-cooling:
they showed the strong influence of the number of holes, of
their length and injection angle. Harrington et al. [12] focused
on a configuration with very short effusion holes with normal
injection angle, finding that an asymptotic fully developed
adiabatic effectiveness level was established within four or eight
rows.
Scrittore et al. [13] studied the effects of dilution hole
injection on effusion behaviour; they found relevant turbulence
levels downstream dilution holes, thus leading to an increased
spreading of coolant jets. Scrittore et al. [14] measured velocity
profiles and adiabatic effectiveness of a full coverage scheme
with blowing ratios from 3.2 to 5.0, finding the attainment of a
fully developed effectiveness region at the 15th row and a very
low effect of blowing ratio on cooling performance.
A correlative analysis of effusion cooling systems, by means
of a DOE (Design Of Experiment) approach, was performed
by Arcangeli et al. [15]; one of their main objectives was the
investigation of the effects of the main design parameters. A
big influence on global performance has been shown by the
hole length to diameter ratio, as it was found that the overall
effectiveness always increases with l/d.
More recently Ligrani et al. [16] presented film effective-
ness and heat transfer results for full coverage film cooling
arrangements with streamwise pressure gradient; they studied
the effect of the blowing ratio and the influence of dense and
sparse hole arrays on the thermal effectiveness.
Experiments under conditions of very high freestream tur-
bulence up to 25% were conducted by Martin and Thorpe [17]
on an effusion test plate with angled hole array and staggered
pattern, varying blowing ratios from 0.3 to 1.5. They found that
when freestream turbulence is increased the spatially averaged
effectiveness can increase by as much as 85% at BR = 1.4 due
to the spanwise spreading of coolant and turbulent transport of
coolant back towards the plate surface.
A real combustion cooling scheme was experimentally stud-
 Figure 1.
ied by Ceccherini et al. [18] and Facchini et al. [19] measuring
the overall effectiveness and heat transfer coefficient in order to
evaluate the combined effect of slot, effusion and a large dilution
hole at variable blowing ratios; they found that an increase in BR
leads to lower values of effectiveness.
In order to overcome the reduction of coolant mass
flow and the onset of combustion instabilities on lean com-
bustor, engine manufacturers are searching for the best design
practices for effusion cooling systems from thermal and acoustic
standpoints. The present work aims at deepening the knowledge
on the thermal behaviour of effusion cooling geometries from
an experimental point of view. The considered test matrix
covers seven multi-perforates planar plates in which the most
influencing geometrical parameters are varied within typical
ranges of aero-engine combustors. The same geometries have
been already tested by Andreini et al. [20] with a dedicated
experimental campaign to investigate the acoustic damping
capabilities of the effusion liners.
Results were discussed in terms of adiabatic and overall
effectiveness by cross-comparing the thermal performance of
the seven geometries, in order to highlight the impact of fluid
dynamic parameters and geometrical features. To extend the
validity of the survey a correlative analysis was performed to
solve the augmentation of hot side heat transfer coefficient
and to compute the effect of a gas side radiation on thermal
behaviour.
EXPERIMENTS
Experimental apparatus
Final aim of the present activity is the measurement of
the adiabatic and overall effectiveness of seven multi-perforated
plates in order to point out the effect of the main geometric fea-
tures and fluidynamic parameters on cooling performance.
The thermal test rig, depicted in Fig. 1, is an open loop test
rig with a constant cross section area (100x100mm2; 1000mm
long) which allows the complete control of two separate flows:
the mainstream and the effusion cooling flow. The mainstream
is drawn by means of two vacuum pumps from the ambient with
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Test rig scheme
a maximum flow rate capability of about 900m3/h. Before en-
tering into the test section the mainstream flows through an elec-
tronically controlled electric heater (24.0kW with finned heating
elements supplied by RICA) used to heat up the mainstream. In
the first part of the channel the mainstream flow crosses honey-
combs and several screens which allow to set an uniform velocity
profile. An interchangeable passive turbulence generator (square
grid mesh; 4mm bar thickness; 16mm grid pitch), located 64mm
upstream the effusion plate, is used to achieve a turbulence level
of 17% at the first row of holes and a streamwise integral length
scale of 7.5mm. Without the turbulence grid the mainstream has a
turbulence level of 1.5% at the same position and a length scale of
3.5mm. The turbulence was measured using a DANTEC R CTA
system with a single sensor probe DANTEC R 55p04 traversed
along the direction normal to the effusion plate surface. The
data were sampled at 100kHz and the sampling period was set
at 1 second; the length scale was evaluated using the frozen tur-
bulence approximation [21]. Experimental results have showed
that the mean velocity at the start of the test plate was uniform
to within roughly 8% of the mean velocity, while turbulence in-
tensity and integral length scale were uniform to within 15%.
The turbulence level generated by the grid mesh are in agree-
ment with the level predicted by the correlation of Roach [22].
The effusion array is fed by a plenum chamber connected
directly upstream the test plate with air or pure nitrogen stored
in a pressure tank (≈ 290K); flow rate is set up by throttling the
valves located on the cooling line.
The mass flow rate is measured in two different locations
of the rig: according to the standard EN ISO 5167-1 one orifice
measures the flow rate blown by the pumps, while another orifice
measures the effusion mass flow rates. Two pressure scanners
Scanivalve R DSA 3217 with temperature compensated piezore-
sistive relative pressure sensors measure the static pressure in 21
different locations with a maximum uncertainty of ±6.9Pa (level
of confidence of approximately 95%). Several T type thermocou-
ples (uncertainty ±0.5K with level of confidence of 95%) con-
nected to a data acquisition/switch unit (HP/Agilent R 34970A)
measure the mainstream and the coolant static temperatures, and
the test plate temperatures. Two UV High Power Led 1 Watt fil-
tered with a blue band bass filter provide the correct light source
 for Pressure Sensitive Paint (PSP) painted surface excitation,
while a 1600x1200 resolution 14-bit CCD camera (PCO.1600)
with a 610nm red filter records the intensity emitted by PSP.
Pressure sensitive paint is an organic substance, composed
by oxygen sensitive molecules embedded in the paint solution
using a polymer binder permeable to oxygen. Based on lumi-
nescence behaviour of these molecules, PSP can be used to mea-
sure the oxygen concentration of the atmosphere surrounding the
paints [23]; in the recent years the pressure sensitive paint has
been employed for adiabatic effectiveness measurement exploit-
ing the heat and mass transfer analogy. PSP are sprayed with
Figure 2. Liners effusion array
an air brush directly on the test surface (gas side of each effu-
sion plates) with 6 − 8 very light cross coats. PSP used in the
present work was supplied by Innovative Scientific Solutions,
Inc. and are composed of a blend of Fluoro Isopropyl Butyl poly- d σ Sx Sy Sx /Sy α Nrows
mer (FIB) and Platinum tetra porphine (PtTFPP). PSP has been Geo.
calibrated in the same optical condition of the test, moreover the [mm] [%] [mm] [mm] [−] [deg] [−]
calibration has been checked directly on the test article before G1 1.88 1.82 13.72 11.06 1.24 30 18
each experiment.
The test article is completely made of transparent PMMA G2 1.5 1.16 13.72 11.06 1.24 30 18
(Poly-Methyl Methacrylate), thus allowing the required optical G3 2.34 2.84 13.72 11.06 1.24 30 18
access for PSP measurements without influence the UV excita-
tion and the emission of the paint. G4 1.88 2.84 10.97 8.85 1.24 30 22
G5 1.88 1.16 17.89 13.25 1.35 30 14
Geometric and fluid dynamic test matrix G6 1.88 1.82 17.11 8.87 1.93 30 14
The first step of the experimental work, in order to evaluate
G7 1.5 1.16 13.72 11.06 1.24 90 18
the impact of geometric features and fluid dynamic conditions
on cooling capabilities, was the definition of a test matrix. It was
derived directly from previous dedicated acoustic test performed Table 1. Geometric test matrix
by Andreini et al. [20] to estimate the acoustic damping perfor-
mances of multi-perforated liners. The main object, in a future transfer coefficients used to achieve the Biot similarity were esti-
phase of the whole research activity, is to try to establish the indi- mated by means of correlation [26], CFD calculations and using
cations for the design of effusion cooled liner taking into account direct measurements carried out so far for the HTC in test con-
acoustic and thermal requirements. dition on the gas side [19].
Seven geometries were considered: starting from a reference The measurements of the thermal performance consist of
geometry (G1), representing a typical angled effusion cooling two sets of steady state experiments to estimate the adiabatic and
scheme, different geometrical parameters were varied to explore the overall effectiveness distributions imposing values of effu-
their impact on thermal effectiveness. The geometries are scaled sion blowing ratio (Eq. 2). Main investigation parameters, BR
up respect to typical engine configurations. Perforations were and V R, are defined as follows:
manufactured by mechanical drilling on planar plates, resulting
me f f / π · nholes · d 2 /4


in cylindrical holes, and arranged in a staggered configuration BR = (2)
along the liner axis (Fig. 2). mmain /Amain
The overall porosity is defined as: ρmain BR
V R = BR · = (3)
ρe f f DR
πd 2
σ= (1) where me f f is the mass flow rate through the effusion plate; Amain
4Sx Sy
is the mainstream channel cross-section (100x100mm2).
since it was indicated as the main geometrical parameter driving The cooling system was fed with air for overall effectiveness
the acoustic absorption [24, 25], three different levels of perfora- measurements (ηov ) and with pure nitrogen for adiabatic effec-
tion porosity were considered, obtained by varying hole diame- tiveness measurements (ηad ), while air was used for the main-
ter, and hole spacing. The main part of the test matrix deals with stream flow; moreover for ηov tests, the mainstream was heated
classical 30◦ inclination and a single geometry (G7) with normal up to ≈ 330K. Despite these slight differences between the flows
holes was considered; the perforation length and the thickness employed for the two sets of measurements, the coolant to main-
were the same for all the geometries tested (Tab. 1). The thermal stream density ratio was approximately one (DR ≈ 1) and hence
conductivity of the plates, made of AISI304 (k = 15.7W /mK), the effusion blowing ratio coincides with the velocity ratio.
was selected in order to perform experiments with the same lev- The effusion plates were tested imposing six values of BR
els of Biot number expected inside the cooling holes and on the within a typical range of an aeroengine combustor (BR = 0.5 −
gas side in actual engine conditions. The representative heat 5). The uncertainties of BR measurements are estimated to be

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 1.0
Geometry TCs positions [x/Sx ]
0.9

G1-G2-G3-G7 1-2-4-6-8-9.5-14-18
0.8

0.7
G4 1-3-5-7-11-15-19-22
G5-G6 1-3-5-6-7-9-11-14
)

0.6
dark
) / (I-I

0.5

Table 2. TCs positions for overall tests

dark

0.4
-I
ref
(I

0.3

captured in the same condition to reduce measurement noise;

0.2
20°C
during the experiments coolant and mainstream were set at the
30°C
0.1
50°C
same room temperature:
0.0

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
P/P
ref
Figure 3. PSP calibration curve
±5% with a confidence level of 95%. Mainstream absolute pres-
sure was kept constant (Remain ≈ 160000 evaluated using the hy-
draulic diameter of the mainstream channel as reference length,
Mamain ≈ 0.07), while coolant pressure was varied in order to
ensure the desired values of coolant velocity inside the holes.
Furthermore, it is worth to notice that the coolant mass flow (i.e.
the coolant consumption) is direct linked to the BR and to the
porosity: a high porosity level demands an high mass flow rate
to achieve the same blowing ratio.
Adiabatic effectiveness measurements
Based on luminescence behaviour of the oxygen sensitive
molecules embedded in the PSP, this paint can be used to mea-
sure the oxygen concentration of the atmosphere surrounding
the paints which in turn can be linked to the partial pressure
of air [23]. Before their use in the test rig, PSP must be cal-
ibrated in order to evaluate the relation between intensity and
pressure; more details on the calibration procedure are reported
by Caciolli et al. [27]. The relation between the light emitted by
the paint and the pressure is plotted in Fig. 3 for three tempera-
ture levels. The pressure was normalized with the room pressure
(Pre f ), while the intensity data were normalized with three dif-
ferent reference conditions recorded at room pressure and at the
same temperature of the correspondent curve (Ire f ). In order to
correct background noise a non-excited image was also acquired
and subtracted from all other images (dark). The curves for three
different temperatures collapse together allowing to neglect the
temperature effect on oxygen quenching; a similar behaviour was
found by Liu et al. [28].
In the recent years the pressure sensitive paint has been em-
ployed for adiabatic effectiveness measurement; since the PSP
is a sensor of oxygen concentration, this paint is suitable for
gas concentration techniques based on the heat and mass transfer
analogy as described in the work of Jones [29]. In order to evalu-
ate the adiabatic effectiveness distribution using PSP steady-state
technique 4 images are needed for each tested flow condition.
Each image was evaluated as an average of at least 15 images
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
- The first image is acquired with the UV illumination system
switched off in order to correct the background noise (Idark ).
- The second image is acquired using nitrogen as tracer gas
for the cooling line and air for the mainstream line at the
desired flow conditions.
- The third image is acquired at the same flow conditions of
the previous acquisition; in this case air was employed both
for mainstream and cooling lines.
- Finally the last image is captured with no flow condition, in
order to get the reference intensity field of the measurements
(Ire f ). The reference image was captured immediately after
the previous acquisition.
From the intensity fields of tests 2 and 3, the calibration curve
can be used to estimate the normalized partial pressure of oxy-
gen in both cases of tracer gas and air injection through holes
array. Therefore the partial pressures of oxygen were used to es-
timate adiabatic effectiveness distribution pixel-by-pixel as Han
and Rallabandi [30]:
Cmain − Cw PO ; f g /PO2 ;re f
ηad ≡ = 1− 2 (4)
Cmain PO2 ;air /PO2 ;re f
The Eq. 4 is valid in the special case where the molecular weight
of the foreign gas is similar to that of air. The uncertainty of adi-
abatic effectiveness measurements was evaluated based on the
method proposed by Kline and McClintock [31] and on a confi-
dence level of 95%. It is estimated to be 10% for ηad = 0.2 and
2% for ηad > 0.8, taking into account the uncertainties in cali-
bration and image capture. The adiabatic effectiveness tests were
repeated several times in order to confirm the repeatability of the
results.
Overall effectiveness measurements
Overall effectiveness measurements are based on the defini-
tion:
Tmain − Tw
ηov = (5)
Tmain − Tcool
The temperature of mainstream (Tmain ) is evaluated averaging
the reading of two thermocouples located normal to the flow
≈ 80mm upstream the coolant injection. The temperature of the
coolant (Tcool ) is estimated by means of a thermocouple inside
the plenum chamber and finally the temperatures of the wall (Tw )

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 dƵсϭϳй dƵсϭ͘ϱй

Z
Ϭ͘ϱ

Z
ϭ͘ϱ

Z
ϯ͘Ϭ

Figure 4. Adiabatic effectiveness: effect of free stream turbulence on geometry G2

is evaluated using eight thermocouples embedded inside each test 0.5

G2 Tu [%]
plate. These are housed in as many dead holes on the plenum side ad

0.4
of the plate, about 2 mm below the investigated surface along the 17%

1.5%
centerline; the high conductivity material allows to use the tem- 0.3
perature detected by the thermocouple as the local temperature
ad

of the wall surface. The TCs location are listed in Tab. 2. 0.2

The tests were carried out heating up the mainstream flow

up to approximately 330K, and using coolant at room tempera- 0.1

ture. The tests are run after steady condition is reached by all the
0.0
measured quantities: flow rates, pressures and temperatures. The
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
same experimental procedure was used in the work of Ceccherini BR [-]

et al. [32] and Oguntade et al. [33]. This technique provide re-
sults at discrete points, the measurements uncertainties are esti- Figure 5. Spatially averaged adiabatic effectiveness: effect of free
mated to be ±2% for ηov = 0.8 and ±5% for ηov = 0.3 with a stream turbulence on geometry G2
level of confidence of approximately 95%.
For each flow conditions an averaged ηov value was resolved
starting from the overall measurements along the centerline (ηi );
it was estimated as weighted mean using the locations of the TCs
(xi ) and their reciprocal distance along the center of the plate to
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
estimate the weights (Eq. 6):
Adiabatic effectiveness results will be reported in terms of
 bidimensional distributions, lateral averaged and spatially aver-
wi = (xi+1 − xi−1 ) /2 i = 2 . . . 7 aged on the whole test surface; overall effectiveness data will be
∑i wi · ηov;i

ηov = ; w1 = (x2 + x1 ) /2 (6) presented in terms of local values along the centerline next to the
∑i wi 
TCs positions and weighted average values.
w8 = L − (x8 + x7 ) /2

In the first part of the present section, turbulence impact on
film cooling is reported for geometry G2, afterwards the work
where i = 1 . . . 8 is the index associated to one of the eight ther- deals with a detailed analysis of geometry G1. Finally the ef-
mocouples (i = 0 for TC located at x/Sx = 0 and i = 8 for TC at fect of the main array features are summarized proposing a data
last row of holes); L is the perforation length. reduction for the angled geometries.

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 Effect of free stream turbulence on film effectiveness
Geometry G2 was tested in two different mainstream tur-
bulence configurations to point out the influence of turbulence
on thermal effectiveness. The first configuration has an intensity
of 17% at the first row of holes and an integral length scale of
7.5mm; the second configuration has a turbulence level of 1.5%
at the same position and a length scale of 3.5mm.
The effect of the free stream turbulence level can be appreci-
ated from bidimensional adiabatic effectiveness distributions re-
ported for three values of blowing ratio in Fig. 4. For low values
of BR the data show an effect on the imprint of coolant jets with
an increase of the lateral spreading caused by the high turbu-
lence level. In addition, a reduced length of coolant traces in the
streamwise direction can be appreciated. This behaviour is more
relevant in the first row of holes where the turbulence level does
not suffer from decay effects; Mayhew et al. [34] reported a sim-
ilar behaviour for a single row configuration.
According to the classification proposed by L’Ecuyer and
Soechting [35], increasing the BR beyond BR = V R = 0.8, the
effusion jets work in the penetration regime. It is possible to
note that the turbulence transport of coolant, prompted by the
high mainstream turbulence level, leads to have beneficial effect
on film covering and the coolant jets seem to be more resistant
to lift from the test surface. This behaviour was also documented
by Bons et al. [36] testing a single row of holes. As general re-
sults, in the penetration regime the high free stream turbulence
ensures a best film protection.
For a more quantitative comparison, in Fig. 5 the effect of
free stream turbulence on the spatially averaged ηad is reported
for different values of BR. Starting from BR = 0.5, where the
effect of jet lateral spreading is offset by the reduction of coolant
traces, the adiabatic effectiveness for the low turbulence case
does not have a monotonic trend and a minimum value is reg-
istered for BR = 1.5; on the other hand for high Tu configuration
the film protection increase with the blowing ratio. A similar
trend, testing an angled effusion geometry with BR < 1.5 and 7
rows of holes, was recently found by Martin and Thorpe [17].
Detailed results for the reference geometry G1
Geometry G1 was considered as reference case involving an
intermediate hole diameter and axial/circumferential hole spac-
ings, hence the results in terms of both adiabatic and overall ef-
fectiveness are reported in more details for the high free stream
turbulence configuration.
In Fig. 6 the bidimensional adiabatic effectiveness distribu-
tions are shown for all the blowing ratios tested. Analysis of the
film cooling performance can be conducted using lateral aver-
aged adiabatic effectiveness distributions against BR. As shown
by Fig. 7, the higher film wall protection is achieved at low blow-
ing ratio for x/Sx < 6, whereas opposite behaviour is reported for
x/Sx > 6. This behaviour can be attributed to the lift-off of the
coolant jets, which does not guarantee a correct wall protection
at the first rows of holes, while after the sixth row and for higher
blowing ratio values, the large amount of coolant mass flow in-
jected and the superposition effect lead to an higher adiabatic ef-
fectiveness despite the lift of each jets. Although an asymptotic
condition could not be verified at any of the tested blowing ratios
even for x/Sx = 18, the trend of growth results to be proportional
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to BR. The poor film protection in the first rows of holes empha-
sizes the necessity of a starter film, especially in presence of a
radiative load.
Concerning the overall effectiveness values, as shown in
Fig. 8, the increase of blowing ratio has beneficial effects. High
coolant mass flow permits to lower the wall temperature thanks
to the heat removed by the passage of the coolant through the
holes (“heat sink effect”); in addition it leads to a best film pro-
tection as showed by the adiabatic effectiveness results.
It is worth to notice that the tested geometries have an ap-
preciable number of rows of holes; this means that the film pro-
tection, due to the superposition effect of the film cooling and
hence to the high values of adiabatic effectiveness, has a signif-
icant impact on the overall thermal effectiveness (ηov ). In effu-
sion geometries with limited number of rows of holes the liner
protection is mainly driven by the “heat sink effect”.
Influence of hole inclination angle
To discuss the influence of hole inclination angle, two dif-
ferent geometries (G2 and G7) are considered: the first one has
a tilted array with an inclination of 30◦ , while the second one
has a 90◦ holes array. The comparison is reported for the high
free stream turbulence configuration. As displayed in Fig. 9, at
low blowing ratio geometry G2 shows a better wall protection
than geometry G7, likely because the tilted holes help the jets to
remain attached to the test plate assuring a best film covering.
Raising the blowing ratio, the impact of the hole inclination an-
gle seems to be relatively weak.
To better understand this behaviour, distributions of adia-
batic effectiveness for the geometry with perpendicular holes are
reported at BR = 0.5 and 3 (Fig. 10). For BR = 0.5 case the
geometry G7 shows coolant traces that decays rapidly in the
streamwise direction leading to a poor wall protection and the
jets are already in penetration regime. Increasing the BR level,
despite the high jet penetration due its momentum in the direc-
tion normal to the plate, the geometry G7 reports a similar distri-
bution of film effectiveness with respect to geometry G2 (Fig. 4).
The jets detach from the wall and the cooling effectiveness due
to film protection reduces, as can be seen in the first part of the
effusion plate. However, due to the higher coolant mass flow
injected, the superposition effect is larger and the plate effective-
ness is enhanced downstream.
Concerning the overall effectiveness, for low BR levels,
G2 and G7 have the same thermal efficiency; raising the coolant
mass flow (BR = 3 and 5) the geometry with perpendicular ar-
ray shows a best thermal effectiveness (+5% respect to geometry
G2) in spite of the area for the “heat sink effect” is reduced. This
behaviour is ascribable to the low mainstream heat transfer co-
efficient augmentation and to the higher heat transfer coefficient
inside hole due to the entrance effects, with respect to the con-
figurations with slant-hole injection. For the sake of clarity this
aspect will be deal in the next sections by means of a numerical
procedure to extend the validity of the survey.
To perform a proper comparison of inclined and perpendicu-
lar holes, it is necessary to take into account the actual operating
conditions of the engines: ηov values shown here are then strictly
valid for tested conditions and there are at least two basic points
that can affect the comparison.
 Z Z
Ϭ͘ϱ Ϯ͘Ϭ

Z Z
ϭ͘Ϭ ϯ͘Ϭ

Z Z
ϭ͘ϱ ϱ͘Ϭ

Figure 6. Adiabatic effectiveness distributions for geometry G1 (Tu = 17%)

1.0 1.0

BR 0.5
0.9 0.9
BR 1
0.8 0.8
BR 1.5

0.7 BR 2 0.7

BR 3
0.6 0.6
BR 5

0.5 0.5
ad

ov

BR 0.5
0.4 0.4
BR 1
0.3 0.3 BR 1.5

0.2 BR 2
0.2

BR 3
0.1
0.1
BR 5

0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

x/Sx [-]
x/Sx [-]

Figure 7. Lateral averaged adiabatic effectiveness: geometry G1 (Tu = Figure 8. Overall effectiveness distribution: geometry G1 (Tu = 17%)
17%)

First of all the mainstream in the experimental apparatus
does not have a 3D flow field. The high jet penetration, typi-
cal of 90◦ hole angle, in real engine operating condition could
interact with the tridimensional flow field of combustion cham-
ber influencing the combustion process and reducing the coolant
wall protection. In this type of experiment with a simple config-
uration of the test rig, the jet-mainstream mixing is recorded as
near wall coolant, especially in the final rows.
The second issue is the absence of heat transfer by ther-
mal radiation in the experiments. As it will be shown below, the
normal arrays with high radiative heat load may have a worse
behaviour from a thermal point of view.
Influence of porosity
The experimental results in terms of adiabatic and overall
mean values for all the geometries with slant-hole injection and
for Tu = 17% configuration are reported in Fig. 11 varying the
product of blowing ratio (BR) and porosity (σ), which is di-
rectly proportional to mcool /mmain . In the considered test matrix
(Tab. 1) there are two possible ways to obtain the variation of the
overall porosity: varying hole diameter or axial/circumferential
spacing. Two set of liner geometries can be identified: G2, G1
and G3 have the same holes pattern with an increasing hole di-
ameter from 1.5 to 2.34mm; geometries G4, G1 and G5 have
the same hole diameter with increasing hole spacings. For the
two groups of geometries three correspondent levels of porosity
(1.16%, 1.82% and 2.84%) are reproduced.
Comparing the results at the same coolant consumption

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 1.0 1.0

0.9 ad ov
0.9

G2 ( =30°)
0.8 0.8
G7 ( =90°)

0.7 0.7

0.6
0.6
ov

ov
0.5
0.5
ad

0.4

ad
0.4

0.3
0.3

0.2
0.2 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6

0.1 ad
0.1
ov
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
BR [-]
BR [-]

Figure 9. Spatially averaged overall and adiabatic effectiveness: com-

Figure 11. Spatially averaged adiabatic and overall effectiveness for
parison between geometries G2 and G7 (Tu = 17%)
tilted geometries (Tu = 17%)

ZϬ͘ϱ
fect on the ηov results is roughly 2% at BR = 5. This behaviour
can be explained by the adiabatic film results: for geometry G1
the effect of an high spanwise pitch is offset by the reduction
of the streamwise pitch; this result is promoted by the high free
stream turbulence level of the mainflow that leads to an high lat-
eral spreading of the coolant jets. In addition it is worth to notice
Zϯ͘Ϭ that the two geometries have the same capabilities in terms of
heat removed by forced convection through the holes (i.e. the
same hole diameter and length).

Influence of hole diameter

Figure 10. Adiabatic effectiveness distribution for G7 (Tu = 17%)
(Fig. 11), the porosity is responsible for the increase of both adi-
abatic and overall effectiveness and positive effects on cooling
performance can be achieved increasing the hole diameter and
reducing the hole spacings. These results suggest that working
with level of porosity higher than the usual values required for
cooling and at lower pressure drop across the effusion liner (i.e.
lower BR) leads to an improvement in overall cooling effective-
ness. In fact, the two strategy of porosity variation have both a
positive impact on the heat sink effect at the same coolant mass
flow and, as reported in the experimental data, it also improves
the adiabatic effectiveness.
Influence of pattern aspect ratio
The data, reported in Fig. 11, allow to underline the effect
of the pattern aspect ratio in hole spacing, defined as Sx /Sy ,
considering geometries G1 and G6. They present the same
overall porosity, hole diameter and inclination but, respectively
Sx /Sy = 1.24 and Sx /Sy = 1.93. In the range of investigated
blowing ratio number the two level of pattern aspect ratio seems
to have not appreciable impact on overall effectiveness, the ef-
The effect of the hole diameter can be appreciated by the
comparison of geometry G3 and G4 which have the same poros-
ity (σ = 2.84%) and pattern aspect ratio, but different hole di-
ameter. They have respectively d = 2.34mm (l/d = 4) and
d = 1.88mm (l/d = 5). An increase of the l/d parameter leads
to an increase of the adiabatic film effectiveness: a difference of
≈ 12% in the mean values between geometry G3 and G4 can be
appreciated for all the blowing ratio tested (Fig. 11). In addition,
due to the augmentation of the heat sink effect reducing the di-
ameter of the hole at the same coolant consumption, the highest
overall efficiency is achieved with geometry G4.
Comparison of results with literature data
Despite in the literature several publications regarding the
topic of effusion cooling are available, it is quite hard to find a
directly comparable work because of the large number of param-
eters which play a significant role (diameter, pitches, inclination,
compound, turbulence, plate conductivity) and also the different
post processing techniques: only really adiabatic effectiveness
results are directly comparable, while overall values suffer from
specific experimental conditions.
However, in order to support and compare the results with
the available literature, in Fig. 12 are reported the lateral aver-
aged adiabatic effectiveness results for the first rows of holes
of geometry G4 at different blowing rate. The result are com-
pared with the data derived from the works of Martiny et al. [37]
(staggered array, α = 17◦ , σ = 2.34%) and Kakade et al. [38]

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 0.7
BR 0.5 BR2
0.6 BR 1.5 BR 5
Kakade et al. (2012)
0.5 BR 0.47 BR 2
Martiny et al. (1995)
0.4 BR 1.2 BR 4
ad
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x/Sx [-]
Figure 12. Lateral averaged adiabatic effectiveness: geometry G4 com-
pared with available literature
(staggered array, α = 20◦ , σ = 3.9%). Geometry G4 and the test
plate proposed by Martiny et al. [37], which have similar levels
of porosity and spacing, show comparable adiabatic effectiveness
results in penetration regime (BR 4 and 5) in spite of the different
inclination angle.
ADDITIONAL POST-PROCESSING THROUGH COR-
RELATIVE ANALYSIS
In order to carry out a more accurate comparison between
geometries G2 and G7, and therefore to better assess the effect
of the hole inclination angle, an additional post-processing of
measurements was performed by employing a correlative numer-
ical methodology. In particular two different investigations were
considered. In the first one it was obtained the augmentation of
the gas side heat transfer coefficient due the presence of effusion
jets, while in the second one it was analysed the impact on the
two effusion arrays of a radiative heat load.
These analysis were carried out using the in house devel-
oped numerical procedure Therm-1D. It is a one-dimensional
thermal flow network solver coupled with heat conduction
solution across the combustor liner. On the coolant side, the
procedure solves the coolant fluid network of the system,
with a wide library of heat transfer correlations for the most
common cooling techniques; on the hot gas side it estimates the
convective and radiative heat loads through specific correlations
for heat transfer coefficient and gas emissivity, mainly following
the one dimensional approach suggested by Lefebvre [39]. The
final temperature distribution is obtained considering also the
film cooling and the “heat sink effect” due to the presence of
cooling holes. Further details on the procedure can be found
in Andreini et al. [40, 41].
Gas side heat transfer augmentation
To retrieve the resulting heat transfer coefficient on the gas
side for geometries G2 and G7 during overall effectiveness tests,
specific models of the two configurations were prepared with
Therm-1D. Calculations were carried out by fixing the measured
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3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
0
H/H
1.5
1.0
NEWAC Data
G2
0.5
G7
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
BR
8
Figure 13. Heat transfer augmentation for geometries G2 and G7 (Tu =
17%)
adiabatic effectiveness on gas side of the plates while heat trans-
fer on the cold side and inside each effusion hole were computed
referring to specific correlations:
- Concerning the heat transfer coefficient on the suction side
of the effusion plate, the correlation proposed by Dorignac
et al. [42] was considered. This expression delivers the
heat transfer coefficient determined by the flow acceleration
around the holes of a staggered array fed by a plenum, which
is the same configuration of the modelled test rig.
- The heat transfer inside each effusion holes was modelled
referring to the correlation of Cho and Goldstein [26], which
is valid for short holes in a wide range of Reynolds number.
For three levels of blowing ratio (BR = 0.5; 2; 5) considered dur-
ing overall effectiveness tests (Tu = 17%), a simulation was per-
formed computing the metal temperature along the plate. Start-
ing from a gas side heat transfer coefficient computed through a
standard smooth channel correlation (H0 ), a uniform augmenta-
tion coefficient ξ = H/H0 was applied along the plate so as to
match the measured metal temperature. The resulting variation
of ξ with effusion BR for the two geometries is the desired out-
put. Fig. 13 reports the obtained augmentation coefficients for
the two geometries: data point for BR = 0 correspond to theoret-
ical flat plate results. On the same plot it has been included the
experimental results obtained by the authors in a previous study
(NEWAC data) on a effusion cooling plate equivalent to geome-
try G2 (BR = 2; 5): in this case the gas side heat transfer coeffi-
cient was directly measured [19]. The new post-processed data
for the angled geometries and the former measurements, quoted
as NEWAC data, show a similar level of heat transfer augmen-
tation. As expected, an increase in the heat transfer augmen-
tation when increasing the blowing ratio is reported, while the
normal hole geometry (G7) shows a reduced heat transfer aug-
mentation due to the presence of discrete jets. This behaviour
was already observed by others on single hole measurements [43]
and it can be explained with the greater penetration of normal jets
that moves the interaction with the mainstream, and therefore the
related vortical structures responsible of a greater convection, far
from the plate surface.
10 Copyright c 2013 by ASME
 1.4 1.0

0.9
1.3
0.8

1.2 0.7

0.6
ref

1.1
T / T

0.5

ov
1.0
0.4
No Rad. Rad.

0.3
0.9 G2
G1 G4
G7 0.2
G2 G5
0.8
0.1
G3 G6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

x/Sx 0.0

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Figure 14. Effect of radiative heat load on geometries G2 and G7 for K (BR )
a b

(l/d)
c

BR = 2
Figure 15. Data reduction for spatially averaged overall effectiveness for
tilted geometries (Tu = 17%)

Effect of radiative heat transfer

The different impact of inclination angle on the gas side heat
transfer coefficient augmentation may have a relevant influence
on the final metal temperature in presence of a significant ra-
diative heat transfer. With a relevant radiative heat load it can
happen that metal temperature goes up the local adiabatic film
temperature; in that case a greater gas side heat transfer may
have a beneficial effect on wall cooling, limiting the impact of
radiation.
To compare the differences between geometries G2 and G7
in such type of operating condition, the Therm-1D models con-
sidered for the previous investigations have been modified by su-
perimposing a fixed thermal radiation to the described convec-
tive heat exchanges. Radiative load was simulated considering
an hypothetical gray gas emitter with a temperature of 850K and
an emissivity of 0.5, while gas side heat transfer was modified
according to the discovered augmentation factor. In the simula-
tions the same convective temperatures of tests were employed,
thus the gas emitter was considered as a non participated media
in the convective phenomena.
Fig. 14 reports the normalized metal temperature distribu-
tions along the plate for BR = 2 obtained with and without the
additional radiative heat load. Starting from an almost coincident
metal temperature, geometry G2 is able to keep a lower metal
temperature when radiation is added.
DATA REDUCTION
In order to point out the actual thermal performances nor-
malizing the weight of coolant consumption, a data reduction
strategy was carried out for the titled geometries; the results are
re-casted in terms of spatially averaged overall effectiveness for
Tu = 17% case. Geometry G7 was excluded from data reduc-
tion because of the issues related to the actual engine flow condi-
tions, highlighted in the previous section, influence the compari-
son with angled geometries. The variable for data reduction was
build up as a combination of three parameters that describe the
phenomena involved in the liner thermal efficiency and taking
into account the effect of the geometric features:
- the product of blowing ratio (BR) and the array porosity (σ)
which represents the coolant consumption;
- the porosity, σ, that has direct impact on the film effective-
ness and on the gas side heat transfer;
- the ratio between the length (l) and the hole diameter (d)
which has a significant effect on the heat removed in the
hole array by forced convection and on the adiabatic effec-
tiveness.
Fig. 15 shows the correlation of the entire data set, for geometries
with slat-hole injection, as a function of the parameters listed
above:
 c
l
ηov = K · (BR · σ)a · σb · (7)
d
with K = 0.3651, a = 0.1262, b = 0.2171 and c = 0.2402. Eq. 7
fits all the test results with a correlation coefficient of 96%, de-
termined through a regression analysis. No extrapolation of pre-
sented equation is feasible, rather its use may be significant only
within the selected range of input parameters.
Starting from the data reduction, it is possible to summarize
some general optimization guideline for liner with tilted holes.
An improvement of cooling effectiveness can be obtained by in-
creasing plate porosity, blowing ratio or the hole aspect ratio.
Acting on perforation porosity, an increase of σ, higher than the
usual range required for the cooling, leads to beneficial effects.
However to guarantee the flow air split in the combustor cham-
ber and the same coolant consumption the product between the
representative blowing ratio of cooling scheme and the increased
porosity must be kept constant, hence a lower BR value is re-
quired. Being the exponents of σ greater than the exponent of
blowing ratio in the data reduction parameter, working with effu-
sion plate with higher porosity and consequently lower BR leads
to an improvement in cooling efficiency. Beyond that the param-
eter l/d, actually fixed by manufacturer capabilities, has a ben-
eficial impact on cooling performance. It suggests to work with
an high number of micro-holes as also documented in correlative
analysis proposed by Arcangeli et al. [15].
Concerning the previous discussions, the blowing ratio,
which in turn is linked to the overall combustor wall pressure
drop, is actually a design target not a quantity that can be freely

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 selected. However feasible solutions to reduce the effective pres-
sure drop across the multi-perforated liners and hence the blow-
ing ratio, such as double skin configurations and multi-perforated
liners with turbulators on the cold side, are well known in lit-
erature and they are very interesting for their cooling capabil-
ities [44, 45]. Nevertheless it is important to notice that, as
stated in the recent work of Behrendt and Gerendás [44], the
thermal efficiency was generally deteriorated by pressure fluc-
tuations that typically onset in lean combustion chambers, and
the strongest impact was observed just at lower cooling air pres-
sure drop (i.e. lower BR).
The proposed optimization strategy seems to be promising
from an acoustic standpoint in accordance with the results re-
ported in the previous work of Andreini et al. [20], directly linked
to this paper.
CONCLUSIONS
An experimental investigation was set up for the evaluation
of thermal performance, in terms of overall and adiabatic effec-
tiveness, of seven multi-perforated planar plates representative
of a portion of combustor liner with geometrical and fluidynamic
parameters ranging among typical engine values. Adiabatic
effectiveness tests were carried out using the Pressure Sensitive
Paint technique, while overall effectiveness was estimated by
means of eight thermocouples embedded in each test sample
along centerline. The effusion plates, made of stainless steel
(AISI304) to achieve Biot similitude in the overall measure-
ments, were tested imposing six blowing ratio in the range 0.5-5.
The effect of free-stream turbulence on film cooling is
investigated on a reference geometry with two different level of
turbulence (Tu = 1.5% and 17%). In the penetration regime, the
augmentation of mixing and lateral spreading of the jet due to
an higher turbulence level improves the wall film protection.
The comparison of geometries with different hole incli-
nation shows that for low blowing ratio the geometry with
tilted holes show a best wall protection. On the other hand for
high blowing ratios the normal hole array provides a slightly
better overall effectiveness. This behaviour is ascribable to the
low mainstream heat transfer coefficient augmentation and to
the higher, with respect to the configurations with slant-hole
injection, heat transfer coefficient inside hole due to the entrance
effects.
A reduced effect of hole spacing pattern variation, when
changing the value of Sx /Sy from 1.24 to 1.93 and keeping
constant all the remaining geometric features, is observed. The
impact on the ηov results is roughly 2% at BR = 5.
Finally, in order to point out the thermal performances
normalizing the weight of coolant consumption, a data reduction
strategy was carried out for the titled geometries. It suggests a
possible optimization strategy, working with an higher porosity
than the usual range required for the cooling and a lower blowing
ratio to guarantee the correct air-split in the combustion chamber.
Beyond that the parameter l/d, actually fixed by manufacturer
capabilities, has a beneficial impact on cooling performance.
The proposed design guideline seems to be promising from the
acoustic damping requirements.
12
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge KIAI (Knowl-
edge for Ignition, Acoustics and Instabilities) Consortium for the
kind permission of publishing the results herein. KIAI is an EU
funded Research Project within the 7th Framework Programme.
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